PH 221-3A Fall 2010

Center of Mass and Linear

Momentum
Lecture 15
Chapter 8
((Halliday/Resnick/Walker,
y
, Fundamentals of Physics
y
8th edition))
1

Chapter 9
Center of Mass and Linear Momentum
In this chapter we will introduce the following new concepts:
-Center
Center of mass (com) for a system of particles
-The velocity and acceleration of the center of mass
-Linear momentum for a single particle and a system of particles
We will derive the equation of motion for the center of mass, and
discuss the principle of conservation of linear momentum
Finally we will use the conservation of linear momentum to study
collisions in one and two dimensions and derive the equation of
motion for rockets
2

The Center of Mass:

Consider a system of two particles of masses m1 and m2
at positions x1 and x2 , respectively. We define the
position of the center of mass (com) as follows:
xcom

m1 x1 m2 x2
m1 m2

W can generalize
We
li the
h above
b
definition
d fi i i for
f a system off n particles
i l as follows:
f ll
xcom

m x m2 x2 m3 x3 ... mn xn m1 x1 m2 x2 m3 x3 ... mn xn
1
1 1

m1 m2 m3 ..
.... mn
M
M

m x
i 1

Here M is the total mass of all the particles M m1 m2 m3 ... mn

We can further generalize the definition for the center of mass of a system of
particles in three dimensional space. We assume that the the i -th particle

( mass mi ) has position vector ri

1

rcom
M

mi ri
n

i 1

i i

The position vector for the center of mass is given by the equation: rcom
M

The position vector can be written as: rcom xcomi ycom j zcom k

The components of rcom are given by the equations:

xcom

m x
i 1

i i

ycom

m y
i 1

zcom

m
r
ii
n

i 1

m z
i 1

i i

The center of mass has been defined using the equations

given
i
above
b
so that
th t it has
h the
th following
f ll i property:
t
The center of mass of a system of particles moves as though
y
mass were concetrated there,, and that the
all the system's
vector sum of all the external forces were applied there
The above statement will be proved later. An example is
given
i
in
i the
h figure.
fi
A baseball
b b ll bat
b is
i flipped
fli d into
i
the
h air
i
and moves under the influence of the gravitation force. The
center
ce
te of
o mass
ass iss indicated
d cated by the
t e black
b ac dot. Itt follows
o ows a
parabolic path as discussed in Chapter 4 (projectile motion)
All the other points of the bat follow more complicated paths

The Center of Mass for Solid Bodies

Solid bodies can be considered as systems with continuous distribution of matter
The sums that are used for the calculation of the center of mass of systems with
discrete distribution of mass become integrals:
1
1
1
xdm
y

ydm
z

zdm
com
com

M
M
M
The integrals above are rather complicated. A simpler special case is that of
dm
M
uniform objects in which the mass density
is constant and equal to
dV
V
1
1
1
xcom xdV
dV
ycom ydV
dV
zcom zdV
dV
V
V
V
In objects with symetry elements (symmetry point, symmetry line, symmetry plane)
xcom

it is not necessary to eveluate the integrals

integrals. The center of mass lies on the symmetry
element. For example the com of a uniform sphere coincides with the sphere center
In a uniform rectanglular object the com lies at the intersection of the diagonals
C

z
F1
m2

m1

m3

F2
x

Newton's Second Law for a System of Particles

Consider a system
y
of n pparticles of masses m1 , m2 , m3,3 ...,, mn

and position vectors r1 , r2 , r3 ,..., rn , respectively.

F2

The position vector of the center of mass is given by:

Mrcom m1r1 m2 r2 m3r3 ... mn rn We take the time derivative of both sides
d
d
d
d
d
M rcom m1 r1 m2 r2 m3 r3 ... mn rn
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

Mvcom m1v1 m2 v2 m3v3 ... mn vn Here vcom is the velocity of the com

and vi is the velocity of the i -th particle. We take the time derivative once more
d
d
d
d
d
M vcom m1 v1 m2 v2 m3 v3 ... mn vn
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

Macom m1a1 m2 a2 m3 a3 ... mn an Here acom is the acceleration of the com

and ai is the acceleration of the i -th particle

7

Macom m1a1 m2 a2 m3 a3 ... mn an

z
F1
m2

m1

F2
m3

F2
x

We apply Newton's second law for the i -th particle:

mi ai Fi Here Fi is the net force on the i -th particle

Macom F1 F2 F3 ... Fn

The force Fi can be decomposed into two components: applied and internal
app int
Fi Fi Fi
The above equation takes the form:
app int
app int
app int
app int

Macom F1 F1 F2 F2 F3 F3 ... Fn Fn
app app app
app
int int int
int

Macom F1 F2 F3 ... Fn F1 F2 F3 ... Fn

The sum in the first parenthesis on the RHS of the equation above is just Fnet

The sum in the second parethesis on the RHS vanishes

by virtue of Newton's third law.

The equation of motion for the center of mass becomes: Macom Fnet
In terms of components we have:
Fnet , x Macom, x

Fnet , y Macom, y

Fnet , z Macom , z

Macom Fnet

Fnet , x Macom, x
Fnet , y Macom, y
Fnet , z Macom, z

The equations above show that the center of mass of a system of particles
moves as though all the system's mass were concetrated there, and that the
vector sum of all the external forces were applied there. A dramatic example is
given in the figure. In a fireworks display a rocket is launched and moves under
the influence of gravity on a parabolic path (projectile motion).
motion) At a certain point
the rocket explodes into fragments. If the explosion had not occured, the rocket
would have continued to move on the parabolic trajectory (dashed line). The forces
of the explosion, even though large, are all internal and as such cancel out. The
only external force is that of gravity and this remains the same before and after the
explosion.
l i
This
Thi means that
h the
h center off mass off the
h ffragments ffolows
l
the
h same
parabolic trajectory that the rocket would have followed had it not exploded 9

Linear Momentum

m
p

p mv

Linear momentum p of a particle of mass m and velocity v

is defined as: p mv
The SI unit for lineal momentum is the kg.m/s

Below we will prove the following statement: The time rate of change of the linear
momentum of a particle is equal to the magnitude of net force acting on the
particle
ti l andd has
h the
th direction
di ti off the
th force
f

dp
In equation form: Fnet
We will prove this equation using
dt
Newton's second law

dp d
dv
mv m
ma Fnet
p mv
dt dt
dt
This equation is stating that the linear momentum of a particle can be changed
only by an external force. If the net external force is zero, the linear momentum
cannot change

dp
Fnet
dt

10

The Linear Momentum of a System of Particles

In this section we will extedend the definition of

z
m1

p1
m2

p3
m3

p2
x

linear momentum to a system of particles. The

i -th particle has mass mi , velocity vi , and linear

moment m pi
momentum

We define the linear momentum of a system of n particles as follows:

P p1 p2 p3 ... pn m1v1 m2v2 m3v3 ... mn vn Mv

M com
The linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of the

y
and the velocity
y vcom of the center of mass
total mass M of the system

dP d
The time rate of change of P is:
Mvcom Macom Fnet
dt dt

The
h li
linear momentum P off a system off particles
i l can be
b changed
h
d only
l

by a net external force Fnet . If the net external force Fnet is zero P cannot change

P p1 p2 p3 ... pn Mvcom

dP
Fnet
dt

11

Example. Motion of the Center of Mass

12

13

Collision and Impulse

We have seen in the previous discussion that the momentum of an object can
change
h
if there
th is
i a non-zero external
t
l force
f
acting
ti on the
th object.
bj t Such
S h forces
f
exist during the collision of two objects. These forces act for a brief time
g , and they
y are responsible
p
for the changes
g in the linear
interval,, theyy are large,
momentum of the colliding objects.
Consider the collision of a baseball with a baseball bat
The collision starts at time ti when the ball touches the bat
and ends at t f when the two objects separate

The ball is acted upon by a force F (t ) during the collision

The magnitude F (t ) of the force is plotted versus t in fig.a
The force is non
non-zero
zero only for the time interval ti t t f

dp

Here p is the linear momentum of the ball

F (t )
dt
tf
tf

dp F (t )dt dp F (t )dt
ti

ti

14

tf

dp F (t )dt

tf

ti

ti

tf

dp p f pi p = change in momentum
ti

p
J of the collision
F (t )dt is known as the impulse

tf

ti

tf

J F (t )dt The magnitude of J is equal to the area

ti

under the F versus t plot of fig.a p J
In many situations we do not know how the force changes
with time but we know the average magnitude Fave of the
collision force. The magnitude of the impulse is given by:
J Fave t where t t f ti

p J
J Fave t

Geometrically this means that the the area under the

F versus t plot
l t (fig.a)
(fi ) is
i equall to
t the
th area under
d th
the
Fave versus t plot (fig.b)

15

Collisions. Impulse and Momentum

16

The Impulse-Momentum Theorem

17

Fave

Series of Collisions
Consider a target which collides with a steady stream of

identical particles of mass m and velocity v along the x -axis

A number n of the particles collides with the target during a time interval t.
Each particle undergoes a change p in momentum due to the collision with
the target. During each collision a momentum change p is imparted on the
target. The Impulse on the target during the time interval t is:
J n p
The average force on the target is:
J np
n
Fave

mv
Here v is the change in the velocity
t
t
t
of each particle along the x-axis due to the collision with the target
m
m
Fave
v Here
is the rate at which mass collides with the target
t
t
If the particles stop after the collision then v 0 v v
If the particles bounce backwards then v v v 2v
18

Conservation of Linear Momentum

z
m1

p1
m2

p3
m3

p2
O

Consider a system of particles for which Fnet 0

dP
Fnet 0 P Constant
dt

If no net externall force

f
acts on a system off particles
i l the
h totall linear
li
momentum P
x

cannot change
total linear momentum total linear momentum

at some initial time t at some later time t

f
i

The conservation of linear momentum is an importan principle in physics.

It also provides a powerful rule we can use to solve problems in mechanics such as
collisions.

N t 1:
Note
1 In
I systems
t
in
i which
hi h Fnet 0 we can always
l
apply
l conservation
ti off linear
li

momentum even when the internal forces are very large as in the case of
j
collidingg objects
Note 2: We will encounter problems (e.g. inelastic collisions) in which the energy
is not conserved but the linear momentum is

19

Momentum and Kinetic Energy in Collisions

Consider two colliding objects with masses m1 and m2 ,

initial velocities v1i and v2i and final velocities v1 f and v2 f ,

respectively

If the system is isolated i.e. the net force Fnet 0 linear momentum is conserved
The conervation of linear momentum is true regardless of the the collision type
This is a powerful rule that allows us to
to determine the results of a collision without
knowing the details. Collisions are divided into two broad classes: elastic and
inelastic.
A collision is elastic if there is no loss of kinetic energy i.e. Ki K f
A collision is inelastic if kinetic energy is lost during the collision due to conversion
i t other
into
th forms
f
off energy. In
I this
thi case we have:
h
K f Ki
A special case of inelastic collisions are known as
completely inlela
completely
inlelastic
stic. In these collisions the two colliding objects stick together
and they move as a single body. In these collisions the loss of kinetic energy
20

is maximum

One Dimensional Inelastic Collisions

In these collisions the linear momentium of the colliding

objects is conserved p1i p2i p1 f p2 f

m1v1i m1v2i m1v1 f m1v2 f

One Dimensional Completely Inelastic Collisions
In these collisions the two colliding objects stick together
and move as a single body. In the figure to the leftwe show

a special case in which v2i 0. m1v1i m1V m2V

V

m1
v1i
m1 m2

The velocity of the center of mass in this collision

P
p p2i
m1v1i
1i

is vcom
m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2
In the picture to the left we show some freeze-frames
freeze frames
of a totally inelastic collition
21

The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum

22

23

One-Dimensional Elastic Collisons

Consider two colliding objects with masses m1 and m2 ,

initial velocities v1i and v2i and final velocities v1 f and v2 f ,

respectively

Both linear momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

Linear momentum conservation: m1v1i m1v2i m1v1 f m1v2 f
2
2
m1v12i m1v22i m1v1 f m2 v2 f

Kinetic energy conservation:

2
2
2
2
We have two equations and two unknowns
unknowns, v1 f and v2 f

(eqs.1)
(eqs.2)

If we solve equations 1 and 2 for v1 f and v2 f we get the following solutions:

v1 f
v2 f

m1 m2
2m2
v1i
v2i
m1 m2
m1 m2

2m1
m2 m1
v1i
v2i

m1 m2
m1 m2
24

Special Case of elastic Collisions-Stationary Target v2i 0

The substitute
substitute v2i 0 in the two solutions for v1 f and v2 f
v1 f

m1 m2
2m2
m m2
v1i
v2i v1 f 1
v1i
m1 m2
m1 m2
m1 m2

v2 f

2m1
2m1
m m1
v1i
v1i 2
v2 i v 2 f
m1 m2
m1 m2
m1 m2

Below we examine several special cases for which we know the outcome
of the collision from experience
v1i v2i = 0
1. Equal masses m1 m2 m
v1 f
v2 f

m1 m2
mm
v1i
v1i 0
m1 m2
mm

2m1
2m
v1i
v1i v1i

m1 m2
mm

v1f = 0

v2f
x

The two colliding objects have exchanged velocities

25

v1i

2. A massive target

v2i = 0
x

m1

m2

v2f
v1f m
1

x
m2

m1
m2 m1
<1
m2

m1
1
m m2
m
v1 f 1
v1i 2
v1i v1i
m1
m1 m2
1
m2

m
2 1
m2
m1
2m1

v2 f
v1i
v1i 2 v1i
m
m1 m2
1
m2
1
m2
Body 1 (small mass) bounces back along the incoming path with its speed

practically unchanged.
B d 2 (large
Body
(l
mass)) moves forward
f
d with
ith a very small
ll
m1
speed because
<1
m2
26

2. A massive projectile m1 m2

v1i
v2i = 0
m1

m2

x
v1f
v2f
m1

m2

m2
<1
m1

m2
m1 m2
m1
v1 f
v1i
v1i v1i
m
m1 m2
1 2
m1
1

v2 f

2m1
2

v1i
v1i 2v1i
m
m1 m2
1 2
m1

Body 1 (large mass) keeps on going scarcely slowed by the collision .

Body 2 (small mass) charges ahead at twice the speed of body 1

27

Elastic Collision

28

Inelastic Collision

29

Collisions in Two Dimensions

In this section we will remove the restriction that the
colliding
llidi objects
bj t move along
l
one axis.
i Instead
I t d we assume
that the two bodies that participate in the collision
p
Their masses are m1 and m2
move in the xyy -plane.

The linear momentum of the sytem is conserved: p1i p2i p1 f p2 f

y
is elastic the kinetic energy
gy is also conserved: K1i K 2i K1 f K 2 f
If the system
We assume that m2 is stationary and that after the collision particle 1 and
particle 2 move at angles 1 and 2 with the initial direction of motion of m1
In this case the conservation of momentum and kinetic energy take the form:
x axis: m1v1i m1v1 f cos 1 m2 v2 f cos 2 (eqs.1)
y axis: 0 m1v1 f sin 1 m2 v2 f sin 2 (eqs
(eqs.2)
2)
1
1
1
m1v12i m1v22 f m2 v22 f (eqs.3) We have three equations and seven variables:
2
2
2
Two masses: m1 , m2 three speeds: v1i , v1 f , v2 f and two angles: 1 , 2 . If we know
30

the values of four of these parameters we can calculate the remaining three

P ro b le m 7 2 . T w o 2 .0 k g b o d ie s, A a n d B c o llid e . T h e v e lo c itie s b e fo re th e c o llisio n a re

v A (1 5 i 3 0 j ) m /s a n d v B ( 1 0 i 5 .0 j ) m /s. A fte r th e c o llis io n ,

v A' ( 5 .0 i 2 0 j ) m /s. W h a t a re (a ) th e fin a l v e lo c ity o f B a n d (b ) th e c h a n g e

in th e to ta l k in e tic e n e rg y (in c lu d in g sig n )?

(a) Conservation of linear momentum implies

mA v A mB v B mA v ' A mB v ' B .
Since mA = mB = m = 2.0 kg,
g, the masses divide out and we obtain

m/s (5 i 20 j) m/s
vB v A vB vA (15i 30j) m/s ( 10 i 5j)
(10 i 15 j) m/s .
(b) The final and initial kinetic energies are

c
c

h
h

1
1
1
mv '2A mv '2B (2.0) ( 5) 2 202 102 152 8.0 102 J
2
2
2
1
1
1
. 103 J .
Ki mv 2A mv B2 (2.0) 152 302 ( 10) 2 52 13
2
2
2

Kf

The change kinetic energy is then K = 5.0 102 J (that is, 500 J of the initial kinetic
energy is lost).
31

Systems with Varying Mass: The Rocket

A rocket of mass M and speed v ejects mass backwards
dM
. The ejected material is expelled at a
dt
constant speed vrell relative to the rocket.
rocket Thus the rocket loses
at a constant rate

mass and accelerates forward. We will use the conservation

of linear momentum to determine the speed v of the rocket

In figures (a) and (b) we show the rocket at times t and t dt. If we assume that
there are no external forces acting on the rocket, linear momentum is conserved
p(t ) p t dt Mv dMU M dM v dv (eqs.1)
Here dM is a negative number because the rocket's mass decreases with time t
U is
i the
th velocity
l it off the
th ejected
j t d gases with
ith respectt to
t the
th inertial
i ti l reference
f
frame
f
in which we measure the rocket's speed v. We use the transformation equation for
velocities ((Chapter
p 4)) to express
p
U in terms of vrel which is measured with respect
p
to the rocket.
Mdv dMvrel

U v dv vrel We substitute U in equation 1 and we get:

32

Using the conservation of linear momentum we derived

the equation of motion for the rocket
Mdv dMvrell (eqs.2) We assume that material is
ejected from the rocret's nozzle at a constant rate
dM
R (eqs.3) Here R is a constant positive number,
dt
the positive mass rate of fuel consumprion.
dv
dM
We devide both sides of eqs
eqs.(2)
(2) by dt M

vrel Rvrel Ma Rvrel

dt
dt
(First rocket equation) Here a is the rocket's acceleration, Rvrel the thrust of the

rocket engine.
engine We use equation
equation 2 to determine
determine the rocket's
rocket s speed as function of time
dv vrel

dM
M

vf

Mf

vi

Mi

We integrate both sides dv vrel

v f vi vrel ln M M f vrel ln M M i vrel ln

M

v f vi vrel ln

Mi
Mf

dM

M
vf

Mi
Mf

(Second rocket equation)

vi
O

Mi/Mf
33

Problem 78. A 6090 kg space probe moving nose-first toward Jupiter at

105 m/s relative to the Sun fires its rocket engine, ejecting 80.0 kg of
exhaust
h t att a speedd off 253 m/s
/ relative
l ti tto th
the space probe.
b Wh
Whatt is
i the
th final
fi l
velocity of the probe?

v f vi vrel

Mi
ln
M
f

6090 kg
105 m/s (253 m/s) ln
108 m/s.
6010
kg

34