Lesson 4 Resources

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Welcome to the resources section for Lesson 4, a lesson that deals with the concept of the game
mechanic. This term is crucial to game studies as it describes, in part, the manner in which the player
interacts with the game. It is these interactions that are often trumpeted as what distinguishes games from
other forms of media, like television and film. So getting a firm handle on what is meant by game mechanic
is very important. The challenge is that so many game designers and game scholars define the term
differently.
This lesson starts by exploring some of the games from what is called the Golden Age of the arcade.
Games like Space Invaders, Pac Man, Donkey Kong, and Asteroids had very simple but elegant game
mechanics. They had to. Players needed to grasp what to do and how to do it very quickly or else they
wouldnt plunk down another quarter to play again. And it was here, that many of the conventions for
running, jumping, and shooting were established. So, we will explore the importance of game mechanics,
and how that importance is seen as essential to game studies, and in particular by a group of scholars
called ludologists named from the Latin word ludus for game.
Some early definition of game mechanics came from scholars studying more traditional games. Elliot
Avedon outlined ten factors that defined interactivity in games. Four stand out as a good first crack at
understanding game mechanics: Interaction patterns, Skills required for action, Procedures for actions, and
Rules governing actions. In the videos, we explain these terms, but in short, we might be able to define
game mechanic according to Avedon, if he had used that term, which he didnt: the means and processes
for interaction that are constrained by rules.
Miguel Sicart takes a different approach, one that uses a metaphor taken from computer programming. For
Sicart, game mechanics are methods invoked by agents, designed for interaction with the game world.
Sicarts theory is all about in-game agency. Agency means that something you do has an effect on
something else. And for Sicart, that means players and characters interacting with the game environment.
Raph Koster sees game mechanics differently (naturally). He sees it as an activity that is primarily about
thinking, using a game grammar to explain his approach. A game is made up of rules and interactions,
but for Koster, a game is a black box. The player never gets to see whats inside of the box the rules of
the game. The player only gets to guess at what the rules might be, and try to figure them out.
We then look at Robin Hunicke, Marc LeBlanc, and Robert Zubeks MDA approach, which tries to find a
balanced relationship between designer and player well call it Hunickes framework from now on. MDA is
made up of Mechanics, Dynamics, and Aesthetics. Game designers control the mechanic using it to elicit
certain responses from the player. The Aesthetics are those emotional, cognitive, and psychological
responses of the player. The Dynamics are a sort of middle ground where pace and goals of the game
change over time and it is in this space that player and designer negotiate the game.
And finally, we look at Jesse Schells framework for understanding games, which is a very structuralist
approach to games. He starts by saying that game mechanics are the interactions and relationships that

remain when all of the aesthetics, technology, and story are stripped away.
The remainder of the lesson puts the discussion of game mechanics into broader discussions of video
games, in particular, we discuss how game mechanics relate to the narrative of a game. This is a complex
problem that has generated a lot of ink. We give examples that show how the game mechanic can be an
integral part of the narrative, such as the wonderful hand-holding mechanic in the game Ico.
And finally, we revisit some of the terms from the previous lesson to show how game mechanics can lead
to some pretty fantastic emergent play. We end here for a specific reason. Despite the name, game
mechanics do not necessarily lead to boring repetitive experiences. The simple game mechanics we see in
classic arcade games work so well because they lead to some fantastically emergent gameplay.
Required Reading:
The reading for this lesson is one of my favourite articles in game studies - Miguel Sicarts Defining Game
Mechanics. I like this article because it so clearly outlines the argument he wishes to make and how that
argument fits into a broader discussion of game mechanics. For Sicart, game mechanics are methods
invoked by agents for interacting with the game world. These methods are best understood as verbs
(jumping, running, shooting, etc.), which permit game elements to influence how agents can take actions in
a game. This focus on methods and agents is essential to understanding his argument. You should also
pay close attention to how and why Sicart differentiates between a games rules and a games mechanics.
Sicart, Miguel. Defining Game Mechanics. Game Studies 8.2 (2008): n. pag. Web.
http://gamestudies.org/0802/articles/sicart.

Notes on the Required Reading:

Problem Statement:
(I)t is unclear what game mechanics are, and how the term can be used in game analysis.

Research Question:
primary: How can game mechanics be defined in a way that allows for a formalized analysis of games
and their constituent parts?
secondary: Can a formalized game analysis be applied to research on controller designs and user
experience?

Purpose:
primary: (P)rovide a practical analytical tool for describing game systems as formal structures that
create gameplay.
secondary: Explore how variations in game design can innovate and deeply engage players in
aesthetic experiences created by means of gameplay design.

Abstract:
Sicart, arguing for a functional distinction between a games rules and mechanics, offers the following
definition: game mechanics are methods invoked by agents for interacting with the game world.

These methods are best understood as verbs, allowing for the other game elements, including rules, to
have an influence on how agents can take action in a game. While a formal definition of game
mechanics allows for a detailed analysis of individual games, Sicart believes that his definition is also
important for analysing the connections and similarities between different games, as well as the
investigation of intended player experiences, including interface design.

Summary:
Some games studies researchers do not distinguish between rules and mechanics. Without this
distinction, an analysis of game mechanics end up as low-level descriptions of game rules or clusters
of game rules (Sicart, 2008). A formal analysis of games requires a deep explanation of the
connections between rules and mechanics (Sicart, 2008).
Jrvinens (2008) definition of game mechanics as a means to guide the player into particular
behaviour by constraining the space of possible plans to attain goals, does not account for player
action without goal requirements. This definition is inadequate, as it says that a game with no goals has
no mechanics.
A single, dominant approach is needed to encompass all aspects of game mechanics, including a way
to describe how players interact with rules, and formal properties like game goals, player actions and
strategies, and game states.
Sicart proposes a definition of game mechanics as methods invoked by agents, designed for
interaction with the game world (2008). He proposes the use of an object oriented programming
(OOP) paradigm as a framework for the formal analysis of game mechanics. The use of the term OOP
does not imply that the source code has been developed in OOP style, nor is it meant to be used in the
formal analysis of all game elements. Rather, the language of OOP allows for a formalistic approach to
actions taken within information systems like games (Sicart, 2008).
The use of an OOP framework allows for an analysis that does not require human players to
understand in-game agency (Sicart, 2008), meaning that agency can be explored through the analysis
of both human and artificial agents. Methods, in game mechanics, are understood as the actions that
agents invoke to interact with the game world, as constrained by the game rules. Methods are best
understood as verbs, allowing for the other game elements, including rules, to have an influence on
how agents can take action in a game. Within this framework, game mechanics are concerned with
the actual interaction with the game state, while rules provide the possibility space where that
interaction is possible...rules are modeled after agency, while mechanics are modeled for agency
(Sicart, 2008).
Sicarts definition, with its OOP focus, also allows for an analysis of game mechanics that describes the
interaction possibilities afforded to players, and how those are mapped to specific input device
triggers (2008). Input devices, such as controllers or keyboards, mediate the game experience.
Sicarts definition suggests the possibility of closely studying the relations between input device
design, and player actions (2008). Methods of action are mapped to input devices, which then become
mapped physically and psychologically.
Its important to note that although Sicarts definition of game mechanics is helpful in the analysis of the
design of agent interaction within the game space, it cannot determine how the game will actually be
played (2008). Game mechanics are tied to agency in the gameworld, and players may appropriate
that agency to act in unexpected ways.
hile a formal definition of game mechanics allows for a detailed analysis of individual games, Sicart
W
believes that his definition is also important for analysing the connections and similarities between
different games, as well as the investigation of intended player experiences. The practical application of

Sicarts definition may extend to game designers, allowing them to isolate and modify game mechanics
in an attempt to affect the players emotional experience of the game as mediated by the input device,
as well as providing a common language for design and planning documents.

Useful Quotations from Readings:

- game mechanics
Sicart (2008): methods invoked by agents for interacting with the game world.
Lundgren & Bjrk (2003): any part of the rule system of a game that covers one, and only one,
possible kind of interaction that takes place during the game, be it general or specific (...) mechanics
are regarded as a way to summarize game rules.
Rouse (2005): the guts of a design document describing what the players are able to do in in the
game world, how they do it, and how that leads to a compelling game experience.
Fullerton, Hoffman & Swain (2004): game procedures are the actions or methods of play allowed by
the rules (...) they guide player behaviour, creating interactions.
Cook (2005): game mechanics are rule based system/simulations that facilitate and encourage a user
to explore and learn the properties of their possibility space through the use of feedback mechanisms.
Hunicke, Zubek & LeBlanc (2004): MDA Framework: mechanics describes the particular components
of the game, at the level of data representations and algorithms (...) mechanics are the various actions
behaviours, and control mechanisms afforded to the player within a game context.
Jrvinen (2008): a means to guide the player into particular behaviour by constraining the space of
possible plans to attain goals and best described with verbs.
- context mechanics
Sicart (2008): mechanics that are triggered depending on the context of the player presence in the
game world. They are analytical concepts that can be used to understand how players decode the
information in a level - how a player perceives certain structures and how those structures are used to
communicate intended uses or other behaviours.
- core mechanics
Salen & Zimmerman (2004): the essential play activity players perform again and again in a game (...)
however, in many games, the core mechanic is a compound activity composed of a suite of actions.
Jrvinen: the possible or preferred or encouraged means with which the player can interact with game
elements as she is trying to influence the game state towards the attainment of a goal.
Sicart (2008): the game mechanics (repeatedly) used by agents to achieve a systemically rewarded
end-game state. In the case of simulations like Sim City, core mechanics are those that focus on
reaching an equilibrium state; in games like EverQuest, core mechanics are those that allow players to
reach a level cap, and further expand their agency by fine tuning their character's abilities.
- primary core mechanics
Jrvinen (2008): what the player does in relation to a game state during a standard turn or sequence.
Sicart (2008): core mechanics that can be directly applied to solving challenges that lead to the
desired end state...readily available, explained in the early stages of the game, and consistent
throughout the game experience.
- secondary core mechanics
Sicart (2008): core mechanics that ease the players interaction with the game towards reaching the
end state...either available occasionally or require their combination with a primary mechanic in order to

be functional.
- compound game mechanic
Sicart (2008): a set of related game mechanics that function together within one delimited agent
interaction mode.
- formal analysis
Sicart (2008): understood as descriptions of game components that can be discerned from others by
means of their unique characteristics and properties...understood in relation to aesthetic formalism.
aesthetic formalism Audi (1999): the artifact itself with its relations to entities outside itself.
Sicart (2008): Some formalist approaches make a difference between the rules of the game and the
actions afforded to players by those rules.
procedure for action - Avedon (1971): specific operations, required courses of action, method of play.
rules governing action - Avedon (1971): fixed principles that determine conduct and standards for
behavior.
design process - Sicart (2008): understood as the creation of a system, and the interaction possibilities
that a player has with that system.

Additional Resources:
The topic of game mechanics is crucial to game studies, and understanding many of the different attempts
to define it is very important. If you are interested in this topic, you might consider looking at these sources:
Hunicke, R., LeBlanc, M. and Zubek, R. (2004). MDA: A Formal Approach to Game Design and Game
Research. http://www.cs.northwestern.edu/~hunicke/MDA.pdf
Avedon, E. (1971). "The Structural Elements of Games. In Avedon, E. M. & Brian Sutton-Smith (eds.)
The Study of Games. John Wiley and Sons.
Fullerton, T. (2008). Game Design Workshop: A Playcentric Approach to Creating Innovative Games.
New York: Morgan Kaufmann.

And here's the link to the Extra Credits on Missile Command that we mentioned.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JQJA5YjvHDU

Games We Mention in this Lesson:

Here are some of the games we mentioned in this lesson. If you don't know a game we mention, follow one
of the links we provide below. Again, we dont control these files, so some of the links may expire. Help us
keep the links fresh by letting us know if one goes down. Also, you can find play-throughs, trailers, and fan
sites for just about any game you can imagine, so a quick google search will give you a taste of how a
game works.
Space Invaders
A playthrough of Space Invaders. The last aliens to be destroyed move a lot faster, making finishing the
level more challenging

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TnZIsjB0NaE
Pacman
A playthrough of Pacman
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uswzriFIf_k
Dragon's Lair
A look at some of the gameplay of Dragon's Lair. The end of the clip also shows the controls and inside the
back of the arcade game as well.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJBI5JjVkBY
Gauntlet
A look at Gauntlet. As the levels get higher, the ghosts and demons get more powerful
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhVb54ha6Po
Street Fighter
A Street Fighter match.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_dM7SWLBTQ
Tetris
Tetris Gameplay
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNDAEIlWr9k
Galaga
Gameplay
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S_lE_L0UtkQ
Full Throttle
Gameplay
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKqIwO7Z0u4
Ms. Pac-man
A section of a playthrough of Ms. Pac-man. The ghosts have a form of agency as they chase, and
sometimes catch, Ms. Pac-man.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c4n_6NFYvLY&t=3m06s
Journey
The player's avatar shares an emotional journey up a snowy mountain with an anonymous other (played by
another player online). (Watch to 6m46s for basic idea or watch full to get full impact).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XfLfo1rf9GU&t=1m10s
Missile Command
The first clip gives a general feel for the game (2m00s is a good stopping point), the second clip shows a
player's reaction to trying the game for the first time and how he figures out the gameplay, rules, etc.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=we4lY-GEzMk&end=2m00s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rMwY4iSerXw

Super Mario Bros.

Here's Mario rescuing the princess in the first Super Mario game.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kcmKPmj9yeE=5m0s
Super Metroid
Shows the game mechanics before and after obtaining the morphing ball.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i2FNGjfnDGM&t=6m30s
Mass Effect
Some general gameplay to show the mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics of the first game.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6HLWreoBEo
Mass Effect 2
Compilation clip that shows how player choices directly impact which characters live and die. (Watch to
3m30s to get the general idea)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRHhdc53Od8
Mass Effect 3
Combat gameplay that shows the use of the combat roll as mentioned in the interview.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0irGpH7uTzk&t=10s
Q-Bert
Gameplay from the NES version with brief tutorial.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=syKCejmVAI4
Metal Gear Solid II
An example of a narrative cinematic cutscene.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCUY6q8i3Yw
Max Payne
An example of the use of a comic book style narrative. (Gameplay sped up to focus on narration, watch to
2m35s)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=377sfSZ6trU
Flashback: The Quest for Identity
Gameplay that shows the use of both dialogue and protagonist internal narration.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=40qxiZl3-X0&t=4m30s
Half-Life II
Gameplay showing how narrative dialogue is included as a part of active gameplay, not isolated to
cutscenes. (watch to 7m40s)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iPwKw2AVAUg&t=4m00s
Nethack
Compilation of deaths. (Watch to 5m15s) - the music is not a part of the actual game.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eoA_DYxi8ck&t=3m08s

Ico
Gameplay showing the three mechanics mentioned in the video. (Watch to 4m00s)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i1AK4fJp5uU
King's Quest
The gnome name guessing puzzle with correct answer (which is Rumplestiltskin spelled with a backwards
alphabet (A=Z, B=Y...)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1REEuj4tQ4E&t=8m50s
World of Warcraft
A WoW dance party
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0A34ZaCyStk
Star Wars: The Old Republic
Gameplay that shows quest driven, cooperative play (limits emergent gameplay). (Watch to 7m45s)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Adp5eQZZb5k&t=5m00s
Ultima Online
Gameplay
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MoSzvqIEptQ
Thief: The Dark Project
A tutorial that explains/demonstrates the features that allow for emergent gameplay. (Watch to 2m15s).
Second clip is the trailer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hg61X2Lg-qQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHWYCfuPQHM

Created Sat 23 Aug 2014 8:21 PM PET

Last Modified Wed 15 Apr 2015 11:14 AM PET