Louvre

1 History

This article is about the Louvre Museum. For the

building, see Louvre Palace. For other uses, see Louvre
(disambiguation).

1.1 12th20th centuries

The Louvre or the Louvre Museum (French: Muse 1.1.1 Medieval, Renaissance, and Bourbon palace
du Louvre, pronounced: [myze dy luv]) is one of the
worlds largest museums and a historic monument in
Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located
on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement
(district). Nearly 35,000 objects from prehistory to the
21st century are exhibited over an area of 60,600 square
metres (652,300 square feet). The Louvre is the worlds
most visited museum, and received more than 9.7 million
visitors in 2012.[1]
The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally
built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II.
Remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the
museum. The building was extended many times to form
the present Louvre Palace. In 1682, Louis XIV chose the
Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection,
including, from 1692, a collection of ancient Greek and
Roman sculpture.[2] In 1692, the building was occupied
by the Acadmie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the
Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in
1699 held the rst of a series of salons. The Acadmie remained at the Louvre for 100 years.[3] During the French
Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nations
masterpieces.

The only portion of the medieval Louvre still visible[4]

Main article: Louvre Palace

The Louvre Palace, which houses the museum, was begun as a fortress by Philip II in the 12th century, with
remnants of this building still visible in the crypt.[4]
Whether this was the rst building on that spot is not
known; it is possible that Philip modied an existing
tower.[5] According to the authoritative Grand Larousse
encyclopdique, it derives from an association with wolf
hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire: lupara).[5][6]
In the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part
of her Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris
to a monastery.;[7] this territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, however.

The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being
royal and conscated church property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed
in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under
Napoleon and the museum renamed the Muse Napolon,
but after Napoleons abdication many works seized by his
armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis
XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have
grown steadily through donations and gifts since the Third
Republic. The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern
Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities;
Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; Prints
and Drawings.

The Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the

Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted
the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis I renovated the site in French Renaissance style.[8] Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvres
holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vinci's
Mona Lisa.[9] After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his
residence in 1682, constructions slowed; however, the
move permitted the Louvre to be used as a residence for
artists.[8][10][11]
By the mid-18th century there was an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery, with the art
1

critic La Font de Saint-Yenne publishing, in 1747, a call

for a display of the royal collection.[12] On 14 October
1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96
pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie
royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. A hall was
opened by Le Normant de Tournehem and the Marquis
de Marigny for public viewing of the Tableaux du Roy
on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and contained Andrea del
Sarto's Charity and works by Raphael; Titian; Veronese;
Rembrandt; Poussin or Van Dyck, until its closing in
1780 as a result of the gift of the palace to the comte
de Provence by the king in 1778.[13] Under Louis XVI,
the royal museum idea became policy.[12] The comte
d'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre
which contained maps into the French Museum.[13]
Many proposals were oered for the Louvres renovation into a museum; however, none was agreed on.
Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French
Revolution.[13]

1.1.2

HISTORY

Opening The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the

rst anniversary of the monarchys demise. The public
was given free access on three days per week, which was
perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally
appreciated.[16] The collection showcased 537 paintings
and 184 objects of art. Three quarters were derived from
the royal collections, the remainder from conscated
migrs and Church property (biens nationaux).[17][18] To
expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated 100,000 livres per year.[13] In 1794, Frances revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from Northern
Europe, augmented after the Treaty of Tolentino (1797)
by works from the Vatican, such as Laocon and His Sons
and the Apollo Belvedere, to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a sign of popular sovereignty.[17][19]
The early days were hectic; privileged artists continued
to live in residence, and the unlabelled paintings hung
frame to frame from oor to ceiling.[17] The structure
itself closed in May 1796 due to structural deciencies. It
reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and
with new lighting and columns.[17]

French Revolution
1.1.3 Napoleon

During the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts.[13]
On 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the
royal collection in the Louvre became national property.
Because of fear of vandalism or theft, on 19 August, the
National Assembly pronounced the museums preparation as urgent. In October, a committee to preserve
the national memory began assembling the collection for
display.[14]

Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupids Kiss was commissioned in 1787, donated in 1824.[15]

Under Napoleon I, a northern wing paralleling the Grande

Galrie was begun, and the collection grew through successful military campaigns.[20] Following the Egyptian
campaign of 17981801, Napolon appointed the museums rst director, Dominique Vivant Denon. In tribute, the museum was renamed the Muse Napolon
in 1803, and acquisitions were made of Spanish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works, either as spoils or through
treaties such as the Treaty of Tolentino.[21] At the end of
Napoleons First Italian Campaign in 1797, the Treaty
of Campo Formio was signed with Count Philipp von
Cobenzl of the Austrian Monarchy. This treaty not only
marked the completion of Napoleons conquest of Italy,
but also the end of the rst phases of the French Revolutionary Wars. Under this treaty, Italian cities were required to contribute pieces of art and patrimony to take
part in Napoleons parades of booty through Paris before being put into the Louvre Museum.[22] One of the
most famous pieces taken under this program was the
Horses of Saint Mark. The four antique bronze horses,
which had adorned the basilica of San Marco in Venice
after the sack of Constantinople in 1204, were brought to
Paris to reside atop Napoleons Arc du Carrousel in Paris
in 1797.[22]
Several churches and palaces, including Saint Marks
Basilica, were looted by the French, which outraged the
Italians and their artistic and cultural sensibilities.[23] In
1797, the Treaty of Tolentino was signed by Napoleon,
and two statues, the Nile and Tiber, were taken to Paris.
These statues had previously been in the Vatican, and
both were housed in the Louvre until 1815. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Nile was returned to Italy.[24] However, the Tiber remained in the Louvre Museum and can

1.1

12th20th centuries

be seen in the collections today.

The Italian Peninsula was not the only region from which
Napoleon took art. Under the Directory government of
the 1790s, Napoleon (then a General) led an expedition
to Egypt. The campaign was an expansionist eort on
the part of the government, but the Directory had another goal to make Paris the center of art, science, and
culture.[25] The Directory wanted France to assume responsibility for liberating the works of art they deemed in
danger in order to protect and nationalize the heritage and
culture of their subjects.[26] As a result, there were teams
of artists and scientists who accompanied the armies into
battle equipped with lists of paintings, sculptures, and
other pieces of patrimony that would be collected, crated,
and shipped back to France.[27]
Dominique Vivant Denon was Napoleons art advisor, and accompanied him on the expedition to Egypt.
Through his initiative, the Valley of the Kings in Egypt
was discovered and studied extensively.[28] As a result, he
was later installed by Napoleon as the director of Muse
Napolon, formerly the Louvre, cementing the status of The Venus de Milo was added to the Louvres collection during
the museum as a center for global patrimony and store- the reign of Louis XVIII.
house for cultural heritage.[29]
One of the most important discoveries made during
Napoleons campaign in Egypt was the Rosetta Stone. It
was discovered in 1799, and eventually led to the ability
to decipher ancient hieroglyphs. Although the Rosetta
Stone was discovered by the French, it actually never
made it to the Louvre Museum. It was seized by British
Forces following the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt and
the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Alexandria in
1801.[30] It is now on display at the British Museum.[31]

two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of the Galerie d'Apollon, the Salon Carr, and
the Grande Galrie.[33] In 1861, Louis-Napolon Bonaparte bought 11,835 artworks including 641 paintings,
Greek gold and other antiquities of the Campana collection. During the Second French Empire, between 1852
and 1870, the French economy grew; by 1870 the museum had added 20,000 new pieces to its collections, and
the Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galrie were reunder architects Louis Visconti and Hector LeAfter the French defeat at Waterloo, the works former modelled
[33]
fuel.
owners sought their return. The Louvres administrators
were loath to comply and hid many works in their private
collections. In response, foreign states sent emissaries
to London to seek help, and many pieces were returned, 1.1.5 Third Republic and World Wars
even some that had been restored by the Louvre.[21][32] In
1815 Louis XVIII nally concluded agreements with Italy During the Third Republic (1870-1940) the Louvre acfor the keeping of pieces such as Veroneses Wedding at quired new pieces mainly via donations and gifts. The SoCana which was exchanged for a large Le Brun or the cit des Amis du Louvre donated the Piet of Villeneuvels-Avignon, and in 1863 an expedition uncovered the
repurchase of the Albani collection.
sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean
Sea. This piece, though heavily damaged, has been
1.1.4 Restoration and Second Empire
prominently displayed since 1884.[34] The 583-item Collection La Caze donated in 1869, included works by
During the Restoration (181430), Louis XVIII and Chardin; Fragonard; Rembrandt such as Bathsheba at
Charles X between them added 135 pieces at a cost of Her Bath and Gilles by Watteau.[34] Museum expan720,000 francs and created the department of Egyptian sion slowed after World War I, and the collection did
antiquities curated by Champollion, increased by more not acquire many signicant new works; exceptions were
than 7,000 works with the acquisition of antiquities in Georges de La Tour's Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond
the Edm-Antoine Durand, the Egyptian collection of de Rothschilds (18451934) 1935 donation of 4,000 enHenry Salt or the second collection former by Bernardino gravings, 3,000 drawings, and 500 illustrated books.[18]
Drovetti. This was less than the amount given for re- During World War II the museum removed most of the
habilitation of Versailles, and the Louvre suered rela- art and hid valuable pieces. When Germany occupied the
tive to the rest of Paris. After the creation of the French Sudetenland, many important artworks such as the Mona
Second Republic in 1848, the new government allocated Lisa were temporarily moved to the Chteau de Cham-

HISTORY

court, the Cour Napolon.[39] The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15 October 1988; the
pyramid was completed in 1989. The second phase of
the Grand Louvre plan, La Pyramide Inverse (The Inverted Pyramid), was completed in 1993. As of 2002,
attendance had doubled since completion.[40]

The Louvre Palace and the Pyramid (by night)

The Louvre Palace and the Pyramid (by day)

Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt seen with the Venus
de Milo, while visiting the Louvre with the curator Alfred Merlin,
October 7, 1940.

1.2 21st century

bord. When war was formally declared a year later, most

of the museums paintings were sent there as well. Select
sculptures such as Winged Victory of Samothrace and the
Venus de Milo were sent to the Chteau de Valenay.[35]
On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck
convoys began to leave Paris. By 28 December, the museum was cleared of most works, except those that were
too heavy and unimportant paintings [that] were left in
the basement.[36] In early 1945, after the liberation of
France, art began returning to the Louvre.[37]

1.1.6

Grand Louvre Pyramids

The Louvre Museum with its Glass Pyramid

Main article: Louvre Pyramid

By 1874, the Louvre Palace had achieved its present form
of an almost rectangular structure with the Sully Wing to
the east containing the square Cour Carre and the oldest parts of the Louvre; and two wings which wrap the
Cour Napolon, the Richelieu Wing to the north and the
Denon Wing, which borders the Seine to the south.[38]
In 1983, French President Franois Mitterrand proposed,
as one of his Grands Projets, the Grand Louvre plan
to renovate the building and relocate the Finance Ministry, allowing displays throughout the building. Architect I. M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a
glass pyramid to stand over a new entrance in the main

The Muse du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects

and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60,600 square metres (652,000
sq ft) dedicated to the permanent collection.[41] The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings,
and archaeological nds.[18] It is the worlds most visited
museum, averaging 15,000 visitors per day, 65 percent
of whom are foreign tourists.[40][42]
After architects Mario Bellini and Rudy Ricciotti had
won an international competition to create its new galleries for Islamic art, the new 3,000 sq m[43] pavilion
eventually opened in 2012, consisting of ground- and
lower-ground-level interior spaces topped by a golden,

1.3

Administration

the museum to nance.[50] A further 3 million to 5

million a year is raised by the Louvre from exhibitions
that it curates for other museums, while the host museum
keeps the ticket money.[50] As the Louvre became a
point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and
the 2006 lm based on the book, the museum earned
$2.5 million by allowing lming in its galleries.[51][52] In
On 5 February 2015 about one hundred archaeologists, 2008, the French government provided $180 million of
the Louvres yearly $350 million budget; the remainder
protesting against commercial private involvement to pro[47]
tect Frances heritage, blocked Louvres ticket desks to came from private contributions and ticket sales.
facilitate free access to the museum.[46] At least one an- The Louvre employs a sta of 2,000 led by Director Jeannouncement reading Free entrance oered by the arche- Luc Martinez,[53] who reports to the French Ministry of
ologists has been attached to the ticket desk and a num- Culture and Communications. Martinez replaced Henri
ber of people visited the museum free of charge.[46]
Loyrette in April 2013. Under Loyrette, who replaced
Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works
1.3 Administration
than before.[42][48] In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which
enabled it to borrow more foreign works. From 2006 to
2009, the Louvre lent artwork to the High Museum of Art
in Atlanta, Georgia, and received a $6.9 million payment
to be used for renovations.[48] In 2012, the Louvre and the
Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco announced a veyear collaboration on exhibitions, publications, art conservation and educational programming.[54] The 98.5
million expansion of the Islamic Art galleries in 2012 received state funding of 31 million, as well as 17 million from the Alwaleed Bin Talal Foundation founded by
the eponymous Saudi prince. The republic of Azerbaijan, the Emir of Kuwait, the Sultan of Oman and King
Mohammed VI of Morocco donated in total 26 million. In addition, the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi
Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa is the Louvres most popular at- is supposed to provide 400 million over the course of
traction.
30 years for its use of the museums prestigious brand.[43]
Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection
through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that 20% of admissions receipts will be taken
annually for acquisitions.[48] He has more administrative
independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of
galleries to be open daily, as opposed to 80 percent previously. He oversaw the creation of extended hours and
free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisition budget to $36 million from $4.5 million.[47][48]
undulating roof (fashioned from almost 9,000 steel tubes
that form an interior web) that seems to oat within the
neo-Classical Visconti Courtyard in the middle of the
Louvres south wing.[44] The galleries, which the museum
had initially hoped to open by 2009, represent the rst
major architectural intervention at the Louvre since the
addition of I.M. Peis glass pyramid in 1989.[45]

1.3.1 Satellite museums

Restoration workshops in the Louvre.

Lens

Main article: Louvre-Lens

The Louvre is owned by the French government;

however, since the 1990s it has become more
independent.[42][47][48][49] Since 2003, the museum
has been required to generate funds for projects.[48] By
2006, government funds had dipped from 75 percent
of the total budget to 62 percent. Every year, the
Louvre now raises as much as it gets from the state,
about 122 million. The government pays for operating
costs (salaries, safety and maintenance), while the rest
- new wings, refurbishments, acquisitions - is up to

In 2004, French ocials decided to build a satellite museum on the site of an abandoned coal pit in the former
mining town of Lens to relieve the crowded Paris Louvre, increase total museum visits, and improve the industrial norths economy.[55] Six cities were considered for
the project: Amiens, Arras, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Calais,
Lens, and Valenciennes. In 2004, French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raarin chose Lens to be the site of the
new building, called Le Louvre-Lens. Japanese architects
SANAA were selected to design the Lens project in 2005.

HISTORY

Museum ocials predicted that the new building, capa- Stirk Harbour + Partners was selected to design the comble of receiving about 600 works of art, would attract up plex, which will have light-lled work spaces under one
to 500,000 visitors a year when it opened in 2012.[55]
vast, green roof.[60]
Abu Dhabi Main article: Louvre Abu Dhabi

1.4 Controversies

In March 2007, the Louvre announced that a Louvre museum would be completed by 2012 in Abu Dhabi. A
30-year agreement, signed by French Culture Minister
Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan, will establish the museum on Saadiyat
Island in Abu Dhabi in exchange for 832,000,000
(US$1.3 billion). The Louvre Abu Dhabi, designed by
the French architect Jean Nouvel and the engineering
rm of Buro Happold, will occupy 24,000 square metres
(260,000 sq ft) and will be covered by a roof shaped like
a ying saucer. France agreed to rotate between 200 and
300 artworks during a 10-year period; to provide management expertise; and to provide four temporary exhibitions a year for 15 years. The art will come from
multiple museums, including the Louvre, the Georges
Pompidou Centre, the Muse d'Orsay, Versailles, the
Muse Guimet, the Muse Rodin, and the Muse du quai
Branly.[56]

The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized under Napoleon I, as well as during World War II by the Nazis. During Nazi occupation,
thousands of artworks were stolen. But after the war,
61,233 articles of more than 150,000 seized artworks returned to France and were assigned to the Louvres Oce
des Biens Privs. In 1949, it entrusted 2,130 unclaimed
pieces (including 1.001 paintings) to the Direction des
Muses de France in order to keep them under appropriate conditions of conservation until their restitution and
meanwhile classied them as MNRs (Musees Nationaux
Recuperation or, in English, the National Museums of Recovered Artwork). Some 10% to 35% of the pieces are
believed to come from Jewish spoliations[61] and until the
identication of their rightful owners, which declined at
the end of the 1960s, they are registered indenitely on
separate inventories from the museums collections.

They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to

the public during four years (19501954) in order to allow rightful claimants to identify their properties, then
1.3.2 Conservation
stored or displayed, according to their interest, in several
French museums including the Louvre. From 1951 to
1965, about 37 pieces were restituted. Since November
1996, the partly illustrated catalogue of 19471949 has
been accessible online and completed. In 1997, Prime
Minister Alain Jupp initiated the Mattoli Commission,
headed by Jean Mattoli, to investigate the matter and
according to the government, the Louvre is in charge of
678 pieces of artwork still unclaimed by their rightful
owners.[62] During the late 1990s, the comparison of the
American war archives, which had not been done before,
with the French and German ones as well as two court
cases which nally settled some of the heirs rights (Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg families) allowed more
accurate investigations. Since 1996, the restitutions, according sometimes to less formal criteria, concerned 47
The Louvre Palace
more pieces (26 paintings, with 6 from the Louvre including a then displayed Tiepolo), until the last claims of
In 2009, Minister of Culture Frdric Mitterrand ap- French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006.
proved a plan that would have created a storage facility
30 km northwest of Paris to hold objects from the Lou- According to Serge Klarsfeld, since the now complete
vre and two other national museums in Pariss ood zone, and constant publicity which the artworks got in 1996,
the Muse du Quai Branly and the Muse d'Orsay; the the majority of the French Jewish community is neverplan was later scrapped. In 2013, his successor Aurlie theless in favour of the return to the normal French civil
Filippetti announced that the Louvre would move more rule of prescription acquisitive of any unclaimed good afthan 250,000 works of art[57] held in a 20,000 square ter another long period of time and consequently to their
metres (220,000 sq ft) basement storage area in Lieven; ultimate integration into the common French heritage inthe cost of the project, estimated at 60 million, will be stead of their transfer to foreign institutions like during
split between the region (49%) and the Louvre (51%).[58] World War II.
The Louvre will be the sole owner and manager of the Napoleons campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties,
store.[59] In July 2015, a team lead by British rm Rogers as war reparations, and Northern European pieces as

2.2

Near Eastern antiquities

spoils as well as some antiquities excavated in Egypt,

though the vast majority of the latter were seized as war
reparations by the British army and are now part of collections of the British Museum. On the other hand, the
Dendera zodiac is, like the Rosetta stone, claimed by
Egypt even though it was acquired in 1821, before the
Egyptian Anti-export legislation of 1835. The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining this item
despite requests by Egypt for its return. The museum participates too in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO's
Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin.[63] The museum consequently returned in 2009 ve Egyptian fragments of frescoes (30 cm x 15 cm each) whose existence of the tomb of
origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in
2008, eight to ve years after their good-faith acquisition
by the museum from two private collections and after the
necessary respect of the procedure of dclassement from
French public collections before the Commission scientique nationale des collections des muses de France.[64]
The Seated Scribe from Saqqara, Egypt, limestone and al-

On June 2015, the Louvre had been accused of discrim- abaster, circa 2600 and 2350 BC[69]
inating against Israeli students.[65][66][67]

games, musical instruments, and weapons.[70][71] Pieces

from the ancient period include the Gebel el-Arak Knife
2 Collections
from 3400 BC, The Seated Scribe, and the Head of King
Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, known for its gold work
The Muse du Louvre contains more than 380,000 ob- and statues, moved from realism to idealization; this is
jects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial exemplied by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and
departments.[68]
the wooden Oering Bearer. The New Kingdom and
Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of the
goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the god2.1 Egyptian antiquities
dess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and
wealth.[71][72]
Main article: Department of Egyptian Antiquities of the
Louvre
The department, comprising over 50,000 pieces,[70] in- 2.2 Near Eastern antiquities
cludes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date
from 4,000 BC to the 4th century AD.[71] The collection, among the worlds largest, overviews Egyptian life
spanning Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom, the New
Kingdom, Coptic art, and the Roman, Ptolemaic, and
Byzantine periods.[71] The departments origins lie in the
royal collection, but it was augmented by Napoleons
1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant, the
future director of the Louvre.[70] After Jean-Franois
Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone, Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created. Champollion advised the purchase of three collections, formed by Edm-Antoine Durand, Henry Salt and
Bernardino Drovet; these additions added 7,000 works.
Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette,
founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mariette, after excavations at Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological nds including The Seated Scribe.[70][72]
Guarded by the Large Sphinx (c. 2000 BC), the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms. Holdings include Human-headed winged bull (shedu), Assyria, limestone, 8th cenart, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, tury BC.

2 COLLECTIONS

Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department,

dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near
Eastern civilization and rst settlements, before the arrival of Islam. The department is divided into three geographic areas: the Levant, Mesopotamia (Syria, Iraq),
and Persia (Iran) . The collections development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul-mile
Botta's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II's palace.[71][73] These nds formed the
basis of the Assyrian museum, the precursor to todays
department.[71]
The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city
of Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagashs Stele of the Vultures from 2450 BC and the stele
erected by Naram-Sin, King of Akkad, to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains. The 2.25metre (7.38 ft) Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901,
displays Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man
could plead their ignorance. The 18th-century BC mural of the Investiture of Zimrilim and the 25th-century BC
Statue of Ebih-Il found in the ancient city-state of Mari
are also on display at the museum.
The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the
archaic period, like the Funerary Head and the Persian
Archers of Darius I.[71][74] This section also contains rare
objects from Persepolis which were also lent to the British
Museum for its Ancient Persia exhibition in 2005.[75]

2.3

The Nike of Samothrace (winged Victory), marble, circa 190 BC

Greek, Etruscan, and Roman

representative of that genre; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus; among the bronzes
The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays is the Greek Apollo of Piombino.
pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the
Neolithic to the 6th century.[76] The collection spans from
the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Em- 2.4 Islamic art
pire. This department is one of the museums oldest; it
began with appropriated royal art, some of which was acquired under Francis I.[71][77] Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the Venus de Milo.
Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the
Napoleonic Wars, but these pieces were returned after Napoleon Is fall in 1815. In the 19th century, the
Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand
collection, bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the
Bibliothque nationale.[69][76]
The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such
as the limestone Lady of Auxerre, from 640 BC; and the
cylindrical Hera of Samos, circa 570560 BC.[71][78] After the 4th century BC, focus on the human form increased, exemplied by the Borghese Gladiator. The
Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era, including The Winged Victory of Samothrace (190 BC) and
the Venus de Milo, symbolic of classical art.[77] The long
Galerie Campana displays an outstanding collection of
more than one thousand Greek potteries. In the galleries paralleling the Seine, much of the museums Roman sculpture is displayed.[76] The Roman portraiture is

Casket, ivory and silver, Muslim Spain, 966

The Islamic art collection, the museums newest, spans

thirteen centuries and three continents.[79] These exhibits, comprising ceramics, glass, metalware, wood,
ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than
5,000 works and 1,000 shards.[80] Originally part of the

2.6

Decorative arts

decorative arts department, the holdings became separate in 2003. Among the works are the Pyxide d'alMughira, a 10th century ivory box from Andalusia; the
Baptistery of Saint-Louis, an engraved brass basin from
the 13th or 14th century Mamluk period; and the 10th
century Shroud of Saint-Josse from Iran.[73][79] The collection contains three pages of the Shahnameh, an epic
book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase.[80]

2.5

Sculpture

See also: List of works in the Louvre

The sculpture department comprises work created before

Yombe-sculpture, 19th century

Goujon's bas-reliefs, and Germain Pilon's Descent from

the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th
Tomb of Philippe Pot, governor of Burgundy under Louis XI, by centuries are represented by Gianlorenzo Bernini's 16401 Bust of Cardinal Richilieu, tienne Maurice Falconet's
Antoine Le Moiturier
Woman Bathing and Amour menaant and Franois An1850 that does not belong in the Etruscan, Greek, and Ro- guier's obelisks. Neoclassical works includes Antonio
man department.[81] The Louvre has been a repository of Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupids Kiss (1787).[82]
sculpted material since its time as a palace; however, only
ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for
Michelangelo's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave.[82] Ini- 2.6 Decorative arts
tially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of
the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles. It re- The Objets d'art collection spans the time from the Middle
mained small until 1847, when Lon Laborde was given Ages to the mid-19th century. The department began as a
control of the department. Laborde developed the me- subset of the sculpture department, based on royal propdieval section and purchased the rst such statues and erty and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saintsculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs that held the
door, respectively.[82] The collection was part of the De- Coronation Sword of the Kings of France.[83][84] Among
partment of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 the budding collections most prized works were pietre
under Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider dure vases and bronzes. The Durand collections 1825
representation of French works.[81][82] In 1986, all post- acquisition added ceramics, enamels, and stained glass,
1850 works were relocated to the new Muse d'Orsay. and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Rvoil. The onThe Grand Louvre project separated the department into set of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and
two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded
in the Richelieu wing, and foreign works in the Denon the department with 1,500 middle-age and faence works.
wing.[81]
In 1862, the Campana collection added gold jewelry and
[84][85]
The collections overview of French sculpture contains maiolicas, mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries.
Romanesque works such as the 11th century Daniel in
the Lions Den and the 12th century Virgin of Auvergne.
In the 16th century, Renaissance inuence caused French
sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in Jean

The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wings rst

oor and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter
Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV
(the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme.

10

2 COLLECTIONS

French stained glass panel, 13th century, depicting Saint Blaise

The medieval collection contains the coronation crown

of Louis XIV, Charles Vs sceptre, and the 12th century porphyry vase.[86] The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the The Mona Lisa, (Leonardo da Vinci), oil on panel, 150319,
tapestry Maximillians Hunt.[83] From later periods, high- probably completed while the artist was at the court of Francis I.
lights include Madame de Pompadour's Svres vase collection and Napoleon III's apartments.[83]
Venus, Sacrice of Polyxena at the Tomb of Achilles, Dido
In September 2000, the Louvre Museum dedicated the founds Carthage. [90] and brought Leonardo da Vinci to
Gilbert Chagoury and Rose-Marie Chagoury Gallery to his court.[9][91] After the French Revolution, the Royal
display tapestries donated by the Chagourys, including a Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre. When
16th-century six-part tapestry suite, sewn with gold and the d'Orsay train station was converted into the Muse
silver threads representing sea divinities, which was com- d'Orsay in 1986, the collection was split, and pieces commissioned in Paris for Colbert de Seignelay, Secretary of pleted after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new
State for the Navy.
museum. French and Northern European works are in
the Richelieu wing and Cour Carre; Spanish and Italian
paintings are on the rst oor of the Denon wing.[89]

2.7

Painting

Further information: Catalog of paintings in the Louvre

Museum
The painting collection has more than 7,500 works[87]
from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collections display. Nearly twothirds are by French artists, and more than 1,200 are
Northern European. The Italian paintings compose most
of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIVs collections, others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon
era, and some were bought.[88][89] The collection began with Francis, who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael, Michelangelo and several works
of Giambattista Pittoni like the Christ grants Keys of
Paradise to St Peter, Continence of Scipio, Suzanne et
les vieillards, Tombeau allgorique de l'archevque John
Tillotson (1630-1694), Bacchus and Ariadne, Mars and

Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon

Piet of Enguerrand Quarton; the anonymous painting
of King Jean le Bon (c.1360), possibly the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from
the postclassical era;[92] Hyacinthe Rigaud's Louis XIV;
Jacques-Louis David's The Coronation of Napoleon; and
Eugne Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People. Northern
European works include Johannes Vermeer's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer; Caspar David Friedrich's
The Tree of Crows; Rembrandt's The Supper at Emmaus,
Bathsheba at Her Bath, and The Slaughtered Ox.
The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the Renaissance collection. The works include Andrea Mantegna
and Giovanni Bellini's Calvarys, which reect realism and
detail meant to depict the signicant events of a greater
spiritual world.[93] The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa, Virgin and Child

11
with St. Anne, St. John the Baptist, and Madonna of the
Rocks. Caravaggio is represented by The Fortune Teller
and Death of the Virgin. From 16th century Venice, the
Louvre displays Titian's Le Concert Champetre, The Entombment and The Crowning with Thorns.[94][95]

Map of Louvre museum and around, showing bus stops and

metro lines serving the area as well as parking.

Three lion-like heads, Charles le Brun, France, pen and wash on

squared paper, 1671

western end of the Louvre entrance courtyard, but was

heavily damaged by re during the Paris Commune of
1871 and later demolished. The adjacent Tuileries Gardens, created in 1564 by Catherine de' Medici, was designed in 1664 by Andr Le Ntre. The gardens house
the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, a contemporary
art museum that was used to store Jewish cultural property from 1940 to 1944.[100] Parallel to the Jeu de Paume
is the Orangerie, home to the famous Water Lilies paintings by Claude Monet.

The La Caze Collection, a bequest to the Muse du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze, was the largest contribution
of a person in the history of the Louvre. La Caze gave 584
paintings of his personal collection to the museum. The
bequest included Antoine Watteau's Commedia dell'arte
player of Pierrot (Gilles). In 2007, this bequest was the The Louvre is slightly askew of the Historic Axis (Axe
topic of the exhibition 1869: Watteau, Chardin... en- historique), a roughly eight-kilometer (ve-mile) architectural line bisecting the city. It begins on the east in
trent au Louvre. La collection La Caze.[96]
the Louvre courtyard and runs west along the ChampsSome of the best known paintings of the museum have
lyses. In 1871, the burning of the Tuileries Palace
been digitized by the French Center for Research and
by the Paris Commune revealed that the Louvre was
Restoration of the Museums of France.[97]
slightly askew of the Axe despite past appearances to the
contrary.[101] The Louvre can be reached by the Palais
Royal Muse du Louvre Mtro or the Louvre-Rivoli
2.8 Prints and drawings
stations.[102]
The prints and drawings department encompasses works
on paper.[98] The origins of the collection were the 8,600
works in the Royal Collection (Cabinet du Roi), which
were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as
the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinuccis collection in
1806, and donations.[69][99] The department opened on
5 August 1797, with 415 pieces displayed in the Galerie d'Apollon. The collection is organized into three
sections: the core Cabinet du Roi, 14,000 royal copper
printing-plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and
5,000 illustrated books. The holdings are displayed in
the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper
medium, only a portion are displayed at one time.[98]

Location, access and facilities

The museum lies in the center of Paris on the Right Bank.

The neighborhood, known as the 1st arrondissement, was
home to the former Tuileries Palace, which closed o the

The Louvre has three entrances: the main entrance at the

pyramid, an entrance from the Carrousel du Louvre underground shopping mall, and an entrance at the Porte des
Lions (near the western end of the Denon wing).
Under the main entrance to the museum is the Carrousel
du Louvre, a shopping mall operated by UnibailRodamco. Among other stores, it has the rst Apple
Store in France, and a McDonalds restaurant, the presence of which has created controversy.[103]
The use of cameras and video recorders is permitted inside, but ash photography is forbidden.

4 Gallery
Giambattista Pittoni, Tombe allgorique de Lord
Dorsetca, ca. 1733
Cycladic, a votive head, 27002300 BC
Egyptian, stele, Priest burning incense before Ra-

12

6
Horakhty-Atum, ca. 900 BC

NOTES AND REFERENCES

French Rococo, Diana bathing, Boucher, 1742

Ancient Persia, the Ibex Rhyton, 600300 BC

French Classical painting, The Bather, Ingres, 1808

Ancient Greek, Athens, The Rampin Rider,

French Romantic art, Liberty Leading the People,

Delacroix, 1830

Etruscan amphora, Diomedes and Polyxena, ca.

540530 BC
Giambattista Pittoni, The Sacrice of Polyxena at the
Tomb of Achilles, ca. 1733

5 See also

Hellenic Near East, The Eros Medallion, ca. 250

200 BC

Centre de recherche et de restauration des muses

de France

Fayum Egyptian, Fayum mummy portrait

List of museums in Paris

Roman, portrait of Marcus Agrippa, 25 BC

Muse de la mode et du textile

Frankish, ivory, Christ between two apostles, 5th

century
Islamic art from Iraq, terracotta cup, 9th century

6 Notes and references

Romanesque art from Maastricht, Reliquary, 11th

century

[1] http://www.aecom.com/deployedfiles/Internet/
Capabilities/Economics/_documents/2012%20Theme%
20Index%20Combined_1-1_online.pdf

Romanesque architecture from France, St Michael

and the Devil, 12th century

[2] Louvre Website- Chateau to Museum, 1672 and 1692.

Louvre.fr. Retrieved 21 August 2011.

Italian Renaissance painting, St Francis receiving the

stigmata, Giotto, c.1300

[3] Louvre Website- Chateau to Museum 1692. Louvre.fr.

Retrieved 21 August 2011.

Early Netherlandish painting, The Annunciation,

Rogier van der Weyden, 1435

[4] Mignot, p. 32

Gothic art from France, The Pieta of Villeneuve les

Avignon, Enguerrand Quarton, 1460

[6] In Larousse Nouveau Dictionnaire tymologique et historique, Librairie Larousse, Paris, 1971, p. 430: ***loup
1080, Roland (leu, forme conserve dans la queue leu
leu, Saint Leu, etc.); du lat. lupus; loup est refait sur le
fm. louve, o le *v* a empch le passage du *ou*
*eu* (cf. Louvre, du lat. pop. lupara)*** the etymology
of the word louvre is from lupara, feminine (pop. Latin)
form of lupus.

Italian Renaissance painting, Portrait of an old man

and his grandson, Ghirlandaio, 1488
Flemish painting, The Moneylenders, Quentin
Massys, 1514
Italian Renaissance painting, Baltasar de Castiglione, Raphael, c.1515
Italian Renaissance sculpture, Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave, Michelangelo, 151316
Venetian Mannerist painting, The Crucixion, Paolo
Veronese, c.1550
Italian Baroque painting, The Fortune Teller,
Caravaggio, c.1600
English painting, Charles I at the Hunt, van Dyck,
1635
Dutch Baroque, The Lacemaker, Vermeer, 1664
Spanish painting,
Velzquez, 1655

Infanta Maria Margareta,

French Classicism, The Shepherds of Arcadia,

Poussin, c.1640

[5] Edwards, pp. 19394

[7] In Lebeuf (Abb), Fernand Bournon, Histoire de la ville et

de tout le diocse de Paris par l'abb Lebeuf, Vol. 2, Paris:
Fchoz et Letouzey, 1883, p. 296: Louvre.
[8] Edwards, p. 198
[9] Chaundy, Bob (29 September 2006). Faces of the
Week. BBC. Retrieved 5 October 2007.
[10] Mignot, p. 42
[11] Nore, p. 274
[12] Carbonell, p. 56
[13] Nora, p. 278
[14] Oliver, p. 2122
[15] Monaghan, Sean M.; Rodgers, Michael (2000). French
Sculpture 18001825, Canova. 19th Century Paris
Project. School of Art and Design, San Jose State University. Retrieved 24 April 2008.

13

[16] Oliver, p. 35
[17] Alderson, p.24, 25
[18] Mignot, pp. 68, 69
[19] McClellan, p. 7
[20] Mignot, p. 52
[21] Alderson, p.25
[22] Plant, p. 36
[23] Popkin, p.88
[24] Swetnam-Burland, Molly (2009). Egypt Embodied: The
Vatican Nile. American Journal of Archaeology. http:
//www.jstor.org/stable/20627596 p. 440
[25] Popkin, p. 89
[26] Bierman, p. 41
[27] Bierman, p.42
[28] Strathern, p. 305
[29] Quynn, Dorothy (1945) The Art Conscations of the
Napoleonic Wars. The American Historical Review. http:
//www.jstor.org/stable/1843116 p. 442
[30] Parkinson, Pg. 28
[31] Bierman, p. 161
[32] Mignot, p. 69. According to Mignot, Mantegna's Calvary, Veronese's The Wedding at Cana|The Marriage of
Cana, and Rogier van der Weydens Annunciation were
not returned.
[33] Mignot, pp. 5254
[34] Mignot, pp. 7071
[35] Alan Riding, And the Show Went On: Cultural Life in NaziOccupied Paris. Alfred A Knopf, New York: 2010. p34.
[36] Matila Simon, The battle of the Louvre;: The struggle to
save French art in World War II. Hawthorn Books, 1971.
p. 23.
[37] Simon, p. 177
[38] Mignot, p. 13
[39] Mignot, p. 66
[40] Online Extra: Q&A with the Louvres Henri Loyrette.
Business Week Online. 17 June 2002. Archived from the
original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
[41] "uvres. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved 27 April 2008.
[42] New Boss at Louvres helm. BBC News. 17 June 2002.
Retrieved 25 September 2008.
[43] Gareth Harris (13 September 2012), Islamic art, covered
Financial Times.
[44] Carol Vogel (19 September 2012), The Louvres New Islamic Galleries Bring Riches to Light New York Times.

[45] http://www.academia.edu/2781939/Structural_
Innovation_and_the_Stakes_of_Heritage_The_
Bellini-Ricciotti_Louvre_Dpt_of_Islamic_Arts
[46] Free entry at Louvre due to angry archaeologists. The
Local. 5 Feb 2015. Retrieved 5 Feb 2015.
[47] Gumbel, Peter (31 July 2008). Sacre Bleu! Its the Louvre Inc.. Time Magazine. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
[48] Baum, Geraldine (14 May 2006). Cracking the Louvres
code Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
[49] Louvre, Organization Chart. Louvre.fr Ocial Site.
Retrieved 24 May 2008.
[50] Farah Nayeri (January 20, 2009), Banks compete to manage Louvres endowment International Herald Tribune.
[51] Matlack, Carol (28 July 2008). The Business of Art:
Welcome to The Louvre Inc.. Der Spiegel Online. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
[52] Lunn, p. 137
[53] (French)Un archologue prend la direction du Louvre, Le
Monde du 03/04/2013.
[54] Scarlet Cheng (15 November 2012), Louvre and San
Francisco museums sign ve-year deal The Art Newspaper.
[55] Gentleman, Amelia (1 December 2004). Lens puts new
angle on the Louvre. Guardian (UK). Retrieved 27
February 2008.
[56] Riding, Alan (6 March 2007). The Louvres Art: Priceless. The Louvres Name: Expensive.. The New York
Times. Retrieved 24 April 2008.
[57] Vincent Noce (July 13, 2015), Louvres superstore to go
ahead despite protests The Art Newspaper.
[58] Victoria Stapley-Brown (November 10, 2014), Designers
chosen for Louvres 60m storage outpost The Art Newspaper.
[59] Vincent Noce (July 13, 2015), Louvres superstore to go
ahead despite protests The Art Newspaper.
[60] Vincent Noce (July 13, 2015), Louvres superstore to go
ahead despite protests The Art Newspaper.
[61] Rapport Matteoli, Le pillage de l'art en France pendant
l'occupation et la situation des 2000 oeuvres cones aux
Muses nationaux, p. 50, 60, 69 (PDF). Retrieved 21
August 2011.
[62] Rickman, p. 294
[63] Merryman, abstract
[64] Le Louvre se dit satisfait de la restitution des
fresques gyptiennes - Culture - Nouvelobs.com. Tempsreel.nouvelobs.com. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
[65] http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2015/06/15/
soupcons-de-discrimination-a-l-encontre-d-etudiants-israeliens_
1329404

14

NOTES AND REFERENCES

[66] http://www.jta.org/2015/06/15/
[96] www.louvre.fr Muse du Louvre Exhibitions Past
news-opinion/israel-middle-east/
Exhibitions The La Caze Collection. Retrieved 23 May
louvre-accused-of-discriminating-against-israeli-students
2009.
[67] http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/
[97]
Israeli-student-group-turned-away-from-Louvre-406109
[98]
[68] The fabulous collections of the Louvre Museum.
[99]
[69] Mignot, p. 92

http://www.technologies.c2rmf.fr/imaging/showcase
Mignot, 496
Prints and Drawings. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved 23
April 2008.

[70] Mignot, pp 76, 77

[100] Mroue, p. 176

[71] Nave, pp.4243

[101] Rogers, p. 159

[72] Egyptian Antiquities. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved 30 [102] How to get here.
April 2008.
September 2008.

Louvre Museum.

Retrieved 28

[73] Mignot, pp. 11921

[103] "'Bad taste' cries as McDonalds moves into 'Mona Lisa'

museum. CNN. 7 October 2009. Retrieved 11 May
[74] Decorative Arts. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved 20 May
2010.
2008.
[75] Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. 2006. Retrieved 12 November
2007.
[76] Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities. Muse du
Louvre. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
[77] Mignot, pp. 15558
[78] Hannan, p.252
[79] Islamic Art. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved 30 April
2008.
[80] Ahlund, p. 24
[81] Sculptures. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
[82] Mignot, 397401
[83] Nave, p 130
[84] Mignot, pp. 45154
[85] Decorative Arts. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved 30 April
2008.
[86] Lasko, p. 242
[87] (French) Pierre Rosenberg, Dictionnaire amoureux du
Louvre, Plon, Paris, 2007, p. 229.
[88] Hannan, p. 262
[89] Mignot, pp. 199201, 27273, 33335
[90] According to Giorgio Vasari, Michelangelos Leda and the
Swan, (now lost) was acquired by Francis I.
[91] Paintings. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
[92] Mignot, p. 201
[93] Hannan, p. 267
[94] Mignot, p. 378
[95] Hannan, pp. 270278

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Virtual reality gallery with fullscreen panoramas of

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Louvres location
The Louvre in 360

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External links
Ocial website

485140N 22011E / 48.86111N

16

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Louvre Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre?oldid=671438862 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Brion VIBBER, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Tarquin, Jeronimo, David Merrill, Mark Ryan, Youssefsan, JeLuF, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Psychosh, Isis~enwiki,
DW, Sfdan, Elliot~enwiki, Olivier, Edward, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, TMC, Modster, Jtdirl, Liftarn, Gabbe, Delirium, Arpingstone,
Keichwa, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Theresa knott, Jschwa1, Lee M, Ghewgill, Focus mankind~enwiki, Mxn, Jengod, Hemmer, MarkBoydell, Dcoetzee, Pti, Mhamidi~enwiki, WhisperToMe, Timc, DJ Clayworth, Maya~enwiki, Tpbradbury, Nv8200pa, Bevo, Oaktree b,
Mtcv, Wetman, Adam Carr, David.Monniaux, Finlay McWalter, Slawojarek, JorgeGG, Jurgen E Haug, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Paranoid,
Sander123, AlainV, Kizor, TyroCat, Yelyos, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Davodd, Hadal, JackofOz, Benc, Ebeisher, MykReeve,
Gobeirne, Xyzzyva, Matt Gies, DocWatson42, Jacoplane, Chemica, Mintleaf~enwiki, Tom harrison, Everyking, Curps, Michael Devore,
Wikibob, Alensha, Per Honor et Gloria, Macrakis, JillandJack, Jackol, DefunKt, Antandrus, Piotrus, Rdsmith4, DragonySixtyseven, Thincat, Ganymead, Pethan, Sam Hocevar, Aramgutang, Neutrality, Burschik, Jcw69, Michael L. Kaufman, Hardouin, Ratiocinate, Calwatch,
Trevor MacInnis, Grstain, Ham II, Haruo, Sfeldman, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Wikiacc, Warpyght, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Brian0918, Aranel, CanisRufus, E Pluribus Anthony redux, El C, Aude, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Adambro, Bobo192, Shenme,
Viriditas, Dungodung, Maurreen, Scotthatton, David Gale, PWilkinson, MPerel, EvilSuggestions, HasharBot~enwiki, Danski14, Alansohn, Hektor, SlaveToTheWage, Typobox, Arthena, Lectonar, Goldom, Giano, Hu, Bart133, Bootstoots, Snowolf, Garzo, Tony Sidaway, Grenavitar, Drat, Skyring, Bsadowski1, Computerjoe, Redvers, HenryLi, Brookie, Woohookitty, LostAccount, Scriberius, PoccilScript, Robert K S, WadeSimMiser, Je3000, MONGO, Sdgjake, Mido, Bkwillwm, Optichan, Frungi, SDC, Wayward,
,
Paxsimius, Mandarax, Graham87, Lzygenius, Galwhaa, Icey, BorgHunter, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Coemgenus, Nhk9, Koavf,
Syndicate, Gryndor, Vary, Tawker, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Ev, SNIyer12, Titoxd, FlaBot, Daderot, CalJW, AI, RexNL, Gurch, Astrochris, Xcia0069, Verybigsh86, Mskadu, Maustrauser, Gareth E Kegg, CJLL Wright, Chobot, DVdm, Gdrbot, 334a, Gwernol, Roboto
de Ajvol, Uriah923, YurikBot, Neitherday, TodorBozhinov, RussBot, Dili, Hede2000, Joe21983813, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius,
Eleassar, Muchosucko, Kimchi.sg, Bovineone, Wimt, MosheA, Wiki alf, Adaxl, Grafen, Sylvain1972, SCZenz, Nick, Retired username,
Nephron, Jpbowen, Matticus78, Ruhrsch, Grakm fr, Zagalejo, Tony1, Julienlecomte, Bucketsofg, BOT-Superzerocool, Gadget850,
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InverseHypercube, Charles, KnowledgeOfSelf, Ufundo, Ze miguel, Pgk, Vald, Bomac, Grey Shadow, Delldot, Amoore5000, HalfShadow,
Alsandro, VSquared, SmartGuy Old, M stone, Yamaguchi , Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Skizzik, GoldDragon, SlimJim,
Agateller, Postoak, Jprg1966, Stubblyhead, Lusanders, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Greatgavini, SchftyThree, Kajinek32, Baa, DHNbot~enwiki, Charles Nguyen, Joseolgon, Colonies Chris, KudukGirl, Nehle, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, JREL, Coyau, Glloq, OrphanBot, Nixeagle, Snowmanradio, Jsol5, Rrburke, Addshore, Greenshed, Amazins490, Jmlk17, PiMaster3, Amphytrite, Bigturtle, Mindraker,
Nakon, TedE, Jared, RaCha'ar, Zero Gravity, Springnuts, Dogears, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, Bollero~enwiki, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Fertuno,
Nishkid64, Srikeit, Kuru, John, Quadratus, Euchiasmus, J 1982, Calum Macisdean, Kingsherswift, Sonikwlf, Mathel, The Man in
Question, Senseitaco, Bless sins, Special-T, Logain, Neddyseagoon, O process, Kanon6996, MTSbot~enwiki, Noleander, Peyre, King
Kovifor, DabMachine, Arathald, Michael Shade, Shoeofdeath, Igoldste, Shoshonna, Dp462090, Blehfu, Marysunshine, Ytny, Bassclef,
JayHenry, Tawkerbot2, Ouishoebean, Redidot, ShakespeareFan00, CmdrObot, Dycedarg, Alexbuirds, Runningonbrains, Michaelsanders,
GHe, Uoip, Bravada, Lazulilasher, TheTito, Slazenger, Jane023, Cydebot, Acrazy007, Grahamec, Fair Deal, Alrin, Gogo Dodo, Ahawowow, Corpx, Alvesgaspar, Pascal.Tesson, Amandajm, Tawkerbot4, Christian75, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Bookgrrl, Omicronpersei8,
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TheGeoMeister, Leitmanp, Sdh-94, Marek69, James086, The Runescape Junkie, Edal, E. Ripley, Olborne, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki,
MichaelMaggs, Stevvvv4444, RicardoRG, Dawnseeker2000, Haha169, Natalie Erin, Thomas Paine1776, Escarbot, Sad mouse, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, ChargersFan, Dr. Blofeld, Paste, Jj137, Elainehu, Modernist, LibLord, Danger, Opertinicy, North
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WikkanWitch, Allstarecho, A3nm, Vlad b, Hoversh, DerHexer, JaGa, Crohan, 10skn, Pax:Vobiscum, Patstuart, Skarioszky, MartinBot, Manf, DVernon, Tented, Anaxial, Drendarius, Ggcn78, Bus stop, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Mausy5043, J.delanoy,
SergiBCN~enwiki, Lord Q, Bogey97, J7ack, Miwster, Extransit, Acalamari, Ajmint, Bcartolo, It Is Me Here, Katalaveno, Johnbod, Arronax50, Balthazarduju, Gurchzilla, Bilbobee, Tkn20, 97198, M-le-mot-dit, NewEnglandYankee, Secar one, Kansas Bear, Donmcgraw,
Stymphal, HenryLarsen, Mcaleppo86, JavierMC, Beezhive, Squids and Chips, RichardSocher~enwiki, Idioma-bot, Kaspazes, Hammersoft,
VolkovBot, Sarang10, Aircraftfan, Je G., AlnoktaBOT, VasilievVV, Vincent Lextrait, Aesopos, Mcewan, Philip Trueman, M.chohan,
Emporole, TXiKiBoT, Joopercoopers, Sroc, Hilders, Technopat, A4bot, Dormskirk, Someguy1221, Anna Lincoln, 4score, Corvus cornix,
Mina chiechen, ^demonBot2, Raymondwinn, Happydazed, Tancrede, Kiinslayer, Billinghurst, Itsnotillegalforme, 2112 rush, Synthebot,
Blieusong, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, VerdanaTech, 98octane, Smartalecdg, Staticgo, CGMichigan, Insanity Incarnate, Why Not A Duck,
GavinTing, EmxBot, Jean-Christophe BENOIST, Nihilon, Frania Wisniewska, Lylefor, SieBot, StAnselm, Graham Beards, Sophos II,
ToePeu.bot, Sonyack, Winchelsea, Gaa~enwiki, Caltas, Harlequin12, Triwbe, Yintan, Mangostar, Breakyunit, Sockettome, Purbo T, Tiptoety, Oda Mari, JetLover, JSpung, Moonraker12, Oxymoron83, BjrnEF, Faradayplank, AngelOfSadness, Nuttycoconut, Steven Zhang,
Lightmouse, Iain99, Mingster8888, Rosiestep, Presidentman, LaraCroft47, Sphilbrick, Dimboukas, Geo Plourde, Finetooth, Atelier191,
Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Spillesj, MychemFI133, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Amovrvs, Drmies, Polyamorph, Marktristan, LizardJr8, Neverquick, Acertainambah, DragonBot, Minimidgy, Excirial, Naerii, Jusdafax, Eeekster, Vanisheduser12345, Cenarium,
Gemstar140, Louvrelover, SchreiberBike, Theramin, Another Believer, Yomangan, Subash.chandran007, Peacheshead, SoxBot III, CPGACoast, DumZiBoT, Darkicebot, Budelberger, Boleyn, Mr. Gerbear, XLinkBot, Tarheel95, Gonzonoir, Dark Mage, BodhisattvaBot,
Lotrguy, Rror, Dthomsen8, Nepenthes, Little Mountain 5, WikHead, Badgernet, Raphael Frey, NonvocalScream, FatBear1, Britt2294,
Chem8700, Will46and2, Klundarr, 793176add, Pevalwen, Zozo2kx, Jandrade36, Nintendog master 54, Fieldday-sunday, Sirloco226, Underwaterbualo, Fluernutter, JPLei, Applederek, Download, LaaknorBot, AndersBot, Chzz, Paris 16, Debresser, AnnaFrance, Favonian,
SpBot, Cgodefroy, Numbo3-bot, Ajithchandra, Pneumoniawarlock, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Barnt001, David0811, Quantumobserver, LuK3, Fryed-peach, Legobot, Cote d'Azur, Blah28948, Luckas-bot, Yobot, DerechoReguerraz, 2D, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem,
USA12345, Intothewoods29, Nallimbot, AnakngAraw, Bearas, 1oddbins1, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, ThaddeusB, Galoubet, Pyrrhus16, Piano
non troppo, Jimi 66, AdjustShift, Registeringonlytakesafewseconds, Slyomszem, Bosonic dressing, Materialscientist, Citation bot, MidnightBlueMan, GB fan, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, Neverender08, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Elucidate, TinucherianBot II, Capricorn42, TechBot, Millahnna, En-bateau, MASTER OF DISASTER, Pb8330, Vanished user xlkvmskgm4k, Karljoos, TootsMojo, Jnskms12, Brout8,

8.2

Images

17

J04n, Armbrust, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Croustichat74, GhalyBot, DITWIN GRIM, Eugene-elgato, E0steven, FrescoBot, Tangent747,
Dogposter, Zamarronics, Jim Brannen, Rodinmuseum, YOKOTA Kuniteru, Rmsk813, Macaronlover, Kwiki, A little insignicant, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, Felipepitta, Abductive, Millerparis58, D(r)ead End, A8UDI, StuartLondon, Gruntler, Tom991, Jeppiz,
SW3 5DL, Kgrad, Jugni, TobeBot, Danielstandard, Zoeperkoe, Nave321, Ekimmel29, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jfmantis, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, EuanBT123, Beyond My Ken, Cutegirl221, Twastvedt, EmausBot, GdeLaB, Acather96, Useddenim, AmericanLeMans, Kayakboy95, Florese, Racerx11, Swayback Maru, RA0808, Solarra, TuHan-Bot, Robin.garvie, K6ka, Italia2006, John Cline,
Bushellc5001, Traxs7, Locolulu, Hereforhomework2, Pueri, Rajasa9, Bamyers99, Can You Prove That You're Human, Wayne Slam,
UltimaRatio, Robshort, Brandmeister, Ediacara, Autoerrant, LebaneseAmerican, 28bot, Shivanarayana, Petrb, ClueBot NG, LogX, This
lousy T-shirt, Raghith, Joefromrandb, CherryX, Pokemonblackds, Editr, Frietjes, O.Koslowski, Widr, Kodyisgay, Jeannbnd1, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Hteink.min, BG19bot, Gael13011, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Vinceesq, Floating Boat, Ctzpatrick3, Stanladis, Sallybdl,
Insidiae, Glacialfox, Ttsswag, Anbu121, Ric5575, NemesisIII, HueSatLum, Pratyya Ghosh, ZappaOMati, Khazar2, Taderuer, Iry-Hor,
Dexbot, Ak47wong, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG), Jc86035, Jamesx12345, WayneyP, Na2468, Kadeemlaurie, Blaue
Max, Epicgenius, Cyndrel, AmaryllisGardener, Kommandante, RaphaelQS, DavidLeighEllis, Jekay29, DallTX314, Hansmuller, Fleethan,
NWAINSTEIN18, Ladelayerpitts, Natalia0893, StudiesWorld, Monkbot, Poepkop, Cmarden, Theartofthemuses, Bama Dissy, Trackteur,
Alec Smithson, Amyfrench, Dfytdrydtfghchcf, Burdhans3182, Jrg Bittner Unna, Tedbruh, Francefans1791, Guidemewiki, KasparBot,
Qpalzmwoskxneidjcbruhfv, Loonychris22, Miles christopher02, KittyKiller152 and Anonymous: 1101

8.2

Images

File:African_Art,_Yombe_sculpture,_Louvre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/African_Art%2C_

Yombe_sculpture%2C_Louvre.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: CherryX
File:Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU02.JPG
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Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU02.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jrg Bittner Unna
File:Arc_de_Tromphe_icon_3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Arc_de_Tromphe_icon_3.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: World landmarks icons Original artist: Paris 16
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-L15196,_Paris,_Besuch_Gerd_v._Rundstedt_im_Louvre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-L15196%2C_Paris%2C_Besuch_Gerd_v._Rundstedt_im_Louvre.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Casket_ivory_Louvre_UCAD4417.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Casket_ivory_Louvre_
UCAD4417.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marie-Lan Nguyen
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Donjon_chateau_louvre.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Donjon_chateau_louvre.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://www.galerie.roi-president.com Original artist: Pierre-Emmanuel Malissin et Frdric Valdes
File:Eiffel_Tower_brown_icon_2014.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Eiffel_Tower_brown_icon_
2014.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: World landmarks icons Original artist: Paris 16
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File:GD-FR-Paris-Louvre-Sculptures034.JPG
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GD-FR-Paris-Louvre-Sculptures034.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nfermat
File:Human_headed_winged_bull_profile.jpg Source:
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winged_bull_profile.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2005) Original artist: ?
File:Louvre_Access_Map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Louvre_Access_Map.png License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benh LIEU SONG
File:Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Louvre_Museum_
Wikimedia_Commons.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benh LIEU SONG
File:Louvre_Pyramid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/42/Louvre_Pyramid.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
commons:File:Louvre Pyramid.jpg Original artist:
Hteink.min
File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source:
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commons/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
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haute dnition: image page Original artist: C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs haute dnition: image page
File:Mona_lisa_crowd.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Mona_lisa_crowd.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work with my own camera, very hard snapshot by the way. Original artist: Pueri Jason Scott (American)
File:Nike_of_Samothrake_Louvre_Ma2369_n2.jpg Source:
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graphics.png License: LGPL Contributors: http://icon-king.com Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING
File:Paris_-_Restoration_workshops_in_the_Louvre_-_2408.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/
Paris_-_Restoration_workshops_in_the_Louvre_-_2408.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jorge Royan

18

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Paris_July_2011-27a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Paris_July_2011-27a.jpg License: CC

BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alvesgaspar
File:Paris_department_land_cover_location_map.svg Source:
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department_land_cover_location_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Modes d'Occupation du Sol (MOS) from the Institut d'Amnagement et d'urbanisme de l'le-de-France (Open Database licence), 2012-01
data;
Original artist: Eric Gaba
File:Paris_logo_metro_jms.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Metro-M.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pb 2001
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Contributors: Ursprungs URL / original URL: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f4/Paris_m_1_jms.svg/55px-Paris_m_
1_jms.svg.png Original artist: Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons users
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File:Reddot.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Reddot.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Ttog
File:Saint_Blaise_Louvre_OAR504.jpg Source:
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OAR504.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2005) Original artist: Unknown
File:Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:The_seated_scribe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/The_seated_scribe.jpg License: CC BY-SA
2.0 Contributors: Ivo Jansch (Flickr) Original artist: Anonyme
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C3%AAtes_d%27hommes_en_relation_avec_le_lion.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Louvre Original artist: Le Brun Charles
File:Venus_de_Milo_edited.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Venus_de_Milo_edited.jpg License:
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File:Vista_exterior_del_Museo_del_Louvre.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Vista_exterior_del_
Museo_del_Louvre.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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rst version Flu

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