VBritish Empire

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The passage provides an overview of the origins and rise of the British Empire as well as its eventual decline. Some key points are that the empire originated from overseas possessions established by England in the late 16th century and grew to become the largest empire in history by the early 20th century before beginning to decline after World War I and World War II.

The passage lists some of the main territories that formed the British Empire including North America, India, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. It states the empire covered over 33 million square kilometers and included over 450 million people at its peak.

The passage states that the British Empire was at its height in the early 20th century after the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815. At this time, Britain enjoyed almost unchallenged global dominance and had expanded its imperial holdings around the world.

British Empire

For a comprehensive list of the territories that formed the military, nancial and manpower resources of Britain.
British Empire, see Territorial evolution of the British Although the empire achieved its largest territorial exEmpire.
tent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer
the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In
the Second World War, Britains colonies in South-East
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies,
protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or ad- Asia were occupied by Japan. Despite the nal victory
ministered by the United Kingdom. It originated with of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige
the overseas possessions and trading posts established by helped to accelerate the inevitable decline of the empire.
England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession,
At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, achieved independence as part of a larger decolonisation
for over a century, was the foremost global power.[1] By movement in which Britain granted independence to most
1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 mil- of the territories of the Empire. The political transfer of
in 1997 marked for many the end of
lion people, one-fth of the worlds population at the Hong Kong to China
[6][7][8][9]
Fourteen overseas territories
[2]
2 the British Empire.
time. The empire covered more than 33,700,000 km
remain
under
British
sovereignty.
After independence,
(13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earths total
many
former
British
colonies
joined
the Commonwealth
[3][4]
land area.
As a result, its political, legal, linguistic
of
Nations,
a
free
association
of
independent
states. Sixand cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its
teen
Commonwealth
nations
share
their
head
of state,
power, the phrase "the empire on which the sun never
Queen
Elizabeth
II,
as
Commonwealth
realms.
sets" was often used to describe the British Empire, because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun was
always shining on at least one of its territories.

1 Origins (14971583)

During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large
overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands
began to establish colonies and trade networks of their
own in the Americas and Asia.[5] A series of wars in the
17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France
left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant
colonial power in North America and India.

The foundations of the British Empire were laid when


England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496
King Henry VII of England, following the successes
of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead a voyage to discover a route
to Asia via the North Atlantic.[10] Cabot sailed in 1497,
ve years after the European discovery of America, and
although he successfully made landfall on the coast of
Newfoundland (mistakenly believing, like Christopher
Columbus, that he had reached Asia),[11] there was no
attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to
the Americas the following year but nothing was heard of
his ships again.[12]

The independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North


America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most
populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards
Asia, Africa, and the Pacic. Following the defeat of
Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain enjoyed a century of
almost unchallenged dominance and expanded its imperial holdings around the globe. Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some
of which were reclassied as dominions.

No further attempts to establish English colonies in the


Americas were made until well into the reign of Elizabeth
I, during the last decades of the 16th century.[13] In the
meantime the Protestant Reformation had turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies .[10] In
1562, the English Crown encouraged the privateers John
Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships o the coast
of West Africa[14] with the aim of breaking into the Atlantic trade system. This eort was rebued and later,
as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensied, Englands Queen
Elizabeth gave her blessing to further privateering raids
against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that

By the start of the twentieth century, Germany and the


United States had eroded some of Britains economic
lead. Subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the
First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon
its empire. The conict placed enormous strain on the

FIRST BRITISH EMPIRE (15831783)

2 First British Empire (1583


1783)
Main article: English overseas possessions
In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey
Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration.[21] That
year, Gilbert sailed for the West Indies with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in
North America, but the expedition was aborted before
it had crossed the Atlantic.[22][23] In 1583 he embarked
on a second attempt, on this occasion to the island of
Newfoundland whose harbour he formally claimed for
England, although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert
did not survive the return journey to England, and was
succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was
granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584. Later that
year, Raleigh founded the colony of Roanoke on the
coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies
caused the colony to fail.[24]

A replica of The Matthew, John Cabot's ship used for his second
voyage to the New World.

In 1603, James VI, King of Scots, ascended to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London,
ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main
rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies.[25] The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the
English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of private
companies, most notably the English East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade. This
period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the
American War of Independence towards the end of the
18th century, has subsequently been referred to by some
historians as the First British Empire.[26]

was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure


from the New World.[15] At the same time, inuential
writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was
the rst to use the term British Empire)[16] were beginning to press for the establishment of Englands own empire. By this time, Spain had become the dominant power
in the Americas and was exploring the Pacic ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the 2.1 Americas, Africa and the slave trade
coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to be- Main articles: British colonization of the Americas,
come New France.[17]
British America and Thirteen Colonies

1.1

Plantations of Ireland

Although England trailed behind other European powers in establishing overseas colonies, it had been engaged during the 16th century in the settlement of Ireland with Protestants from England and Scotland, drawing on precedents dating back to the Norman invasion of
Ireland in 1169.[18][19] Several people who helped establish the Plantations of Ireland also played a part in the
early colonisation of North America, particularly a group
known as the West Country men.[20]

The Caribbean initially provided Englands most important and lucrative colonies,[27] but not before several attempts at colonisation failed. An attempt to establish a
colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years, and failed
in its main objective to nd gold deposits.[28] Colonies
in St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) also rapidly
folded, but settlements were successfully established in
St. Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628).[29]
The colonies soon adopted the system of sugar plantations
successfully used by the Portuguese in Brazil, which depended on slave labour, andat rstDutch ships, to
sell the slaves and buy the sugar.[30] To ensure that the
increasingly healthy prots of this trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English

2.2

Rivalry with the Netherlands in Asia

ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies.


This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces
a series of Anglo-Dutch Warswhich would eventually
strengthen Englands position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch.[31] In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded
in colonising the Bahamas.[32]

African slaves working in 17th-century Virginia, by an unknown


artist, 1670.

Map of British colonies in North America, 17631776.

Englands rst permanent settlement in the Americas was


founded in 1607 in Jamestown, led by Captain John
Smith and managed by the Virginia Company. Bermuda
was settled and claimed by England as a result of the
1609 shipwreck there of the Virginia Companys agship,
and in 1615 was turned over to the newly formed Somers
Isles Company.[33] The Virginia Companys charter was
revoked in 1624 and direct control of Virginia was assumed by the crown, thereby founding the Colony of
Virginia.[34] The London and Bristol Company was created in 1610 with the aim of creating a permanent settlement on Newfoundland, but was largely unsuccessful.[35]
In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven for puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims.[36] Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive
of many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous
trans-Atlantic voyage: Maryland was founded as a haven
for Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a
colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639)
for Congregationalists. The Province of Carolina was
founded in 1663. With the surrender of Fort Amsterdam in 1664, England gained control of the Dutch colony
of New Netherland, renaming it New York. This was
formalised in negotiations following the Second AngloDutch War, in exchange for Suriname.[37] In 1681, the
colony of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn.
The American colonies were less nancially successful than those of the Caribbean, but had large areas
of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants who preferred their temperate
climates.[38]
In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the
Hudsons Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly
on the fur trade in the area known as Ruperts Land, which
would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of
Canada. Forts and trading posts established by the HBC

were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who


had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent
New France.[39]
Two years later, the Royal African Company was inaugurated, receiving from King Charles a monopoly of
the trade to supply slaves to the British colonies of the
Caribbean.[40] From the outset, slavery was the basis of
the British Empire in the West Indies. Until the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, Britain was responsible
for the transportation of 3.5 million African slaves to the
Americas, a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic.[41] To facilitate this trade, forts were established
on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra
and Bunce Island. In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25
percent in 1650 to around 80 percent in 1780, and in the
13 Colonies from 10 percent to 40 percent over the same
period (the majority in the southern colonies).[42] For the
slave traders, the trade was extremely protable, and became a major economic mainstay for such western British
cities as Bristol and Liverpool, which formed the third
corner of the so-called triangular trade with Africa and
the Americas. For the transported, harsh and unhygienic
conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that
the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was
one in seven.[43]
In 1695, the Scottish Parliament granted a charter to
the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the isthmus of Panama. Besieged by
neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and aficted by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years
later. The Darien scheme was a nancial disaster for
Scotlanda quarter of Scottish capital[44] was lost in the
enterpriseand ended Scottish hopes of establishing its
own overseas empire. The episode also had major political consequences, persuading the governments of both
England and Scotland of the merits of a union of countries, rather than just crowns.[45] This occurred in 1707
with the Treaty of Union, establishing the Kingdom of
Great Britain.

FIRST BRITISH EMPIRE (15831783)

Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688


meant that the two countries entered the Nine Years War
as allies, but the conictwaged in Europe and overseas
between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance
left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch,
who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their
military budget on the costly land war in Europe.[48] The
18th century would see England (after 1707, Britain) rise
to be the worlds dominant colonial power, and France
becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.[49]
The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philippe of
Fort St. George was founded at Madras in 1639.
Anjou, a grandson of the King of France, raised the
prospect of the unication of France, Spain and their
respective colonies, an unacceptable state of aairs for
2.2 Rivalry with the Netherlands in Asia
England and the other powers of Europe.[50] In 1701,
England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the
At the end of the 16th century, England and the Nether- Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War
lands began to challenge Portugals monopoly of trade of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714.
with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to nance the voyagesthe English, later British, East In- At the concluding Treaty of Utrecht, Philip renounced
the French throne and
dia Company and the Dutch East India Company, char- his and his descendants right to[50]
Spain
lost
its
empire
in
Europe.
The British Empire
tered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim
was
territorially
enlarged:
from
France,
Britain gained
of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice
Newfoundland
and
Acadia,
and
from
Spain,
Gibraltar and
trade, an eort focused mainly on two regions; the East
Minorca.
Gibraltar
became
a
critical
naval
base and alIndies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade netlowed
Britain
to
control
the
Atlantic
entry
and
exit point
work, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy
to
the
Mediterranean.
Spain
also
ceded
the
rights to
[46]
with Portugal and with each other. Although England
the
lucrative
asiento
(permission
to
sell
slaves
in
Spanish
would ultimately eclipse the Netherlands as a colonial
[51]
America)
to
Britain.
power, in the short term the Netherlands more advanced
nancial system[47] and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of
the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia.
Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688
when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English
throne, bringing peace between the Netherlands and England. A deal between the two nations left the spice trade
of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the
textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon
overtook spices in terms of protability, and by 1720,
in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the
Dutch.[47]

2.3

Global conicts with France


Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey established the East
India Company as a military as well as a commercial power.

Defeat of French reships at Quebec in 1759.

During the middle decades of the 18th century, there


were several outbreaks of military conict on the Indian
subcontinent, the Carnatic Wars, as the English East India Company (the Company) and its French counterpart,
the Compagnie franaise des Indes orientales, struggled
alongside local rulers to ll the vacuum that had been
left by the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Battle of
Plassey in 1757, in which the British, led by Robert Clive,
defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left
the Company in control of Bengal and as the major mili-

5
tary and political power in India.[52] France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an
obligation to support British client states, ending French
hopes of controlling India.[53] In the following decades
the Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local
rulers under the threat of force from the British Indian
Army, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys.[54]
The British and French struggles in India became but one
theatre of the global Seven Years War (17561763) involving France, Britain and the other major European
powers. The signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763) had
important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, Frances future as a colonial
power there was eectively ended with the recognition
of British claims to Ruperts Land,[39] and the ceding
of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable Frenchspeaking population under British control) and Louisiana
to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its
victory over France in India, the Seven Years War therefore left Britain as the worlds most powerful maritime
power.[55]

2.4

Loss of
Colonies

the

Thirteen

American

Main article: American Revolution


During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between
the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly
strained, primarily due to resentment of the British Parliaments attempts to govern and tax American colonists
without their consent.[56] This was summarised at the
time by the slogan "No taxation without representation",
a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen. The American Revolution began with rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards selfgovernment. In response Britain sent troops to reimpose
direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775. The
following year, in 1776, the United States declared independence. The entry of France to the war in 1778 tipped
the military balance in the Americans favour and after
a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms. American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783.[57]
The loss of such a large portion of British America, at
the time Britains most populous overseas possession, is
seen by some historians as the event dening the transition between the rst and second empires,[58] in
which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacic and later Africa. Adam Smith's
Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that
colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised
the rst period of colonial expansion, dating back to the

Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. The loss of the American


colonies marked the end of the rst British Empire.

protectionism of Spain and Portugal.[55][59] The growth


of trade between the newly independent United States
and Britain after 1783 seemed to conrm Smiths view
that political control was not necessary for economic
success.[60][61]
Events in America inuenced British policy in Canada,
where between 40,000 and 100,000[62] defeated Loyalists
had migrated from America following independence.[63]
The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and
Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt
too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split o New Brunswick as a separate
colony in 1784.[64] The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly Englishspeaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking)
to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar
to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular
control of government that was perceived to have led to
the American Revolution.[65]
Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated
again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to
cut o American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress into the Royal Navy men of British
birth. The US declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory, but the pre-war boundaries
were rearmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring
Canadas future would be separate from that of the United
States.[66][67]

3 Rise of the Second British Empire (17831815)


3.1 Exploration of the Pacic
Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had
been a penalty for various criminal oences in Britain,
with approximately one thousand convicts transported

3 RISE OF THE SECOND BRITISH EMPIRE (17831815)


colonies in New Zealand. On 6 February 1840, Captain
William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the
Treaty of Waitangi.[77] This treaty is considered by many
to be New Zealands founding document,[78] but diering interpretations of the Maori and English versions of
the text[79] have meant that it continues to be a source of
dispute.[80]

3.2 War with Napoleonic France


Main article: Napoleonic Wars
Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon,
in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations.[81] It was not
only Britains position on the world stage that was threatened: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just
as his armies had overrun many countries of continental
Europe.

James Cook's mission was to nd the alleged southern continent


Terra Australis.

per year across the Atlantic.[68] Forced to nd an alternative location after the loss of the 13 Colonies in 1783,
the British government turned to the newly discovered
lands of Australia.[69] The western coast of Australia had
been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch explorer
Willem Jansz in 1606 and was later named New Holland by the Dutch East India Company,[70] but there was
no attempt to colonise it. In 1770 James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia while on a scientic
voyage to the South Pacic Ocean, claimed the continent
for Britain, and named it New South Wales.[71] In 1778,
Joseph Banks, Cooks botanist on the voyage, presented
evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany
Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in
1787 the rst shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in
1788.[72] Britain continued to transport convicts to New
South Wales until 1840.[73] The Australian colonies became protable exporters of wool and gold,[74] mainly
due to gold rushes in the colony of Victoria, making its
capital Melbourne the richest city in the world[75] and the
largest city after London in the British Empire.[76]
During his voyage, Cook also visited New Zealand, rst
discovered by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642, and
claimed the North and South islands for the British crown
in 1769 and 1770 respectively. Initially, interaction between the indigenous Mori population and Europeans
was limited to the trading of goods. European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with numerous trading stations established, especially in the North. In 1839, the New Zealand Company
announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish

The Battle of Waterloo ended in the defeat of Napoleon.

The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which


Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources
to win. French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy,
which won a decisive victory over a Franco-Spanish eet
at Trafalgar in 1805. Overseas colonies were attacked
and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which
was annexed by Napoleon in 1810. France was nally
defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815.[82]
Britain was again the beneciary of peace treaties: France
ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied
in 1797 and 1798 respectively), Mauritius, St Lucia, and
Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands Guyana,
and the Cape Colony. Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Runion to France, and Java
and Suriname to the Netherlands, while gaining control
of Ceylon (17951815).[83]

3.3 Abolition of slavery


With support from the British abolitionist movement,
Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which
abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 1808, Sierra
Leone was designated an ocial British colony for freed
slaves.[84] The Slavery Abolition Act passed in 1833 abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834

4.1

East India Company in Asia

(with the exception of St. Helena, Ceylon and the territories administered by the East India Company, though
these exclusions were later repealed). Under the Act,
slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of
4 to 6 years of apprenticeship.[85]

Britains imperial century (1815


1914)

See also: Timeline of British diplomatic history 1815


96, Industrial Revolution and Victorian era
Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as

An 1876 political cartoon of Benjamin Disraeli (18041881)


making Queen Victoria Empress of India. The caption reads
New crowns for old ones!"

British Empire in Asia. The Companys army had rst


joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven
Years War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of Napoleon from Egypt
[86][87]
Britains imperial century by some historians,
(1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811),
2
around 10,000,000 square miles (26,000,000 km ) of
the acquisition of Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824)
territory and roughly 400 million people were added to
and the defeat of Burma (1826).[89]
[88]
the British Empire. Victory over Napoleon left Britain
without any serious international rival, other than Russia From its base in India, the Company had also been enin central Asia.[89] Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted gaged in an increasingly protable opium export trade to
the role of global policeman, a state of aairs later China since the 1730s. This trade, illegal since it was
known as the Pax Britannica,[90] and a foreign policy of outlawed by the Qing dynasty in 1729, helped reverse
"splendid isolation".[91] Alongside the formal control it the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports
exerted over its own colonies, Britains dominant posi- of tea, which saw large outows of silver from Britain to
tion in world trade meant that it eectively controlled the China.[95] In 1839, the conscation by the Chinese aueconomies of many countries, such as China, Argentina thorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain
and Siam, which has been characterised by some histori- to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in
the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time
ans as "Informal Empire".[92][93]
a minor settlement.[96]
British imperial strength was underpinned by the
steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the British
in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to con- Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in
trol and defend the empire. By 1902, the British Empire the aairs of the Company. A series of Acts of Parwas linked together by a network of telegraph cables, the liament were passed, including the Regulating Act of
1773, Pitts India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of
so-called All Red Line.[94]
1813 which regulated the Companys aairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories
4.1 East India Company in Asia
that it had acquired.[97] The Companys eventual end
was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion, a conict that
See also: British Raj
had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops unThe East India Company drove the expansion of the der British ocers and discipline.[98] The rebellion took
An elaborate map of the British Empire in 1886, marked in the
traditional colour for imperial British dominions on maps.

BRITAINS IMPERIAL CENTURY (18151914)

Russia.[83] The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia,
Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. For a while it appeared
that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of
inuence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding
matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian
Entente.[105] The destruction of the Russian Navy by the
A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century Japanese at the Battle of Port Arthur during the RussoJapanese War of 190405 also limited its threat to the
led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which
[106]
it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East British.
India Company had failed to implement any coordinated
policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule.
Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up 4.3 Cape to Cairo
after each famine to investigate the causes and implement
new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an
eect.[101]
six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both
sides. The following year the British government dissolved the Company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general
administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the
Empress of India.[99] India became the empires most
valuable possession, the Jewel in the Crown, and was
the most important source of Britains strength.[100]

4.2

Rivalry with Russia

Main article: The Great Game


During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Em-

British cavalry charging against Russian forces at Balaclava in


1854.

pire vied to ll the power vacuums that had been left by


the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing
Dynasty. This rivalry in Eurasia came to be known as
the "Great Game".[102] As far as Britain was concerned,
defeats inicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked
fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India.[103]
In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading
Afghanistan, but the First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain.[83]
When Russia invaded the Turkish Balkans in 1853, fears
of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and Middle
East led Britain and France to invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities.[83] The ensuing Crimean War (185456), which involved new techniques of modern warfare,[104] and was the only global
war fought between Britain and another imperial power
during the Pax Britannica, was a resounding defeat for

The Rhodes ColossusCecil Rhodes spanning Cape to Cairo.

The Dutch East India Company had founded the Cape


Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the
East Indies. Britain formally acquired the colony, and its
large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands,
following the invasion of the Netherlands by France.[107]
British immigration began to rise after 1820, and pushed
thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards
to found their ownmostly short-livedindependent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early
1840s.[108] In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with
regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and with several African polities, including those of the Sotho and the
Zulu nations. Eventually the Boers established two re-

9
publics which had a longer lifespan: the South African
Republic or Transvaal Republic (185277; 18811902)
and the Orange Free State (18541902).[109] In 1902
Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with
the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War
(18991902).[110]
In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III,
linking the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean. Initially the Canal was opposed by the British;[111] but once
opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the jugular vein of the Empire.[112] In 1875, the
Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought
the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 percent
shareholding in the Suez Canal for 4 million (340 million in 2013). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage.
Joint Anglo-French nancial control over Egypt ended in
outright British occupation in 1882.[113] The French were
still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the
British position,[114] but a compromise was reached with
the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the
Canal ocially neutral territory.[115]

Canada's major industry in terms of employment and value of


the product was the timber trade. Ontario c. 1900.

per and Lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into the Dominion of Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception
of international relations.[121] Australia and New Zealand
achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900,
with the Australian colonies federating in 1901.[122] The
With French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower
term dominion status was ocially introduced at the
Congo River region undermining orderly incursion of
Colonial Conference of 1907.[123]
tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 188485 was
held to regulate the competition between the European The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted
powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa" by political campaigns for Irish home rule. Ireland had been
dening eective occupation as the criterion for inter- united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great
national recognition of territorial claims.[116] The scram- Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after
ble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to re- the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suered a severe
consider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan. A famine between 1845 and 1852. Home rule was supjoint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the ported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone,
Mahdist Army in 1896, and rebued a French attempted who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canadas footinvasion at Fashoda in 1898. Sudan was nominally made steps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886
an Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, but a British colony in Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament. Although
the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less aureality.[117]
tonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had
British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Cecil
within their own federation,[124] many MPs feared that a
Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Africa, to urge
partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat
a "Cape to Cairo" railway linking the strategically imto Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up
[118]
portant Suez Canal to the mineral-rich South.
During
of the empire.[125] A second Home Rule bill was also dethe 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned
feated for similar reasons.[125] A third bill was passed by
British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed
Parliament in 1914, but not implemented due to the outterritories subsequently named after him, Rhodesia.[119]
break of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter
Rising.[126]

4.4

Changing status of the white colonies

The path to independence for the white colonies of


the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unication and self-government for
Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest there.[120] This began with the passing of the Act of
Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada.
Responsible government was rst granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British
North American colonies. With the passage of the British
North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, Up-

5 World wars (19141945)


By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to
grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while
at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation".[127] Germany was rapidly rising as a military and
industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war. Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacic[128] and threatened at home by the

10

WORLD WARS (19141945)

Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with


Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia
in 1904 and 1907, respectively.[129]

5.1

First World War

Main article: History of the United Kingdom during


World War I
Britains fears of war with Germany were realised in

A poster urging men from countries of the British Empire to enlist


in the British army.

Soldiers of the Australian 5th Division, waiting to attack during


the Battle of Fromelles, 19 July 1916.

1914 with the outbreak of the First World War. Britain


quickly invaded and occupied most of Germanys overseas colonies in Africa. In the Pacic, Australia and New
Zealand occupied German New Guinea and Samoa respectively. Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman
Empire, which had joined the war on Germanys side,
were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the
1916 SykesPicot Agreement. This agreement was not
divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been
encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state.[130]
The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies
also committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, nancial and material support.
Over 2.5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from
the Crown colonies.[131] The contributions of Australian

and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on
the national consciousness at home, and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand
from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac
Day. Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a
similar light.[132] The important contribution of the Dominions to the war eort was recognised in 1917 by the
British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an
Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy.[133]
Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles
signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with
the addition of 1,800,000 square miles (4,700,000 km2 )
and 13 million new subjects.[134] The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the
Allied powers as League of Nations mandates. Britain
gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of
Cameroon and Togo, and Tanganyika. The Dominions themselves also acquired mandates of their own:
the Union of South Africa gained South-West Africa
(modern-day Namibia), Australia gained German New
Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa. Nauru was
made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacic
Dominions.[135]

5.2

5.2

Inter-war period

11

Inter-war period

British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921.

The changing world order that the war had brought about,
in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as
naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in
India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British
imperial policy.[136] Forced to choose between alignment
with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Japanese alliance and instead signed the 1922
Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval
parity with the United States.[137] This decision was the
source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s[138] as
militaristic governments took hold in Japan and Germany
helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared
that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by
both nations.[139] Although the issue of the empires security was a serious concern in Britain, at the same time
the empire was vital to the British economy.[140]
In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home
rule led members of Sinn Fin, a pro-independence party
that had won a majority of the Irish seats at Westminster
in the 1918 British general election, to establish an Irish
assembly in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared. The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began
a guerrilla war against the British administration.[141] The
Anglo-Irish War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the
signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free
State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with eective internal independence but still constitutionally linked
with the British Crown.[142] Northern Ireland, consisting
of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government
of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under
the treaty to retain its existing status within the United
Kingdom.[143]
A similar struggle began in India when the Government
of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for
independence.[144] Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar Conspiracy ensured that
war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts.
This led to tension,[145] particularly in the Punjab region,
where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar
Massacre. In Britain public opinion was divided over the
morality of the event, between those who saw it as having
saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with
revulsion.[145] The subsequent Non-Co-Operation move-

George V with the British and Dominion prime ministers at the


1926 Imperial Conference.

ment was called o in March 1922 following the Chauri


Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for
the next 25 years.[146]
In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British
protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was
granted formal independence, though it continued to be
a British client state until 1954. British troops remained
stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian
Treaty in 1936,[147] under which it was agreed that the
troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone. In return, Egypt was assisted
to join the League of Nations.[148] Iraq, a British mandate
since 1920, also gained membership of the League in its
own right after achieving independence from Britain in
1932.[149] In Palestine, Britain was presented with the
problem of mediating between the Arab and Jewish communities. The 1917 Balfour Declaration, which had been
incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that
a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up
to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory
power.[150] This led to increasing conict with the Arab
population, who openly revolted in 1936. As the threat
of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain
judged the support of the Arab population in the Middle East as more important than the establishment of a
Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish
insurgency.[130]
The ability of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923
Imperial Conference.[151] Britains request for military
assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the
Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down
by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to
be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.[152][153] After
pressure from Ireland and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration, declaring
the Dominions to be autonomous Communities within

12
the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another within a British Commonwealth of
Nations".[154] This declaration was given legal substance
under the 1931 Statute of Westminster.[123] The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union
of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland
were now independent of British legislative control, they
could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass
laws for them without their consent.[155] Newfoundland
reverted to colonial status in 1933, suering from nancial diculties during the Great Depression.[156] Ireland
distanced itself further from Britain with the introduction
of a new constitution in 1937, making it a republic in all
but name.[157]

6 DECOLONISATION AND DECLINE (19451997)


Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that the
rights of all peoples to choose the form of government
under which they live should be respected. This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany, or the peoples
colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted dierently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.[160][161]

In December 1941, Japan launched, in quick succession,


attacks on British Malaya, the United States naval base
at Pearl Harbor, and Hong Kong. Churchills reaction
to the entry of the United States into the war was that
Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the
empire was safe,[162] but the manner in which British
forces rapidly surrendered in the Far East irreversibly
harmed Britains standing and prestige as an imperial
5.3 Second World War
power.[163][164] Most damaging of all was the fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregMain article: British Empire in World War II
nable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar.[165]
Britains declaration of war against Nazi Germany in
The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with
the United States. This resulted in the 1951 ANZUS Pact
between Australia, New Zealand and the United States of
America.[160]

6 Decolonisation
(19451997)

During the Second World War, the Eighth Army was made up of
units from many dierent countries in the British Empire and
Commonwealth; it fought in North African and Italian campaigns.

September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India


but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South
Africa. All soon declared war on Germany, but the Irish
Free State chose to remain legally neutral throughout the
war.[158]
After the German occupation of France in 1940, Britain
and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the
entry of the Soviet Union to the war in 1941. British
Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied
President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from
the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to
ask Congress to commit the country to war.[159] In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the

and

decline

Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from


the Second World War, the eects of the conict were
profound, both at home and abroad. Much of Europe, a
continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United
States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance
of global power.[166] Britain was left essentially bankrupt,
with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a $US 4.33 billion loan (US$56 billion in 2012)
from the United States,[167] the last instalment of which
was repaid in 2006.[168] At the same time, anti-colonial
movements were on the rise in the colonies of European
nations. The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the
Soviet Union. In principle, both nations were opposed
to European colonialism. In practice, however, American Anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism,
and therefore the United States supported the continued
existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check.[169] The "wind of change" ultimately
meant that the British Empires days were numbered, and
on the whole, Britain adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies once stable, non-Communist
governments were available to transfer power to. This
was in contrast to other European powers such as France
and Portugal,[170] which waged costly and ultimately unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact. Between

6.2

Suez and its aftermath

13

1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisaoutside the UK itself fell from 700 million to ve million, tions and the increasing cost of maintaining its military
three million of whom were in Hong Kong.[171]
presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to
solve.[177] The UN General Assembly subsequently voted
for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab
6.1 Initial disengagement
state.

About 14.5 million lost their homes as a result of the partition of


India in 1947.

The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at


the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee,
moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the
empire: that of Indian independence.[172] Indias two major political partiesthe Indian National Congress and
the Muslim Leaguehad been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be
implemented. Congress favoured a unied secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by
the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for
Muslim-majority regions. Increasing civil unrest and the
mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 1948. When
the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy,
Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to
15 August 1947.[173] The borders drawn by the British to
broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left
tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent
states of India and Pakistan.[174] Millions of Muslims subsequently crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice
versa, and violence between the two communities cost
hundreds of thousands of lives. Burma, which had been
administered as part of the British Raj, and Sri Lanka
gained their independence the following year in 1948.
India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the
Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join.[175]
The British Mandate of Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the
British with a similar problem to that of India.[176] The
matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish
refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following
the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state. Frustrated by the intractability

Following the defeat of Japan in the Second World War,


anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned
their attention towards the British, who had moved to
quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a
source of rubber and tin.[178] The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malayan-Chinese Communists meant
that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted.[178] The Malayan Emergency,
as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but
by 1957, Britain felt condent enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth. In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together
with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to
form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese-majority Singapore
was expelled from the union following tensions between
the Malay and Chinese populations.[179] Brunei, which
had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to
join the union[180] and maintained its status until independence in 1984.

6.2 Suez and its aftermath


Main article: Suez Crisis
In 1951, the Conservative Party returned to power
in Britain, under the leadership of Winston Churchill.
Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britains
position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal
allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in
the Middle East in spite of the loss of India. However,
Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser's new
revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power
in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British
troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that
Sudan would be granted self-determination by 1955, with
independence to follow.[181] Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956.
In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez
Canal. The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with
France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would
give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily
and retake the canal.[182] Eden infuriated US President
Dwight D. Eisenhower, by his lack of consultation, and
Eisenhower refused to back the invasion.[183] Another of
Eisenhowers concerns was the possibility of a wider war
with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on
the Egyptian side. Eisenhower applied nancial leverage

14

6 DECOLONISATION AND DECLINE (19451997)


major military bases East of Suez, which included the
ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and
Singapore.[196] The British withdrew from Aden in 1967,
Bahrain in 1971, and Maldives in 1976.[197]

6.3 Wind of change


Main article: Decolonization of Africa
Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa

British Prime Minister Anthony Eden's decision to invade Egypt


during the Suez Crisis ended his political career and revealed
Britains weakness as an imperial power.

by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and


thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency.[184]
Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its
objectives,[185] UN intervention and US pressure forced
Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and
Eden resigned.[186][187]
The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britains limitations to the world and conrmed Britains decline on
the world stage, demonstrating that henceforth it could
no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not
the full support, of the United States.[188][189][190] The
events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading
one MP to describe it as Britains Waterloo"[191] and another to suggest that the country had become an American satellite".[192] Margaret Thatcher later described the
mindset she believed had befallen the British political establishment as Suez syndrome, from which Britain did
not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland
Islands from Argentina in 1982.[193]
While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse.[194] Britain again
deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in
Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though
on these occasions with American approval,[195] as the
new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's foreign policy
was to remain rmly aligned with the United States.[191]
Britain maintained a military presence in the Middle East
for another decade. In January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold
Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British troops would be withdrawn from

British decolonisation in Africa. By the end of the 1960s, all but


Rhodesia (the future Zimbabwe) and the South African mandate
of South West Africa (Namibia) had achieved recognised independence.

in February 1960 where he spoke of the wind of change


blowing through this continent.[198] Macmillan wished
to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was
ghting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.[199] To the three colonies that
had been granted independence in the 1950sSudan, the
Gold Coast and Malayawere added nearly ten times
that number during the 1960s.[200]
Britains remaining colonies in Africa, except for selfgoverning Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968. British withdrawal from the southern
and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process.
Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year
Mau Mau Uprising. In Rhodesia, the 1965 Unilateral
Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Lancaster
House Agreement of 1979, which set the terms for
recognised independence in 1980, as the new nation of
Zimbabwe.[201]
In the Mediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by Greek
Cypriots ended in (1960) an independent Cyprus, with
the UK retaining the military bases of Akrotiri and
Dhekelia. The Mediterranean islands of Malta and
Gozo were amicably granted independence from the UK

15
in 1964, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of maining Crown colonies as British Dependent Territointegration with Britain.[202]
ries (renamed British Overseas Territories in 2002)[209]
Most of the UKs Caribbean territories achieved indepen- meant that, aside from a scattering of islands and outof an uninhabited rock
dence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica posts (and the acquisition in 1955[210]
in
the
Atlantic
Ocean,
Rockall),
the process of deand Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, estabcolonisation
that
had
begun
after
the
Second
World War
lished in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean
was
largely
complete.
In
1982,
Britains
resolve
in decolonies under one government, but which collapsed folfending
its
remaining
overseas
territories
was
tested
when
[203]
lowing the loss of its two largest members.
Barbados
Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a longachieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the
[211]
eastern Caribbean islands in the 1970s and 1980s,[203] standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire.
Britains ultimately successful military response to rebut Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted
to revert to British rule after they had already started take the islands during the ensuing Falklands War was
viewed by many to have contributed to reversing the
on the path to independence.[204] The British Virgin Is[212]
[205]
lands,
Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to re- downward trend in Britains status as a world power.
The same year, the Canadian government severed its last
tain ties with Britain,[206] while Guyana achieved independence in 1966. Britains last colony on the Ameri- legal link with Britain by patriating the Canadian constican mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing tution from Britain. The 1982 Canada Act passed by the
involvement
colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achiev- British parliament ended the need for British
[8]
in
changes
to
the
Canadian
constitution.
Similarly,
the
ing full independence in 1981. A dispute with Guatemala
Constitution
Act
1986
reformed
the
constitution
of
New
[207]
over claims to Belize was left unresolved.
Zealand to severe its constitutional link with Britain, and
British territories in the Pacic acquired independence in the Australia Act 1986 severed the constitutional link bethe 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with tween Britain and the Australian states.[213]
Vanuatu in 1980. Vanuatus independence was delayed
due to political conict between English and French- In September 1982, Prime minister Margaret Thatcher
speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese govand most
administered as a condominium with France.[208] Fiji, ernment on the future of Britains last major
[214]
populous
overseas
territory,
Hong
Kong.
Under
the
Tuvalu, the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea
terms
of
the
1842
Treaty
of
Nanking,
Hong
Kong
Island
chose to become Commonwealth realms.
itself had been ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the vast
majority of the colony was constituted by the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease
6.4 End of empire
in 1898, due to expire in 1997.[215][216] Thatcher, seeSee also: Falklands War and Transfer of sovereignty over ing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished
to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration
Hong Kong
In 1980, Rhodesia, Britains last African colony, be- with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by
China.[217] A deal was reached in 1984under the terms
of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would
become a special administrative region of the Peoples
Republic of China, maintaining its way of life for at least
50 years.[218] The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for
many,[6] including Charles, Prince of Wales,[7] who was
in attendance, the end of Empire.[8][9]

7 Legacy

The Hong Kong Convention Centre hosted the ceremony for the
Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from Britain to China
in 1997, symbolically marking the end of Empire.

came the independent nation of Zimbabwe. The New


Hebrides achieved independence (as Vanuatu) in 1980,
with Belize following suit in 1981. The passage of the
British Nationality Act 1981, which reclassied the re-

Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the


British Isles, which were renamed the British Overseas
Territories in 2002.[219] Some are uninhabited except for
transient military or scientic personnel; the remainder
are self-governing to varying degrees and are reliant on
the UK for foreign relations and defence. The British
government has stated its willingness to assist any Overseas Territory that wishes to proceed to independence,
where that is an option.[220] British sovereignty of several of the overseas territories is disputed by their geographical neighbours: Gibraltar is claimed by Spain,

16

Gibraltar

Bermuda

LEGACY

Akrotiri & Dhekelia

Turks and Caicos Islands


Anguilla
British Virgin Islands
Montserrat

Cayman Islands

Ascension Island

British Indian Ocean Territory

Saint Helena
Pitcairn Islands
Tristan da Cunha

Falkland Islands
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

British Antarctic Territory

The fourteen British Overseas Territories.

the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South


Sandwich Islands are claimed by Argentina, and the
British Indian Ocean Territory is claimed by Mauritius
and Seychelles.[221] The British Antarctic Territory is subject to overlapping claims by Argentina and Chile, while
many countries do not recognise any territorial claims in
Cricket being played in India. British sports continue to be enthuAntarctica.[222]
siastically supported in various parts of the former Empire.

The spread of English from the latter half of the 20th


century has been helped in part by the cultural inuence
of the United States, itself originally formed from British
colonies. Except in Africa where nearly all the former
colonies have adopted the presidential system, the English
parliamentary system has served as the template for the
governments for many former colonies, and English common law for legal systems.[226]
The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still
serves as the highest court of appeal for several former
Parliament House in Canberra, Australia. Britains Westminster colonies in the Caribbean and Pacic. British Protestant
System of governance has left a legacy of parliamentary democ- missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread the Anglican
racies in many former colonies.
Communion to all continents. British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government
Most former British colonies and protectorates are among
in many cities that were once part
the 53 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, buildings, can be seen[227]
of the British Empire.
a non-political, voluntary association of equal members,
comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people.[223] Individual and team sports developed in Britain
Sixteen Commonwealth realms voluntarily continue to particularly football, cricket, rugby, lawn tennis and
share the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as their golfwere also exported.[228] The British choice of syshead of state. These sixteen nations are distinct and equal tem of measurement, the imperial system, continues to
legal entities the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, be used in some countries in various ways. The convenNew Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Antigua and Barbuda, tion of driving on the left hand side of the road has been
The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint retained in much of the former empire.[229]
Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always
Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu[224]
reect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing
Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and
emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire. The empire established the use of English in regions around the world.
Today it is the primary language of up to 400 million people and is spoken by about one and a half billion as a rst,
second or foreign language.[225]

to conicts in formerly colonised areas. The British Empire was also responsible for large migrations of peoples.
Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler
populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and
New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland.
Tensions remain between the white settler populations of
these countries and their indigenous minorities, and be-

17
tween white settler minorities and indigenous majorities
in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Settlers in Ireland from
Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided
nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland.
Millions of people moved to and from British colonies,
with large numbers of Indians emigrating to other parts of
the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean.[230] The
demographics of Britain itself was changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its
former colonies.[231]

[10] Ferguson 2004, p. 3.


[11] Andrews 1985, p. 45.
[12] Ferguson 2004, p. 4.
[13] Canny, p. 35.
[14] Thomas, pp. 155158
[15] Ferguson 2004, p. 7.
[16] Canny, p. 62.
[17] Lloyd, pp. 48.

See also

[18] Canny, p. 7.
[19] Kenny, p. 5.

All-Red Route

[20] Taylor, pp. 119,123.

British Empire Exhibition

[21] Andrews, p. 187.

British Empire in ction

[22] Andrews, p. 188.

Colonial Oce

[23] Canny, p. 63.

Flags of the British Empire

[24] Canny, pp. 6364.

Foreign relations of the United Kingdom

[25] Canny, p. 70.

Government Houses of the British Empire and


Commonwealth

[26] Canny, p. 34.

Historiography of the British Empire

[28] Canny, p. 71.

History of capitalism

[29] Canny, p. 221.

Indirect rule

[30] Lloyd, pp. 2223.

List of British Empire-related topics

[31] Lloyd, p. 32.

Order of the British Empire

[32] Lloyd, pp. 33, 43.

Protectorate

[33] Lloyd, pp. 1520.

[27] James, p. 17.

[34] Andrews, pp. 316, 324326.

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[55] Pagden, p. 91.

[91] Lee 1994, pp. 254257.

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[92] Porter, p. 8.

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[189] Smith, p. 105.

[154] Brown, p. 69.

[190] Burk, p. 602.

20

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[191] Brown, p. 343.

[224] Head of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 9 October 2010.

[192] James, p. 585.

[225] Hogg, p. 424 chapter 9 English Worldwide by David Crystal: approximately one in four of the worlds population
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[193] Thatcher.
[194] Smith, p. 106.

[226] Ferguson 2004, p. 307.

[195] James, p. 586.

[227] Marshall, pp. 23840.

[196] Pham 2010

[228] Torkildsen, p. 347.

[197] Lloyd, pp. 370371.

[229] Parsons, p. 1.

[198] James, p. 616.

[230] Marshall, p. 286.

[199] Louis, p. 46.

[231] Dalziel, p. 135.

[200] Lloyd, pp. 427433.


[201] James, pp. 618621.

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[202] Springhall, pp. 100102.


[203] Knight & Palmer, pp. 1415.

Abernethy, David (2000). The Dynamics of Global


Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415
1980. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09314-4.
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[204] Clegg, p. 128.


[205] Lloyd, p. 428.

Andrews, Kenneth (1984). Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the
British Empire, 14801630. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-27698-5. Retrieved 22 July
2009.

[206] James, p. 622.


[207] Lloyd, pp. 401, 427429.
[208] Macdonald, pp. 171191.
[209] British Overseas Territories Act 2002.
legislation.gov.uk.

http://www.

[210] 1955: Britain claims Rockall. BBC News. 21 September 1955. Retrieved 13 December 2008.
[211] James, pp. 624625.
[212] James, p. 629.
[213] Brown, p. 689.
[214] Brendon, p. 654.
[215] Joseph, p. 355.
[216] Rothermund, p. 100.
[217] Brendon, pp. 65455.
[218] Brendon, p. 656.
[219] House of Commons Foreign Aairs Committee Overseas
Territories Report, pp. 145147
[220] House of Commons Foreign Aairs Committee Overseas
Territories Report, pp. 146,153
[221] British Indian Ocean Territory. The World Factbook.
CIA. Retrieved 13 December 2008.
[222] House of Commons Foreign Aairs Committee Overseas
Territories Report, p. 136
[223] The Commonwealth - About Us; Online September 2014

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23
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11

External links

British Empire on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen


now)
The British Empire. An Internet Gateway
The British Empire
The British Empire audio resources at TheEnglishCollection.com

24

12

12
12.1

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Scales67, Red Director, Corpx, Jayen466, Palmiped, Elustran, Hispalois, Demomoke, Doug Weller, Christian75, Twelsh, DumbBOT, Jayk

12.1

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25

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Gd21091993, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, TjBot, IANVS, RepliCarter, Wikichick775, Myownworst, WildBot, Mackay 86, Salvio
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26

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

mang, Laurel Lodged, NotAnonymous0, Jameswilsonneal, MrTranscript, Damoman, Tommy2010, Jbower47, MrGRA, Ll0l00l, Wikipelli,
Werieth, OllieNS, Der Trumer (DE), AvicBot, Susfele, Illegitimate Barrister, F, Cutiepie650, Dolovis, Chryed, Juhrere, Battoe19,
H3llBot, Variy touch, Chrisishabs, Jonathanho727, Confession0791, Helscream123, Mehrdad1900s, Tiganusi, Demiurge1000, Writerzakwynn, Brandmeister, Sahimrobot, Zuggernaut, Shrigley, Quite vivid blur, Cutedrdave, Orange Suede Sofa, Rangoon11, Jaspreetjohal,
NZ PUG, Luilainez, Skanta479, 97, Herk1955, Bmbtms, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Rocketrod1960, Outofsinc, Xanchester, ClueBot
NG, Mechanical digger, Reginald Bottspanke, Atleogpaul, OpTic Snip3z, Sahil2305, But I'm Bwitish, Jenova20, Iloveandrea, Hupaleju,
Rishav1001, Osterluzei, Omnisome, Ooooooppppppp, Fraytel, Rezabot, Zia demion, Runehelmet, Picaballo, Bradrangers, BomberOD1,
Darrend67, TomJonesIII, Calidum, Hengist Pod, Sjj5goku, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Paulogatle, Alanparkinson, M0rphzone, FoxyLadyNicolay, HIDECCHI001, Wiki13, Uhlan, ObiterDictum.nz, Lukethedukeofyork, Zyxwv99, Solomon7968, Lyeel, RJR3333, Cadiomals, D Namtar, Xwejnusgozo, Jeancey, Min.neel, Michael Cockrell, Bumblefrenzy, Arguegroup, Ernio48, BedsBookworm, AlexTheGrand, Glacialfox, Oleg-ch, Achowat, RGloucester, Argus2980, Mun Wizard, Retireduser455656, Justincheng12345-bot, Dallasb78,
Narniawarrior114, Xuxalliope, Tandrum, Dikaalnas, Lubiesque, Murray114, Sam2295, Mons.logan, Hausofbrad, Kelvinsong, Qexigator,
Birkeen, E4024, Dexbot, Mogism, Steve92341, Kovieb, Ryanbrz, Comrade commie, Tommy Pinball, Wikipean, ChemTerm, JustAMuggle, Allthestrongbowintheworld, Xwoodsterchinx, Mrandrewnohome, Sav1yo12345, Rob984, Jamesmcmahon0, Ransewiki, LordOfTheCardies, NJRobbie, Swibe, Msundqvist, Lindenhurst Liberty,
, Fortis est Veritas, Spyglasses, Gywon, Eagle3399, Russianbritish,
Turgeis, UnbiasedVictory, N0n3up, HYH.124, Archsouls, Gani94, HenryGladney, Monkbot, Rmm553, JuanRiley, Precarious15, Krishnachaitan, Snow Lion Fenian, CharltonChiltern and Anonymous: 2295

12.2

Images

File:Australian_53rd_Bn_Fromelles_19_July_1916.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Australian_


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Original artist: Credit line: Donated by Lance Corporal C.H. Lorking of the 53rd Battalion
File:Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG
License: Public domain Contributors: Napoleon.org.pl Original artist: William Sadler II
File:British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png
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<a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:The_Red_Hat_of_Pat_Ferrick' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick'>t</a> (log)
File:British_Empire_1897.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Cambridge University Library Original artist: Unknown
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File:British_colonies_1763-76_shepherd1923.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/British_colonies_
1763-76_shepherd1923.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Scan from Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York, Henry
Holt and Company, 1923; the map is unchanged from the 1911 original version.
Original image at the Perry-Castaeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas at Austin. Original artist: William Robert Shepherd
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Truman National Historic Site museum sta,[1] part of the National Park Service[2]
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