VBritish Empire
VBritish Empire
VBritish Empire
For a comprehensive list of the territories that formed the military, nancial and manpower resources of Britain.
British Empire, see Territorial evolution of the British Although the empire achieved its largest territorial exEmpire.
tent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer
the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In
the Second World War, Britains colonies in South-East
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies,
protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or ad- Asia were occupied by Japan. Despite the nal victory
ministered by the United Kingdom. It originated with of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige
the overseas possessions and trading posts established by helped to accelerate the inevitable decline of the empire.
England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession,
At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, achieved independence as part of a larger decolonisation
for over a century, was the foremost global power.[1] By movement in which Britain granted independence to most
1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 mil- of the territories of the Empire. The political transfer of
in 1997 marked for many the end of
lion people, one-fth of the worlds population at the Hong Kong to China
[6][7][8][9]
Fourteen overseas territories
[2]
2 the British Empire.
time. The empire covered more than 33,700,000 km
remain
under
British
sovereignty.
After independence,
(13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earths total
many
former
British
colonies
joined
the Commonwealth
[3][4]
land area.
As a result, its political, legal, linguistic
of
Nations,
a
free
association
of
independent
states. Sixand cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its
teen
Commonwealth
nations
share
their
head
of state,
power, the phrase "the empire on which the sun never
Queen
Elizabeth
II,
as
Commonwealth
realms.
sets" was often used to describe the British Empire, because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun was
always shining on at least one of its territories.
1 Origins (14971583)
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large
overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands
began to establish colonies and trade networks of their
own in the Americas and Asia.[5] A series of wars in the
17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France
left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant
colonial power in North America and India.
A replica of The Matthew, John Cabot's ship used for his second
voyage to the New World.
In 1603, James VI, King of Scots, ascended to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London,
ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main
rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies.[25] The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the
English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of private
companies, most notably the English East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade. This
period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the
American War of Independence towards the end of the
18th century, has subsequently been referred to by some
historians as the First British Empire.[26]
1.1
Plantations of Ireland
Although England trailed behind other European powers in establishing overseas colonies, it had been engaged during the 16th century in the settlement of Ireland with Protestants from England and Scotland, drawing on precedents dating back to the Norman invasion of
Ireland in 1169.[18][19] Several people who helped establish the Plantations of Ireland also played a part in the
early colonisation of North America, particularly a group
known as the West Country men.[20]
The Caribbean initially provided Englands most important and lucrative colonies,[27] but not before several attempts at colonisation failed. An attempt to establish a
colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years, and failed
in its main objective to nd gold deposits.[28] Colonies
in St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) also rapidly
folded, but settlements were successfully established in
St. Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628).[29]
The colonies soon adopted the system of sugar plantations
successfully used by the Portuguese in Brazil, which depended on slave labour, andat rstDutch ships, to
sell the slaves and buy the sugar.[30] To ensure that the
increasingly healthy prots of this trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English
2.2
2.3
5
tary and political power in India.[52] France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an
obligation to support British client states, ending French
hopes of controlling India.[53] In the following decades
the Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local
rulers under the threat of force from the British Indian
Army, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys.[54]
The British and French struggles in India became but one
theatre of the global Seven Years War (17561763) involving France, Britain and the other major European
powers. The signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763) had
important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, Frances future as a colonial
power there was eectively ended with the recognition
of British claims to Ruperts Land,[39] and the ceding
of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable Frenchspeaking population under British control) and Louisiana
to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its
victory over France in India, the Seven Years War therefore left Britain as the worlds most powerful maritime
power.[55]
2.4
Loss of
Colonies
the
Thirteen
American
per year across the Atlantic.[68] Forced to nd an alternative location after the loss of the 13 Colonies in 1783,
the British government turned to the newly discovered
lands of Australia.[69] The western coast of Australia had
been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch explorer
Willem Jansz in 1606 and was later named New Holland by the Dutch East India Company,[70] but there was
no attempt to colonise it. In 1770 James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia while on a scientic
voyage to the South Pacic Ocean, claimed the continent
for Britain, and named it New South Wales.[71] In 1778,
Joseph Banks, Cooks botanist on the voyage, presented
evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany
Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in
1787 the rst shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in
1788.[72] Britain continued to transport convicts to New
South Wales until 1840.[73] The Australian colonies became protable exporters of wool and gold,[74] mainly
due to gold rushes in the colony of Victoria, making its
capital Melbourne the richest city in the world[75] and the
largest city after London in the British Empire.[76]
During his voyage, Cook also visited New Zealand, rst
discovered by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642, and
claimed the North and South islands for the British crown
in 1769 and 1770 respectively. Initially, interaction between the indigenous Mori population and Europeans
was limited to the trading of goods. European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with numerous trading stations established, especially in the North. In 1839, the New Zealand Company
announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish
4.1
(with the exception of St. Helena, Ceylon and the territories administered by the East India Company, though
these exclusions were later repealed). Under the Act,
slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of
4 to 6 years of apprenticeship.[85]
Russia.[83] The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia,
Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. For a while it appeared
that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of
inuence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding
matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian
Entente.[105] The destruction of the Russian Navy by the
A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century Japanese at the Battle of Port Arthur during the RussoJapanese War of 190405 also limited its threat to the
led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which
[106]
it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East British.
India Company had failed to implement any coordinated
policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule.
Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up 4.3 Cape to Cairo
after each famine to investigate the causes and implement
new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an
eect.[101]
six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both
sides. The following year the British government dissolved the Company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general
administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the
Empress of India.[99] India became the empires most
valuable possession, the Jewel in the Crown, and was
the most important source of Britains strength.[100]
4.2
9
publics which had a longer lifespan: the South African
Republic or Transvaal Republic (185277; 18811902)
and the Orange Free State (18541902).[109] In 1902
Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with
the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War
(18991902).[110]
In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III,
linking the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean. Initially the Canal was opposed by the British;[111] but once
opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the jugular vein of the Empire.[112] In 1875, the
Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought
the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 percent
shareholding in the Suez Canal for 4 million (340 million in 2013). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage.
Joint Anglo-French nancial control over Egypt ended in
outright British occupation in 1882.[113] The French were
still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the
British position,[114] but a compromise was reached with
the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the
Canal ocially neutral territory.[115]
per and Lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into the Dominion of Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception
of international relations.[121] Australia and New Zealand
achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900,
with the Australian colonies federating in 1901.[122] The
With French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower
term dominion status was ocially introduced at the
Congo River region undermining orderly incursion of
Colonial Conference of 1907.[123]
tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 188485 was
held to regulate the competition between the European The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted
powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa" by political campaigns for Irish home rule. Ireland had been
dening eective occupation as the criterion for inter- united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great
national recognition of territorial claims.[116] The scram- Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after
ble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to re- the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suered a severe
consider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan. A famine between 1845 and 1852. Home rule was supjoint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the ported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone,
Mahdist Army in 1896, and rebued a French attempted who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canadas footinvasion at Fashoda in 1898. Sudan was nominally made steps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886
an Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, but a British colony in Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament. Although
the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less aureality.[117]
tonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had
British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Cecil
within their own federation,[124] many MPs feared that a
Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Africa, to urge
partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat
a "Cape to Cairo" railway linking the strategically imto Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up
[118]
portant Suez Canal to the mineral-rich South.
During
of the empire.[125] A second Home Rule bill was also dethe 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned
feated for similar reasons.[125] A third bill was passed by
British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed
Parliament in 1914, but not implemented due to the outterritories subsequently named after him, Rhodesia.[119]
break of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter
Rising.[126]
4.4
10
5.1
and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on
the national consciousness at home, and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand
from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac
Day. Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a
similar light.[132] The important contribution of the Dominions to the war eort was recognised in 1917 by the
British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an
Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy.[133]
Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles
signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with
the addition of 1,800,000 square miles (4,700,000 km2 )
and 13 million new subjects.[134] The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the
Allied powers as League of Nations mandates. Britain
gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of
Cameroon and Togo, and Tanganyika. The Dominions themselves also acquired mandates of their own:
the Union of South Africa gained South-West Africa
(modern-day Namibia), Australia gained German New
Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa. Nauru was
made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacic
Dominions.[135]
5.2
5.2
Inter-war period
11
Inter-war period
The changing world order that the war had brought about,
in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as
naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in
India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British
imperial policy.[136] Forced to choose between alignment
with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Japanese alliance and instead signed the 1922
Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval
parity with the United States.[137] This decision was the
source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s[138] as
militaristic governments took hold in Japan and Germany
helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared
that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by
both nations.[139] Although the issue of the empires security was a serious concern in Britain, at the same time
the empire was vital to the British economy.[140]
In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home
rule led members of Sinn Fin, a pro-independence party
that had won a majority of the Irish seats at Westminster
in the 1918 British general election, to establish an Irish
assembly in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared. The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began
a guerrilla war against the British administration.[141] The
Anglo-Irish War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the
signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free
State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with eective internal independence but still constitutionally linked
with the British Crown.[142] Northern Ireland, consisting
of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government
of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under
the treaty to retain its existing status within the United
Kingdom.[143]
A similar struggle began in India when the Government
of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for
independence.[144] Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar Conspiracy ensured that
war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts.
This led to tension,[145] particularly in the Punjab region,
where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar
Massacre. In Britain public opinion was divided over the
morality of the event, between those who saw it as having
saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with
revulsion.[145] The subsequent Non-Co-Operation move-
12
the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another within a British Commonwealth of
Nations".[154] This declaration was given legal substance
under the 1931 Statute of Westminster.[123] The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union
of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland
were now independent of British legislative control, they
could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass
laws for them without their consent.[155] Newfoundland
reverted to colonial status in 1933, suering from nancial diculties during the Great Depression.[156] Ireland
distanced itself further from Britain with the introduction
of a new constitution in 1937, making it a republic in all
but name.[157]
6 Decolonisation
(19451997)
During the Second World War, the Eighth Army was made up of
units from many dierent countries in the British Empire and
Commonwealth; it fought in North African and Italian campaigns.
and
decline
6.2
13
1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisaoutside the UK itself fell from 700 million to ve million, tions and the increasing cost of maintaining its military
three million of whom were in Hong Kong.[171]
presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to
solve.[177] The UN General Assembly subsequently voted
for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab
6.1 Initial disengagement
state.
14
15
in 1964, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of maining Crown colonies as British Dependent Territointegration with Britain.[202]
ries (renamed British Overseas Territories in 2002)[209]
Most of the UKs Caribbean territories achieved indepen- meant that, aside from a scattering of islands and outof an uninhabited rock
dence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica posts (and the acquisition in 1955[210]
in
the
Atlantic
Ocean,
Rockall),
the process of deand Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, estabcolonisation
that
had
begun
after
the
Second
World War
lished in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean
was
largely
complete.
In
1982,
Britains
resolve
in decolonies under one government, but which collapsed folfending
its
remaining
overseas
territories
was
tested
when
[203]
lowing the loss of its two largest members.
Barbados
Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a longachieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the
[211]
eastern Caribbean islands in the 1970s and 1980s,[203] standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire.
Britains ultimately successful military response to rebut Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted
to revert to British rule after they had already started take the islands during the ensuing Falklands War was
viewed by many to have contributed to reversing the
on the path to independence.[204] The British Virgin Is[212]
[205]
lands,
Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to re- downward trend in Britains status as a world power.
The same year, the Canadian government severed its last
tain ties with Britain,[206] while Guyana achieved independence in 1966. Britains last colony on the Ameri- legal link with Britain by patriating the Canadian constican mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing tution from Britain. The 1982 Canada Act passed by the
involvement
colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achiev- British parliament ended the need for British
[8]
in
changes
to
the
Canadian
constitution.
Similarly,
the
ing full independence in 1981. A dispute with Guatemala
Constitution
Act
1986
reformed
the
constitution
of
New
[207]
over claims to Belize was left unresolved.
Zealand to severe its constitutional link with Britain, and
British territories in the Pacic acquired independence in the Australia Act 1986 severed the constitutional link bethe 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with tween Britain and the Australian states.[213]
Vanuatu in 1980. Vanuatus independence was delayed
due to political conict between English and French- In September 1982, Prime minister Margaret Thatcher
speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese govand most
administered as a condominium with France.[208] Fiji, ernment on the future of Britains last major
[214]
populous
overseas
territory,
Hong
Kong.
Under
the
Tuvalu, the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea
terms
of
the
1842
Treaty
of
Nanking,
Hong
Kong
Island
chose to become Commonwealth realms.
itself had been ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the vast
majority of the colony was constituted by the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease
6.4 End of empire
in 1898, due to expire in 1997.[215][216] Thatcher, seeSee also: Falklands War and Transfer of sovereignty over ing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished
to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration
Hong Kong
In 1980, Rhodesia, Britains last African colony, be- with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by
China.[217] A deal was reached in 1984under the terms
of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would
become a special administrative region of the Peoples
Republic of China, maintaining its way of life for at least
50 years.[218] The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for
many,[6] including Charles, Prince of Wales,[7] who was
in attendance, the end of Empire.[8][9]
7 Legacy
The Hong Kong Convention Centre hosted the ceremony for the
Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from Britain to China
in 1997, symbolically marking the end of Empire.
16
Gibraltar
Bermuda
LEGACY
Cayman Islands
Ascension Island
Saint Helena
Pitcairn Islands
Tristan da Cunha
Falkland Islands
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
to conicts in formerly colonised areas. The British Empire was also responsible for large migrations of peoples.
Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler
populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and
New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland.
Tensions remain between the white settler populations of
these countries and their indigenous minorities, and be-
17
tween white settler minorities and indigenous majorities
in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Settlers in Ireland from
Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided
nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland.
Millions of people moved to and from British colonies,
with large numbers of Indians emigrating to other parts of
the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean.[230] The
demographics of Britain itself was changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its
former colonies.[231]
See also
[18] Canny, p. 7.
[19] Kenny, p. 5.
All-Red Route
Colonial Oce
History of capitalism
Indirect rule
Protectorate
References
[4] Elkins2005, p. 5.
18
[86] Hyam, p. 1.
[88] Parsons, p. 3.
[92] Porter, p. 8.
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[100] Brown, p. 5.
[109]
[75] Cervero, Robert B. (1998). The Transit Metropolis: A
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[111]
[76] Statesmens Year Book 1889
[112]
[77] Smith, p. 45.
[113]
[78] Waitangi Day. History Group, New Zealand Ministry
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[127] O'Brien, p. 1.
[136] Goldstein, p. 4.
[146] Low, D.A. (February 1966). The Government of In- [181] Brown, pp. 33940.
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[183] Ferguson 2004, p. 355.
[147] Smith, p. 104.
[184] Ferguson 2004, p. 356.
[148] Brown, p. 292.
[185] James, p. 583.
[149] Smith, p. 101.
[186] Combs, pp. 161163.
[150] Louis, p. 271.
[187] Suez Crisis: Key players. BBC News. 21 July 2006.
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[151] McIntyre, p. 187.
[152] Brown, p. 68.
20
10 FURTHER READING
[225] Hogg, p. 424 chapter 9 English Worldwide by David Crystal: approximately one in four of the worlds population
are capable of communicating to a useful level in English.
[193] Thatcher.
[194] Smith, p. 106.
[229] Parsons, p. 1.
10 Further reading
Andrews, Kenneth (1984). Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the
British Empire, 14801630. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-27698-5. Retrieved 22 July
2009.
http://www.
[210] 1955: Britain claims Rockall. BBC News. 21 September 1955. Retrieved 13 December 2008.
[211] James, pp. 624625.
[212] James, p. 629.
[213] Brown, p. 689.
[214] Brendon, p. 654.
[215] Joseph, p. 355.
[216] Rothermund, p. 100.
[217] Brendon, pp. 65455.
[218] Brendon, p. 656.
[219] House of Commons Foreign Aairs Committee Overseas
Territories Report, pp. 145147
[220] House of Commons Foreign Aairs Committee Overseas
Territories Report, pp. 146,153
[221] British Indian Ocean Territory. The World Factbook.
CIA. Retrieved 13 December 2008.
[222] House of Commons Foreign Aairs Committee Overseas
Territories Report, p. 136
[223] The Commonwealth - About Us; Online September 2014
21
Canny, Nicholas (1998). The Origins of Empire, The
Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924676-9. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
Clegg, Peter (2005). The UK Caribbean Overseas
Territories. In de Jong, Lammert; Kruijt, Dirk. Extended Statehood in the Caribbean. Rozenberg Publishers. ISBN 90-5170-686-3.
Combs, Jerald A. (2008). The History of American
Foreign Policy: From 1895. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN
978-0-7656-2056-9.
Dalziel, Nigel (2006). The Penguin Historical Atlas
of the British Empire. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-1018445. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
Hopkirk, Peter (2002). The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia. Kodansha International. ISBN 4-7700-1703-0.
22
10 FURTHER READING
Lee, Stephen J. (1996). Aspects of British political history, 19141995. Routledge. ISBN 0-41513102-2.
Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001). Ecological pioneers. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52181103-1.
Levine, Philippa (2007). The British Empire: Sunrise to Sunset. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN
978-0-582-47281-5. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84511-347-0. Retrieved
22 July 2009.
Macaulay, Thomas (1848). The History of England
from the Accession of James the Second. Penguin.
ISBN 0-14-043133-0.
Macdonald, Barrie (1994). Britain. In Howe,
K.R.; Kiste, Robert C.; Lal, Brij V. Tides of history:
the Pacic Islands in the twentieth century. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1597-1.
McIntyre, W. Donald (1977). The Commonwealth
of Nations. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN
0-8166-0792-3. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
McLean, Iain (2001). Rational Choice and British
Politics: An Analysis of Rhetoric and Manipulation
from Peel to Blair. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-829529-4. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
Rothermund, Dietmar (2006). The Routledge companion to decolonization. Routledge. ISBN 0-41535632-6.
Shennan, J.H (1995). International relations in Europe, 16891789. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07780X.
Marshall, PJ (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-00254-0. Retrieved 22 July
2009.
Taylor, Alan (2001). American Colonies, The Settling of North America. Penguin. ISBN 0-14200210-0. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
23
Thatcher, Margaret (1993). The Downing Street
Years. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-017056-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
Thomas, Hugh (1997). The Slave Trade: The
History of The Atlantic Slave Trade. Picador,
Phoenix/Orion. ISBN 0-7538-2056-0. Retrieved
22 July 2009.
Tilby, A. Wyatt (2009). British India 16001828.
BiblioLife. ISBN 978-1-113-14290-0.
Torkildsen, George (2005). Leisure and recreation
management. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-309950.
Turpin, Colin; Tomkins, Adam (2007). British government and the constitution (6th ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69029-4.
Vandervort, Bruce (1998). Wars of imperial conquest in Africa, 18301914. University College
London Press. ISBN 1-85728-486-0.
Zolberg, Aristide R (2006). A nation by design: immigration policy in the fashioning of America. Russell Sage. ISBN 0-674-02218-1.
11
External links
24
12
12
12.1
12.1
Text
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12.2
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Original artist: Credit line: Donated by Lance Corporal C.H. Lorking of the 53rd Battalion
File:Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG
License: Public domain Contributors: Napoleon.org.pl Original artist: William Sadler II
File:British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png
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Decolonisation_in_Africa.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to
be made by User:Hejsa. Blank map from File:BlankMap-World3.svg Original artist: <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:
The_Red_Hat_of_Pat_Ferrick' class='extiw' title='en:User:The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick'>The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick</a>
<a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:The_Red_Hat_of_Pat_Ferrick' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick'>t</a> (log)
File:British_Empire_1897.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Cambridge University Library Original artist: Unknown
File:British_Empire_1921.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work. Original artist: Vadac.
File:British_colonies_1763-76_shepherd1923.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/British_colonies_
1763-76_shepherd1923.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Scan from Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York, Henry
Holt and Company, 1923; the map is unchanged from the 1911 original version.
Original image at the Perry-Castaeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas at Austin. Original artist: William Robert Shepherd
File:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: from the National Maritime Museum, United Kingdom Original artist: Nathaniel Dance-Holland
File:Clive.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Clive.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.sterlingtimes.org/memorable_images56.htm (http://www.sterlingtimes.org/clive_of_india.jpg)
NPG link: http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw01347/Robert-Clive-and-Mir-Jafar-after-the-Battle-of-Plassey-1757
Original artist: Francis Hayman
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Eden,_Anthony.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Eden%2C_Anthony.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.trumanlibrary.org/photographs/view.php?id=13057&rr= Original artist: United States Army Signal Corps
File:El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/El_Alamein_1942_-_
British_infantry.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph E 18474 from the collections of the Imperial War Museums
(collection no. 4700-32) Original artist: Chetwyn (Sgt), No 1 Army Film & Photographic Unit
File:Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg Source:
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Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/
pritchett/00routesdata/1900_1999/partition/trains/trains.html Original artist: Unknown
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Derivative of British Empire Original artist: Speaker: Mrandrewnohome
Authors of the article
File:Flag_Portugal_(1640).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_Portugal_%281640%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: XVII century Original artist: myself, based on ancient national symbol.
File:Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_(1869-1918).svg
Source:
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Austria-Hungary_%281869-1918%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: vectorized by Sgt_bilko,
change name by User:Actarux for use in same templates
12.2
Images
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LGPL Contributors:
12.3
Content license