In the Laboratory

Contact Angle Measurements Using a Simplified

Experimental Setup
Guillaume Lamour and Ahmed Hamraoui
Neuro-Physique Cellulaire, Universit
e Paris Descartes, UFR Biom
edicale, 75006, Paris, France
Andrii Buvailo, Yangjun Xing, Sean Keuleyan, Vivek Prakash, Ali Eftekhari-Bafrooei,
and Eric Borguet*
Department of Chemistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
*[email protected]

Contact angle measurements are often used to evaluate

surface and liquid cleanliness and the effects of surface treatments developed as a part of fundamental research in surface
science, as well as for industrial applications. An accurate
characterization of surfaces is required in a wide range of research
fields, such as surface chemistry and biomaterials (1). In addition
to techniques such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (2), second-harmonic generation or sum-frequency generation (3), atomic force microscopy (4), X-ray photoelectron
microscopy (5), and ellipsometry (6), contact angle measurement
is useful in the evaluation of surface macroscopic properties, such
as surface energy (7) and wettability (8).
A drop of pure liquid on a plane solid surface experiences
adhesive forces acting between the liquid and the solid surface that favor spreading, whereas the cohesive forces within the
liquid counteract the spreading. The balance between these
forces determines the contact angle, (Figure 1). This balance
is described by Young's equation (9) that relates the contact
angle to the surface free energies of a system containing solid (S),
liquid (L), and vapor (V) phases
1

SV - SL LV cos

where SV is the solid surface free energy, LV is the liquid surface

free energy (also called surface tension), and SL is the solidliquid interfacial free energy. A solid surface with a surface energy
that is higher than the surface tension of a liquid drop will
undergo complete wetting so that adhesiveness dominates, and
the drop spreads such that the contact angle is 0. This can be
illustrated by the complete spreading of water on any substrate
that has a higher surface energy than that of water itself (i.e.,
> 72.8 mN m-1, water surface tension). If the substrate has a
relatively high surface energy, yet lower than the liquid's surface
tension, the liquid will wet the solid surface and the resulting
contact angle is 0 < < 90 (Figure 1C). Conversely, if the
surface energy of the solid surface is low, it will undergo poor
wetting and poor adhesiveness of the drop, resulting in a larger
contact angle. For example, a water drop that has a contact angle
>90 (Figures 1A and 2B) is characterized as nonwetting, and the
solid surface is said to be hydrophobic.
Measuring contact angles with a high level of precision usually
requires high-tech contact angle goniometers that can perform a
great number of automated measurements (N = 50-100) per drop,
thus, reducing the error on each returned average value (10). Such
goniometers may not be needed, especially for researchers that are

mainly concerned with performing routine controls on the quality of

their sample surfaces, rather than making wetting studies that require
the best equipment available. For instance, when making selfassembled monolayer (SAM) covered substrates for cell culture (1),
a precision of (1-2 in one single measurement is sufficient, as
biological response, by nature, will not be critically sensitive to small
variations in substrate wettability. Therefore, the simple experimental apparatus described here provides a convenient alternative to
commercial goniometers because the method allows measurements
with sufficient precision to be obtained while being accessible in
terms of cost and ease of construction.
Practical experience in determining contact angle and surface energies would be advantageous to students in a course such
as physical chemistry. In addition to learning how to optimize
the configuration of the apparatus, the students would be
acquainted with the sensitivity of contact angle measurements,
which highly depend on the quality of the solid surface and on
the cleanliness of the test liquid(s). Therefore, the students would
learn the importance of cleaning and drying the sample surface,
that is, performing experiments carefully and with attention to
detail. More generally, and beyond experimental considerations,
it should be emphasized that the contact angle measurement is a
reliable technique to characterize solid-liquid interfaces, and the
most simple and accessible technique available to measure the
surface tension of solid surfaces. Step-by-step instructions on
how to make a contact angle measurement are provided in the
supporting information.
Hardware Assembly
A schematic view of the setup is shown in Figure 2C. All
parts, except the lighting system, are mounted on an aluminum
breadboard. Thus, the optical components are kept stable and
fixed, while the sample support is mounted on a translation
system, allowing for subtle focus adjustments. Details of all the
parts used to assemble the system are listed in Table 1.
The optical parts include a basic digital camera (Sony,
Cyber-shot, 5.1 megapixels) and an optical lens with a focal
distance of 50.0 mm (Thorlabs, BK7 A-coated plano-convex
lens, 25.4 mm diameter) that is situated between the camera and
the sample (Figure 2A). A lamp is positioned behind the sample
to make the liquid drop to appear black, which is necessary for
measurement precision as well as for image processing. A box
(Figure 2B), covered with sheets of aluminum foil, is positioned
over the lens and the sample, thus, rejecting stray light. The box

r 2010 American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc
Vol. 87 No. 12 December 2010
10.1021/ed100468u Published on Web 10/12/2010

Journal of Chemical Education

1403

In the Laboratory

Figure 1. Liquid drops in contact with a solid surface (ODS SAM on glass slide). (A) A drop of deionized water (5 L) on ODS surface. The arrow points
the solid-liquid-air point, where the contact angle is measured. (B) Same drop as in (A) processed with the ImageJ software using the contact angle
plugin. (C) A drop of n-Hexadecane (5 L) on ODS SAM, processed with ImageJ. The profiles of the drops in (B) and (C) are automatically fitted using the
ellipse approximation. A possible application of contact angle measurements is to determine critical surface energy (c) of the solid surface using a Zisman
plot (D). Inset box at top right represents the line fit of data for n-alkanes liquids only that supposedly returns a more accurate value for the critical surface
tension of an ODS SAM. The dashed line in the inset box is equivalent to the line fit for all liquids.

dimensions are not critical, providing that the box covers the
sample and lens assembly. The liquid drop should not reflect any
stray light that could spoil the measurement. The use of the box
can be avoided, providing the experiments are conducted in a
room where light intensity is lower than the light intensity
produced by the lamp. Nevertheless, the box is also useful to
prevent drops being polluted by air contaminants such as dust.
The most critical element relating to the precision of
measurements is the lighting system. Careful attention should
to be given to generate a background behind the drop that is
homogeneous (Figure 1A). Good results in homogenizing the
background are obtained through positioning a diffuser such as
tracing paper between the drop and the lamp as (Figure 2C). A
commercial lamp with power between 50 and 200 W can be used
to provide the light source.
In addition, the height of the camera should be adjusted so
that the actual drop and its reflection on the glass substrate can be
observed. Thus, one can precisely determine position of the triple
line (at intersection of solid-liquid-air interfaces) between the
two, marked by an arrow in Figure 1A.
Hazards
The organic reagents may cause irritation to skin, eyes, and
respiratory tract and may be harmful if swallowed or inhaled.
They are also flammable.
Measuring Contact Angles
The contact angle measurement is illustrated in the case of
drops (5 L) of deionized water (Figure 1A,B) and of n-hexadecane
1404

Journal of Chemical Education

Vol. 87 No. 12 December 2010

(Figure 1C) (Sigma, >99%) on a glass slide (VWR microslides,

25 mm  75 mm  1 mm, cut with a diamond tip) modified with
octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS, Gelest, Inc.), so as to obtain a surface
evenly coated with monolayer of octadecylsilane (ODS) groups: an
ODS SAM. The procedure to make this substrate can be found
elsewhere (11). The ODS SAM has hydrophobic terminal methyl
groups, and thus, the contact angle for water is >90 (Figure 1A,B).
The images in Figure 1 are taken directly with the camera. No image
treatment, such as contrast enhancing, has been done to further
process images to determine contact angles.
The same drop of deionized H2O on an ODS SAM (as in
Figure 1A) is shown in Figure 1B after processing by ImageJ free
software (12) using the contact angle plugin (13). For each
measurement, the user must choose two points to manually
define the baseline and three points along the drop profile (see
the supporting information that features a set of instructions
supplying all the details on the procedure used to make the
measurement). The program then fits the profile of the drop and
calculates the contact angle using the sphere approximation
or the ellipse approximation. In our study, the ellipse approximation gave consistent results for contact angles >40. For
drops with contact angles <40, the sphere approximation was
used.
To evaluate the level of precision on the analysis of a single
drop obtained using this method, the image of the drop shown in
Figure 1A was processed 50 times by the ImageJ contact angle
plugin (as in Figure 1B). The returned value of contact angle was
110.2 ( 0.4. The difference between the maximum and minimum measured values was 1.7. For an n-hexadecane drop, which
has a lower contact angle on the same surface (Figure 1C), the
contact angle was 40.7 ( 0.6, with a difference between

pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

r 2010 American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

In the Laboratory

Figure 2. Setup used to measure contact angles. All the internal elements of the experimental apparatus are shown in picture (A), whereas picture (B) depicts
elements external to the box, such as lighting system. The sketch in (C) precisely describes the configuration, along with the critical distances between some essential
parts, such as camera, lens, and sample area.
Table 1. List of All Components Used To Make the Contact Angle Measurement Experimental Apparatus, as Presented in Figure 2A
Brand

Specification

Part number

Quantity

Sony

Cyber-Shot Digital Camera, 5.1 Mpxl

DSC-P93

OptoSigma

Aluminum Linear Ball Bearing Stage

123-0710/0715

Thorlabs

Aluminum Breadboard, 800 x 800 x 1/200 , 1/4-20 Threaded

MB8

Thorlabs

Mounting Base, 100 x 300 x 3/800 (25  75  10 mm)

BA1

Thorlabs

Post Holder with Spring-Loaded Thumbscrew, L = 300

PH3-ST

Thorlabs

Post Holder with Spring-Loaded Thumbscrew, L = 200

PH2-ST

Thorlabs

Adapts d = 100 - Optic to d = 200 - Mount

AD2

Thorlabs

SM1 Retaining Ring for d = 100 Lens Tubes and Mounts

SM1RR

Thorlabs

1/400 -20 Locking Thumbscrew for Post Holders, Brass, 10 Per Box

TS25B031

00

00

Thorlabs

(d 1/2  1.5 )-Post

TR1.5

Thorlabs

Cap Screw Kit

HW-KIT2/M M6-1.0 Screws

Thorlabs

BK7 A-Coated Plano-Convex Lens, d = 25.4 mm, f = 50.0 mm

LA1131-A

maximum and minimum measured values equal to 2.4. These

values obtained for water and n-hexadecane drops are in good
agreement with those reported in the literature for the same
substrate (14- 16). Moreover, the level of precision obtained for
the analysis of one single drop appears to be comparable to those
obtained with commercial contact angle goniometers (10). The
same type of measurements was done with drops of formamide,
n-undecane, and n-octane on the same surface, displaying similar
results in terms of precision. The results of all measurements
made are summarized in Table 2. To obtain reasonable precision

r 2010 American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

on one single measurement of a specific liquid on a specific

substrate, the user should perform the analysis of multiple drops
(at least 3). The mean value of the analysis of these drops is the
contact angle value for the liquid and surface under consideration. It is noted that according to experimental conditions, the
standard deviation of the mean contact angle value may be higher
than the uncertainty on the analysis of one single drop, reported
in Table 2. Thus, the user is not requested to perform more than
one single analysis per image, providing the line fit of the drop
profile looks accurate.

pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

Vol. 87 No. 12 December 2010

Journal of Chemical Education

1405

In the Laboratory
Table 2. Static Contact Angles Measured for Several Test Liquids
Watera
Surface tension, /(mN m-1)

Formamidea

72.80

n-Hexadecanea

n-Undecanea

n-Octanea

58.20

27.47

24.66

/deg, min value

109.6

88.6

39.4

26.5

21.62)
9.4

/deg, mean ( std dev (no. of times the

contact angle was evaluated for a single image)

110.2 ( 0.4 (50)

90.3 ( 0.8 (50)

40.7 ( 0.6 (50)

27.3 ( 0.4 (20)

9.8 ( 0.4 (20)

/deg, max value

111.3

92.2

41.8

27.9

10.8

Using one drop per liquid on octadecylsilane self-assembled monolayer (ODS SAM) on glass. All values were obtained by fitting the images of the drops with
the ImageJ contact angle plugin. Drops of water, formamide, and n-hexadecane were fitted using the ellipse approximation, whereas drops of n-undecane and
n-octane were fitted using the sphere approximation.

Determination of the Critical Surface Tension of the Solid

Substrate

c = 21.4 ( 0.5 mN m-1, which is probably an estimation closer

to the real surface tension of the ODS substrate.

Determining contact angles using several liquids that display

different surface tensions can help in establishing the critical
surface tension, c, of the organic monolayer when surfaces are
modified. As an example, the critical surface tension c of the
ODS substrate has been determined by measuring the static
contact angle of liquid droplets (see Table 2). The values of c are
calculated using the Fox-Zisman approximation (17). In this
article, it can be understood as a first-order approximation of the
Good-Girifalco equation (18) for a surface tension of the liquid
( g c) close to the critical surface tension c of the solid.
Thus, a better plot of the contact angle is cos versus 1/2, that is,

Conclusion

 1=2

cos - 1 2 c

A linear approximation of eq 2 in the vicinity of c (FoxZisman) gives



- c
cos  1 3

implying that when cos = 1, then = c. This relationship is

presented graphically in Figure 1D. It is made by fitting the data
for the test liquids, using a linear regression analysis, to cos = 1,
as described by Zisman (17). As a result, the critical surface energy
determined for the ODS SAM is c = 19.8 ( 1.5 mN m-1.
In considering surface tensions, the more energetic component is
wetted by the less energetic. Because c is assimilated to the
surface tension (i.e., surface energy) of the solid, all liquids that have
a surface tension > c will not wet this solid (i.e., > 0), and
conversely, all liquids with < c will wet the solid surface (i.e.,
= 0). Thus, the ODS SAM will undergo complete wetting of any
liquid that has a surface tension below c = 19.8 mN m-1. This
value compares favorably with literature values determined by
Tillman et al. (c = 20.2 mN m-1) (14) and Kulkarni et al. (c =
20.7 mN m-1) (19) using the same method.
Here, the line fit of data obtained for H2O, formamide, and
n-alkanes was made considering that the ODS SAM is homogeneous and does not exhibit large roughness and polar contributions, known to be able to critically influence contact
angles (20, 21). Starting from this postulate, we can also consider
that, because n-alkane liquids have no polar contribution in their
surface tensions (contrary to water and formamide), a more
accurate line fit is obtained when fitting the data using
only n-alkane liquids (inset box in Figure 1D). The result is
1406

Journal of Chemical Education

Vol. 87 No. 12 December 2010

We considered a simple, efficient, and inexpensive apparatus for equilibrium contact angle measurements that proved to be
adequate for measuring contact angles and thus to correctly
estimate the critical surface tension, using the model derived
from the theory of Good and Girifalco. The experimental results,
summarized in Table 2, were obtained with ImageJ. This free and
easily accessible image analysis software (with macros), returned
precise and stable values of the contact angles in both relatively
high ( g 90) and rather low ( e 40) degree regions. The
setup described in this work can be a valuable instrument when a
low-cost routine characterization of the surface is needed. It can
be used for student laboratory instruction in educational institutions as well as for performing surface studies for actual research
applications, for instance in biomedical fields.
Literature Cited
1. Lamour, G.; Journiac, N.; Soues, S.; Bonneau, S.; Nassoy, P.;
Hamraoui, A. Colloids Surf., B 2009, 72, 208218.
2. Feng, X.; Matranga, C.; Vidic, R.; Borguet, E. J. Phys. Chem. B
2004, 108, 1994919954.
3. Fomenko, V.; Gusev, E. P.; Borguet, E. J. Appl. Phys. 2005, 97, 083711.
4. Seo, K.; Borguet, E. Langmuir 2006, 22, 13881391.
5. Moroseac, M.; Skala, T.; Veltruska, K.; Matolin, V.; Matolinova, I.
In XPS and SSIMS studies of Pd/SnOx system: reduction and
oxidation in hydrogen containing air. In 22nd European Conference
on Surface Science ( ECOSS 22), Prague, Czech Republic, September
7-12, 2003; Surf. Sci. 2004, Vol. 566, pp 1118-1123.
6. Bodlaki, D.; Borguet, E. J. Appl. Phys. 2004, 95, 46754680.
7. Kabza, K.; Gestwicki, J. E.; McGrath, J. L. J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 77,
6365.
8. Degennes, P. G. Rev. Mod. Phys. 1985, 57, 827863.
9. Young, T. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 1805, 95, 6587.
10. Barankin, M. D.; Gonzalez, E.; Habib, S. B.; Gao, L.; Guschl, P. C.;
Hicks, R. F. Langmuir 2009, 25, 24952500.
11. Nihonyanagi, S.; Eftekhari-Bafrooei, A.; Hines, J.; Borguet, E.
Langmuir 2008, 24, 51615165.
12. Rasband, W. ImageJ, version 1.42., 2009; National Institute of
Health; http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/index.html (accessed Sep 2010).
13. Brugnara, M. Contact Angle plugin ( for ImageJ software), 2006;
[email protected]; http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/plugins/
contact-angle.html (accessed Sep 2010).
14. Tillman, N.; Ulman, A.; Schildkraut, J. S.; Penner, T. L. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 1988, 110, 61366144.

pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

r 2010 American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

In the Laboratory
15. Flinn, D. H.; Guzonas, D. A.; Yoon, R. H. Colloids Surf., A 1994,
87, 163176.
16. Angst, D. L.; Simmons, G. W. Langmuir 1991, 7, 22362242.
17. Zisman, W. A. Adv. Chem. Ser. 1964, 43, 151.
18. Good, R. J.; Girifalco, L. A. J. Phys. Chem. 1960, 64, 561565.
19. Kulkarni, S. A.; Mirji, S. A.; Mandale, A. B.; Gupta, R. P.;
Vijayamohanan, K. P. Mater. Lett. 2005, 59, 38903895.

r 2010 American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

20. Chow, T. S. J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 1998, 10, L445L451.

21. Zografi, G.; Tam, S. S. J. Pharm. Sci. 1976, 65, 11451149.

Supporting Information Available

Step-by-step instructions on how to make a contact angle measurement.
This material is available via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

Vol. 87 No. 12 December 2010

Journal of Chemical Education

1407