1

Basic Arithmetic

TERMINOLOGY

Absolute value: The distance of a number from zero on Indices: More than one index (plural)
the number line. Hence it is the magnitude or value of a
Recurring decimal: A repeating decimal that does not
number without the sign
terminate e.g. 0.777777 … is a recurring decimal that can
Directed numbers: The set of integers or whole be written as a fraction. More than one digit can recur
numbers f -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, f e.g. 0.14141414 ...
Exponent: Power or index of a number. For example 23 Scientific notation: Sometimes called standard notation.
has a base number of 2 and an exponent of 3 A standard form to write very large or very small numbers
as a product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power
Index: The power of a base number showing how
of 10 e.g. 765 000 000 is 7.65 # 10 8 in scientific notation
many times this number is multiplied by itself
e.g. 2 3 = 2 # 2 # 2. The index is 3
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 3

INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER GIVES A review of basic arithmetic skills, including knowing the
correct order of operations, rounding off, and working with fractions, decimals
and percentages. Work on significant figures, scientific notation and indices is
also included, as are the concepts of absolute values. Basic calculator skills are
also covered in this chapter.

Real Numbers
Types of numbers

Unreal or imaginary
numbers
Real numbers

Rational
Irrational
numbers
numbers

Integers

Integers are whole numbers that may be positive, negative or zero.

e.g. - 4, 7, 0, -11
a
Rational numbers can be written in the form of a fraction
3 •
b
where a and b are integers, b ! 0. e.g. 1 , 3.7, 0. 5, - 5
4 a
Irrational numbers cannot be written in the form of a fraction (that
b
is, they are not rational) e.g. 2 , r

EXAMPLE

Which of these numbers are rational and which are irrational?

• 3 r
3 , 1. 3, , 9 , , - 2.65
5 4
Solution

r
3 and are irrational as they cannot be written as fractions (r is irrational).
4
• 1 3 13
1. 3 = 1 , 9 = and - 2.65 = - 2 so they are all rational.
3 1 20
4 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Order of operations

1. Brackets: do calculations inside grouping symbols first. (For example,

a fraction line, square root sign or absolute value sign can act as a
grouping symbol.)
2. Multiply or divide from left to right.
3. Add or subtract from left to right.

EXAMPLE

Evaluate 40 - 3 ] 5 + 4 g .

Solution

40 - 3 (5 + 4) = 40 - 3# 9
= 40 - 27
= 13

BRACKETS KEYS

Use ( and ) to open and close brackets. Always use them in pairs.
For example, to evaluate 40 - 3 ] 5 + 4 g
press 40 - 3 # ( 5 + 4 ) =
= 13
5.67 - 3.49
To evaluate correct to 1 decimal place
1.69 + 2.77
press : ( ( 5.67 - 3.49 ) ' ( 1.69 + 2.77 ) ) =
= 0.7
correct to 1 decimal place

PROBLEM

What is wrong with this calculation?

19 - 4
Evaluate
1+2
Press 19 - 4 ' 1 + 2 = 19 - 4 '1 + 2
17
What is the correct answer?
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 5

MEMORY KEYS

Use STO to store a number in memory.

There are several memories that you can use at the same time—any letter from
A to F, or X, Y and M on the keypad.
Different calculators use
To store the number 50 in, say, A press 50 STO A different keys so check
To recall this number, press ALPHA A = the instructions for your
calculator.
To clear all memories press SHIFT CLR

X -1 KEY

Use this key to find the reciprocal of x. For example, to evaluate

1
- 7.6 # 2.1
-1
press ( (-) 7.6 # 2.1 ) x =
= - 0.063 (correct to 3 decimal places)

Rounding off

Rounding off is often done in everyday life. A quick look at a newspaper will
give plenty of examples. For example in the sports section, a newspaper may
report that 50 000 fans attended a football match.
An accurate number is not always necessary. There may have been exactly
49 976 people at the football game, but 50 000 gives an idea of the size of the
crowd.

EXAMPLES

1. Round off 24 629 to the nearest thousand.

Solution
This number is between 24 000 and 25 000, but it is closer to 25 000.

` 24 629 = 25 000 to the nearest thousand

CONTINUED
6 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Write 850 to the nearest hundred.

Solution
This number is exactly halfway between 800 and 900. When a number is
halfway, we round it off to the larger number.
` 850 = 900 to the nearest hundred

In this course you will need to round off decimals, especially when using
trigonometry or logarithms.
To round a number off to a certain number of decimal places, look at the
next digit to the right. If this digit is 5 or more, add 1 to the digit before it and
drop all the other digits after it. If the digit to the right is less than 5, leave the
digit before it and drop all the digits to the right.

EXAMPLES

1. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 1 decimal place.

Solution
Add 1 to the 6 as the 8 is
greater than 5. 0.6825371
#
` 0.6825371 = 0.7 correct to 1 decimal place

2. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 2 decimal places.

Drop off the 2 and all digits Solution

to the right as 2 is smaller
than 5.
0.6825371
#
` 0.6825371 = 0.68 correct to 2 decimal places

3. Evaluate 3.56 ' 2.1 correct to 2 decimal places.

Check this on your Solution

calculator. Add 1 to the
69 as 5 is too large to just 3.56 ' 2.1 = 1.69 #
5238095
drop off.
= 1.70 correct to 2 decimal places
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 7

FIX KEY

Use MODE or SET UP to fix the number of decimal places (see the
instructions for your calculator). This will cause all answers to have a fixed number
of decimal places until the calculator is turned off or switched back to normal.

While using a fixed number of decimal places on the display, the

calculator still keeps track internally of the full number of decimal places.

EXAMPLE

Calculate 3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 correct to 2 decimal places.

Solution
3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 1.889534884 # 5.97 + 7.32
= 11.28052326 + 7.32
= 18.60052326
= 18.60 correct to 2 decimal places
If the FIX key is set to 2 decimal places, then the display will show
2 decimal places at each step. Don’t round off at

3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 1.89 # 5.97 + 7.32 each step of a series of
calculations.
= 11.28 + 7.32
= 18.60
If you then set the calculator back to normal, the display will show the
full answer of 18.60052326.

The calculator does not round off at each step. If it did, the answer might
not be as accurate. This is an important point, since some students round
off each step in calculations and then wonder why they do not get the same
answer as other students and the textbook.

1.1 Exercises
•
1. State which numbers are rational (e) 0.34
and which are irrational. (f) 218
(a) 169 (g) 2 2
(b) 0.546 1
(h)
(c) -17 27
r (i) 17.4%
(d)
3 1
(j)
5
8 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Evaluate 7. A crowd of 10 739 spectators

(a) 20 - 8 ' 4 attended a tennis match.
(b) 3 # 7 - 2 # 5 Write this figure to the nearest
(c) 4 # ] 27 ' 3 g ' 6 thousand.
(d) 17 + 3 # - 2
8. A school has 623 students. What
(e) 1.9 - 2 # 3.1 is this to the nearest hundred?
14 ' 7
(f)
-1 + 3 9. A bank made loans to the value
3 1 2 of $7 635 718 last year. Round this
(g) 2 - #
5 5 3 off to the nearest million.
3 1
1 - 10. A company made a profit of
4 8
(h)
5 $34 562 991.39 last year. Write
6 this to the nearest hundred
5 5 thousand.
'
8 6
(i)
1 1 11. The distance between two cities
+
4 8 is 843.72 km. What is this to the
1 7 nearest kilometre?
3 -
5 10
(j)
1 1 12. Write 0.72548 correct to
1 -
4 2 2 decimal places.

3. Evaluate correct to 2 decimal 13. Round off 32.569148 to the

places. nearest unit.
(a) 2.36 + 4.2 ' 0.3
14. Round off 3.24819 to 3 decimal
(b) ] 2.36 + 4.2 g ' 0.3
places.
(c) 12.7 # 3.95 ' 5.7
(d) 8.2 ' 0.4 + 4.1# 0.54 15. Evaluate 2.45 # 1.72 correct to
(e) ] 3.2 - 6.5 g # ] 1.3 + 2.7 g 2 decimal places.
1
(f) 16. Evaluate 8.7 ' 5 correct to
4.7 + 1.3
1 1 decimal place.
(g)
4.51 + 3.28 17. If pies are on special at 3 for
0.9 + 1.4 $2.38, find the cost of each pie.
(h)
5.2 - 3.6
5.33 + 2.87 18. Evaluate 7.48 correct to
(i)
1.23 - 3.15 2 decimal places.
(j) 1.7 2 + 8.9 2 - 3.94 2 6.4 + 2.3
19. Evaluate correct to
8
4. Round off 1289 to the nearest 1 decimal place.
hundred.
20. Find the length of each piece
5. Write 947 to the nearest ten. of material, to 1 decimal place,
if 25 m of material is cut into
6. Round off 3200 to the nearest
7 equal pieces.
thousand.
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 9

21. How much will 7.5 m 2 of tiles 3.5 + 9.8

(c)
cost, at $37.59 per m2? 5.6 + 4.35
15.9 + 6.3 - 7.8
22. Divide 12.9 grams of salt into (d)
7.63 - 5.12
7 equal portions, to 1 decimal 1
place. (e)
6.87 - 3.21
23. The cost of 9 peaches is $5.72.
9.91 - ] 9.68 - 5.47 g
How much would 5 peaches cost? 25. Evaluate
5.39 2
24. Evaluate correct to 2 decimal correct to 1 decimal place.
places.
(a) 17.3 - 4.33 # 2.16
(b) 8.72 # 5.68 - 4.9 # 3.98

DID YOU KNOW?

In building, engineering and other industries where accurate measurements are used, the
number of decimal places used indicates how accurate the measurements are.
For example, if a 2.431 m length of timber is cut into 8 equal parts, according to the
calculator each part should be 0.303875 m. However, a machine could not cut this accurately.
A length of 2.431 m shows that the measurement of the timber is only accurate to the nearest
mm (2.431 m is 2431 mm). The cut pieces can also only be accurate to the nearest mm (0.304 m
or 304 mm).
The error in measurement is related to rounding off, as the error is half the smallest
measurement. In the above example, the measurement error is half a millimetre. The length of
timber could be anywhere between 2430.5 mm and 2431.5 mm.

Directed Numbers

Many students use the calculator with work on directed numbers (numbers
that can be positive or negative). Directed numbers occur in algebra and
other topics, where you will need to remember how to use them. A good
understanding of directed numbers will make your algebra skills much better.

^ - h KEY

Use this key to enter negative numbers. For example,

press (-) 3 =
10 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Adding and subtracting

To add: move to the right along the number line

To subtract: move to the left along the number line

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Subtract Add

EXAMPLES
You can also do these on a
calculator, or you may have
a different way of working Evaluate
these out.
1. - 4 + 3

Solution
Start at - 4 and move 3 places to the right.

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
- 4 + 3 = -1

2. -1 - 2

Solution
Start at -1 and move 2 places to the left.

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-1 - 2 = -3

Multiplying and dividing

To multiply or divide, follow these rules. This rule also works if there are two
signs together without a number in between e.g. 2 - -3

Same signs = +
+ + =+
- - =+
Different signs = -
+ - =-
- + =-
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 11

EXAMPLES

Evaluate
1. - 2 #7

Solution
Different signs (- 2 and + 7) give a negative answer.
- 2 # 7 = -14

2. -12 ' - 4

Solution
Same signs (-12 and - 4) give a positive answer.
-12 ' - 4 = 3

3. -1 - - 3

Solution
The signs together are the same (both negative) so give a positive answer. Start at -1 and move 3
- places to the right.
-1 - 3 = -1 + 3
=2

1.2 Exercises
Evaluate

1. -2 + 3 11. 5 - 3 # 4

2. -7 - 4 12. - 2 + 7 # - 3

3. 8 # -7 13. 4 - 3 # - 2

4. 7 - ]-3 g 14. -1 - -2

5. 28 ' -7 15. 7 + - 2

6. - 4.9 + 3.7 16. 2 - ] -1 g

7. - 2.14 - 5.37 17. - 2 + 15 ' 5

8. 4.8 # -7.4 18. - 2 # 6 # - 5

9. 1.7 - ] - 4.87 g 19. - 28 ' -7 # - 5

3 2
10. - -1 20. ] - 3 g2
5 3
12 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Conversions

You can do all these

conversions on your EXAMPLES
calculator using the
b
a or S + D key.
c
1. Write 0.45 as a fraction in its simplest form.

Solution
45 5
0.45 = '
100 5
9
=
20

3 3
means 3 ' 8. 2. Convert to a decimal.
8
8
Solution

8 g 3.000
0.375

3
So = 0.375
8

3. Change 35.5% to a fraction.

Solution
35.5 2
35.5% = #
100 2
71
=
200

4. Write 0.436 as a percentage.

Solution
Multiply by 100% to
change a fraction or 0.436 = 0.436 #100%
decimal to a percentage.
= 43.6%

5. Write 20 g as a fraction of 1 kg in its simplest form.

Solution
1 kg = 1000 g
20 g 20 g
=
1 kg 1000 g
1
=
50
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 13

6. Find the percentage of people who prefer to drink Lemon Fuzzy, if 24

out of every 30 people prefer it.

Solution

24 100%
# = 80%
30 1

Sometimes decimals repeat, or recur.

Example
1 •
= 0.33333333 f = 0. 3
3
There are different methods that can be used to change a recurring
decimal into a fraction. Here is one way of doing it. Later you will discover
another method when studying series. (See HSC Course book, Chapter 8.)

EXAMPLES
A rational number is
any number that can be
• written as a fraction.
1. Write 0. 4 as a rational number.

Solution

Let n = 0.44444 f (1 )
Then 10n = 4.44444 f (2 ) Check this on your
(2) - (1): 9n = 4 calculator by dividing
4 by 9.
4
n=
9

• •
2. Change 1.329 to a fraction.

Solution

Let n = 1.3292929 f (1 ) Try multiplying n by 10.

Then 100n = 132.9292929 f (2 ) Why doesn’t this work?

(2) - (1): 99n = 131.6

131.6 10
n= #
99 10
1316
=
990
163
=1
495

CONTINUED
14 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Another method
Let n = 1.3292929 f
This method avoids decimals Then 10n = 13.2929292 f (1 )
in the fraction at the end.
and 1000n = 1329.292929 f (2 )
(2) - (1): 990n = 1316
1316
n=
990
163
=1
495

1.3 Exercises
1. Write each decimal as a fraction 4
(c) 2
in its lowest terms. 15
(a) 0.64 1
(d)
(b) 0.051 1000
(c) 5.05
6. Write each decimal as a
(d) 11.8
percentage.
2. Change each fraction into a (a) 1.24
decimal. (b) 0.7
2 (c) 0.405
(a) (d) 1.2794
5
7
(b) 1 7. Write each percentage as a
8
5 decimal and as a fraction.
(c) (a) 52%
12
7 (b) 7%
(d)
11 (c) 16.8%
(d) 109%
3. Convert each percentage to a (e) 43.4%
fraction in its simplest form.
1
(a) 2% (f) 12 %
4
(b) 37.5%
(c) 0.1% 8. Write these fractions as recurring
(d) 109.7% decimals.
5
(a)
4. Write each percentage as a decimal. 6
(a) 27% 7
(b)
(b) 109% 99
(c) 0.3% 13
(c)
(d) 6.23% 99
1
5. Write each fraction as a (d)
6
percentage. 2
7 (e)
(a) 3
20
1
(b)
3
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 15

5 31
(f) (d) 1 -
33 99
1 13 + 6
(g) (e)
7 7+4
2
(h) 1 11. Evaluate and write as a fraction.
11
(a) 7.5 ' ] 4.1 + 7.9 g
9. Express as fractions in lowest 15.7 - 8.9
(b)
terms. 4.5 - 1.3
(a) 0. 8
•
6.3 + 1.7
(c)
• 12.3 - 8.9 + 7.6
(b) 0. 2
• 4 .3
(c) 1. 5 (d)
•
11.5 - 9.7
(d) 3. 7 64
(e)
• •
0. 67 (e)
8100
• •
(f) 0. 54
(g) 0.15
• 12. Angel scored 17 out of 23 in a
• class test. What was her score as a
(h) 0.216
• • percentage, to the nearest unit?
(i) 0.2 19
• •
(j) 1.074 13. A survey showed that 31 out of
40 people watched the news on
10. Evaluate and express as a decimal.
Monday night. What percentage
5
(a) of people watched the news?
3+6
(b) 8 - 3 ' 5 14. What percentage of 2 kg is 350 g?
4+7
(c)
12 + 3 15. Write 25 minutes as a percentage
of an hour.

Investigation

Explore patterns in recurring decimals by dividing numbers by 3, 6, 9, 11,

and so on.

Can you predict what the recurring decimal will be if a fraction has 3 in
the denominator? What about 9 in the denominator? What about 11?

Can you predict what fraction certain recurring decimals will be? What
denominator would 1 digit recurring give? What denominator would you
have for 2 digits recurring?

Operations with fractions, decimals and percentages

You will need to know how to work with fractions without using a calculator,
as they occur in other areas such as algebra, trigonometry and surds.
16 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The examples on fractions show how to add, subtract, multiply or divide

fractions both with and without the calculator. The decimal examples will
help with some simple multiplying and the percentage examples will be useful
in Chapter 8 of the HSC Course book when doing compound interest.
Most students use their calculators for decimal calculations. However, it
is important for you to know how to operate with decimals. Sometimes the
calculator can give a wrong answer if the wrong key is pressed. If you can
estimate the size of the answer, you can work out if it makes sense or not. You
can also save time by doing simple calculations in your head.

DID YOU KNOW?

Some countries use a comma for the decimal point—for example, 0,45 for 0.45.
This is the reason that our large numbers now have spaces instead of commas between
digits—for example, 15 000 rather than 15,000.

EXAMPLES

2 3
1. Evaluate 1 - .
5 4
Solution
2 3 7 3
1 - = -
5 4 5 4
28 15
= -
20 20
13
=
20

1
2. Evaluate 2 ' 3.
2
Solution
1 5 3
2 '3 = '
2 2 1
5 1
= #
2 3
5
=
6

3. Evaluate 0.056 # 100.

Solution
Move the decimal point
2 places to the right.
0.056 #100 = 5.6
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 17

4. Evaluate 0.02 # 0.3.

Multiply the numbers
Solution and count the number
of decimal places in
0.02 # 0.3 = 0.006 the question.

8.753
5. Evaluate .
10
Solution Move the decimal
point 1 place to
8.753 ' 10 = 0.8753 the left.

1
6. The price of a $75 tennis racquet increased by 5 %. Find the new
2
price.

Solution
1 1
5 % = 0.055 or 105 % of $75 = 1.055#$75
2 2
= $79.13
1
` 5 % of $75 = 0.055#$75
2
= $4.13

So the price increases by $4.13 to $79.13.

7. The price of a book increased by 12%. If it now costs $18.00, what did
it cost before the price rise?

Solution
The new price is 112% (old price 100%, plus 12%)
$18.00
` 1% =
112
$18.00 100
100% = #
112 1
= $16.07
So the old price was $16.07.

1.4 Exercises
1. Write 18 minutes as a fraction of 2 7
(b) 3 -2
2 hours in its lowest terms. 5 10
3 2
2. Write 350 mL as a fraction of (c) #1
4 5
1 litre in its simplest form. 3
(d) ' 4
7
3. Evaluate
3 2
3 1 (e) 1 ' 2
(a) + 5 3
5 4
18 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3 15. Increase 350 g by 15%.

4. Find of $912.60.
5 1
16. Decrease 45 m by 8 %.
5 2
5. Find of 1 kg, in grams correct
7 17. The cost of a calculator is now
to 1 decimal place.
$32. If it has increased by 3.5%,
1 how much was the old cost?
6. Trinh spends of her day
3
7 1 18. A tree now measures 3.5 m, which
sleeping, at work and
24 12 is 8.3% more than its previous
eating. What fraction of the day year’s height. How high was the
is left? tree then, to 1 decimal place?

7. I get $150.00 a week for a casual

1
job. If I spend on bus fares,
10
2 1
on lunches and on outings,
15 3
how much money is left over for
savings?
17
8. John grew by of his height
200
this year. If he was 165 cm tall
last year, what is his height now,
to the nearest cm? 19. This month there has been a
4.9% increase in stolen cars. If
9. Evaluate 546 cars were stolen last month,
(a) 8.9 + 3 how many were stolen this
(b) 9 - 3.7 month?
(c) 1.9 #10
(d) 0.032 #100 20. George’s computer cost $3500. If
(e) 0.7 # 5 it has depreciated by 17.2%, what
(f) 0.8 # 0.3 is the computer worth now?
(g) 0.02 # 0.009
(h) 5.72 #1000
8.74
(i)
100
(j) 3.76 # 0.1

10. Find 7% of $750.

11. Find 6.5% of 845 mL.

12. What is 12.5% of 9217 g?

13. Find 3.7% of $289.45.

14. If Kaye makes a profit of $5 by

selling a bike for $85, find the
profit as a percentage of the
selling price.
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 19

PROBLEM

If both the hour hand and minute hand start at the same position at
12 o’clock, when is the first time, correct to a fraction of a minute, that
the two hands will be together again?

Powers and Roots

A power (or index) of a number shows how many times a number is
multiplied by itself.

EXAMPLES
In 4 3 the 4 is called the base
number and the 3 is called
the index or power.
1. 4 3 = 4 # 4 # 4 = 64

2. 2 5 = 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 = 32

A root of a number is the inverse of the power.

EXAMPLES

1. 36 = 6 since 6 2 = 36

2. 3
8 = 2 since 2 3 = 8

3. 6
64 = 2 since 2 6 = 64

DID YOU KNOW?

Many formulae use indices (powers and roots).
For example the compound interest formula that you will study in Chapter 8 of the HSC
Course book is A = P ^ 1 + r h
n

4
Geometry uses formulae involving indices, such as V = rr 3. Do you know what this
3
formula is for?
In Chapter 7, the formula for the distance between 2 points on a number plane is
2 2
d= (x 2 - x 1) + (y 2 - y 1)
See if you can find other formulae involving indices.
20 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

POWER AND ROOT KEYS

Use the x 2 and x 3 keys for squares and cubes.

Use the x or ^ key to find powers of numbers.
y

Use the key for square roots.

Use the 3
key for cube roots.
Use the x
for other roots.

These laws work for any m

Index laws
and n, including fractions and
negative numbers. There are some general laws that simplify calculations with indices.

am # an = am + n

Proof
a m # a n = (a # a #f# a) # (a # a #f# a)
14444244443 14444244443
m times n times
=a # a # f
14444244443# a
m + n times
= am + n

am ' an = am - n

Proof
am
am ' an =
an
a # a #f# a (m times)
=
a # a #f# a (n times)
a # a #f# a (m - n times)
=
1
= am - n

(a m)n = a mn

Proof

(a m) n = a m # a m # a m #f# a m (n times)
= am + m + m + f + m (n times)
= a mn
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 21

(ab) n = a n b n

Proof
(ab) n = ab # ab # ab #f# ab (n times)
= (a # a #f# a) # (b # b #f# b)
14444244443 14444244443
n times n times
= an bn

a n an
c m = n
b b

Proof
a n a a a a
c m = # # #f# (n times)
b b b b b
a # a # a #f # a (n times)
=
b # b # b #f # b (n times)
an
= n
b

EXAMPLES

Simplify
1. m 9 # m 7 ' m 2

Solution

m9 #m7 ' m2 = m9 + 7 - 2
= m 14

2. (2y 4)3

Solution

(2y 4) 3 = 2 3 (y 4) 3
= 23 y4 # 3
= 8y 12

CONTINUED
22 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(y 6) 3 # y - 4
3.
y5

Solution

(y 6) 3 # y - 4 y 18 # y - 4
=
y5 y5
y 18 + (- 4)
=
y5
14
y
=
y5
= y9

1.5 Exercises
1. Evaluate without using a (h) (x 7) 3
calculator. (i) (2x 5) 2
(a) 5 3 # 2 2 (j) (3y - 2) 4
(b) 3 4 + 8 2 (k) a3 #a5 ' a7
1 3
(c) c m x2
5
4 (l) f p
3 y9
(d) 27
w6 # w7
(e) 4
16 (m)
w3
2. Evaluate correct to 1 decimal p #(p 3) 4
2

(n)
place. p9
(a) 3.7 2 x ' x7
6
(o)
(b) 1.06 1.5 x2
(c) 2.3 - 0.2 a # ( b 2) 6
2

(p)
(d) 3 19 a4 # b9
(e) 3 34.8 - 1.2 # 43.1 (x 2) - 3 #(y 3) 2
(q)
1 x -1 # y 4
(f) 3
0.99 + 5.61
4. Simplify
3. Simplify (a) x 5 # x 9
(a) a 6 # a 9 # a 2 (b) a -1 # a - 6
(b) y 3 # y - 8 # y 5 m7
(c)
(c) a -1 # a -3 m3
1 1
(d) k 13 # k 6 ' k 9
(d) w 2 # w 2
(e) a - 5 # a 4 # a - 7
(e) x 6 ' x 2 3
(f) p 3 ' p - 7 (f) x 5 # x 5
y 11 m5 # n4
(g) 5 (g) 4
y m # n2
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 23

1 1
p5 q8 r4
p2 # p2 10. (a) Simplify .
(h) 2
p4 q6 r2
p p5 q8 r4
(i) (3x 11) 2 (b) Hence evaluate as a
p4 q6 r2
(x 4) 6 7 2
(j) fraction when p = , q = and
x3 8 3
3
5. Simplify r= .
4
(a) (pq 3) 5
1

(b) c m
a 8 2 6
11. Evaluate (a ) when a = c m .
4 3

b 3
4a 3
(c) d 4 n a3 b6 1
b 12. Evaluate when a = and
b4 2
(d) (7a5b)2 2
b= .
(2m 7) 3 3
(e)
m4
xy 3 #(xy 2) 4 x4 y7 1
(f) 13. Evaluate when x = and
xy x5 y5 3
(2k )8 4 2
y= .
(g) 9
(6k 3) 3
y 12
7
(h) _ 2y 5 i # k-5 1
8 14. Evaluate when k = .
k-9 3
-3
a6 # a4
(i) e o
a 11 a4 b6 3
3 15. Evaluate when a = and
5xy 9 3 2 2
a (b ) 4
(j) f p 1
x8 # y3 b= .
9
6. Evaluate a3b2 when a = 2 and a6 # b3
16. Evaluate as a fraction
b= .
3 a5 # b2
4 1 3
when a = and b = .
9 4
2 1
7. If x = and y = , find the value
3 9 a2 b7
x3 y2 17. Evaluate as a fraction in
of . a3 b
xy 5 2 4
index form when a = c m and
5
1 1 1 5 3
8. If a = , b = and c = , b=c m.
2 3 4 8
a2 b3
evaluate 4 as a fraction.
c (a 3) 2 b 4 c
18. Evaluate as a fraction
a (b 2) 4 c 3
11 8
a b 1 6 7
9. (a) Simplify . when a = , b = and c = .
a8 b7 3 7 9
a 11 b 8
(b) Hence evaluate when
a8 b7
2 5
a= and b = as a fraction.
5 8
24 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Negative and zero indices

Class Investigation

Explore zero and negative indices by looking at these questions.

For example simplify x 3 ' x 5 using (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling.

(i) x 3 ' x 5 = x - 2 by index laws

(ii) x =
3
x# x# x
x 5 x # x# x# x# x
1
= 2
x
1
So x - 2 = 2
x
Now simplify these questions by (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling.
(a) x 2 ' x 3
(b) x 2 ' x 4
(c) x 2 ' x 5
(d) x 3 ' x 6
(e) x 3 ' x 3
(f) x 2 ' x 2
(g) x ' x 2
(h) x 5 ' x 6
(i) x 4 ' x 7
(j) x ' x 3

Use your results to complete:

x0 =
x-n =

x0 = 1

Proof
xn ' xn = xn - n
= x0
xn
xn ' xn = n
x
=1
` x0 = 1
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 25

1
x-n =
xn

Proof

x0 ' xn = x0 - n
= x-n
x0
x0 ' xn = n
x
1
= n
x
1
` x-n = n
x

EXAMPLES

0
ab 5 c
1. Simplify e o .
abc 4
Solution
0
ab 5 c
e o =1
abc 4

2. Evaluate 2 - 3 .

Solution
1
2-3 =
23
1
=
8

3. Write in index form.

1
(a)
x2
3
(b) 5
x
1
(c)
5x
1
(d)
x +1

CONTINUED
26 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution

1
(a) = x-2
x2
3
(b) 5 = 3# 15
x x
-5
= 3x
1 1 1
(c) = #x
5x 5
1 -1
= x
5
1 1
(d) =
x +1 (x + 1) 1
= ] x + 1 g-1

4. Write a−3 without the negative index.

Solution
1
a-3 =
a3

1.6 Exercises
1. Evaluate as a fraction or whole 2. Evaluate
number. (a) 2 0
(a) 3 - 3 1 -4
(b) c m
(b) 4 - 1 2
(c) 7 - 3 2 -1
(c) c m
(d) 10 - 4 3
5 -2
(e) 2 - 8 (d) c m
(f) 60 6
x + 2y 0
(g) 2 - 5 (e) f p
(h) 3 - 4 3x - y
1 -3
(i) 7 - 1 (f) c m
5
(j) 9 - 2
3 -1
(k) 2 - 6 (g) c m
4
(l) 3 - 2
1 -2
(m) 40 (h) c m
7
(n) 6 - 2
2 -3
(o) 5 - 3 (i) c m
3
(p) 10 - 5
1 -5
(q) 2 - 7 (j) c m
2
(r) 2 0
3 -1
(s) 8 - 2 (k) c m
7
(t) 4 - 3
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 27

(l) c m
8 0 (n)
1
9 (3x + 4) 2
6 -2
(m)c m
1
(o)
7 ( a + b) 8
9 -2
(n) c m
1
(p)
10 x-2
(o) c m
6 0 1
(q)
11 (5p + 1) 3
1 -2 2
(p) c - m (r)
4 (4t - 9) 5
2 -3
(q) c - m (s)
1
5
4 (x + 1) 11
2 -1
(r) c - 3 m (t)
5
7
9 ( a + 3 b) 7
3 0
(s) c - m
8 4. Write without negative indices.
1 -2
(t) c - 1 m (a) t - 5
4
(b) x - 6
3. Change into index form. (c) y - 3
1 (d) n - 8
(a)
m3 (e) w - 10
1 (f) 2x -1
(b) x
(g) 3m - 4
1
(c) (h) 5x - 7
p7
1 (i) ]2xg- 3
(d)
d9 (j) ] 4n g-1
(e)
1 (k) ] x + 1 g- 6
k5 (l) ^ 8y + z h-1
(m) ]k - 3g- 2
1
(f)
x2
(n) ^ 3x + 2y h- 9
2
(g)
(o) b x l
x4 1 -5
3
(h) 1 -10
y2 (p) c y m
1
(i) 2 -1
2z 6 (q) d n
p
3
1 -2
(r) c m
(j)
5t 8
a+b
2 x + y -1
(s) e x - y o
(k)
7x
5 2w - z - 7
(l)
2m 6 (t) e o
3x + y
2
(m) 7
3y
28 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Fractional indices

Class Investigation

Explore fractional indices by looking at these questions.

For example simplify (i) ` x 2 j and (ii) ^ x h .

1 2
2

1 2
(i) ` x 2 j = x 1 ^ by index laws h
=x
(ii) ^ x h = x
2

So ` x 2 j = ^ x h = x
1 2
2

1
` x2 = x
Now simplify these questions.
1
(a) ^ x 2 h 2
(b) x2
1 3
(c) ` x 3 j
1
(d) ^ x 3 h 3
(e) ^ 3 x h
3

(f) 3
x3
1 4

(g) ` x j
4

(h) ^ x 4 h 4
1

(i) ^ 4 x h
4

(j) 4
x4

Use your results to complete:

1
xn =

1
n
a =n a

Proof
1 n
`an j = a ^ by index laws h
^ n a hn = a
1
n
` a =n a
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 29

EXAMPLES

1. Evaluate
1
2
(a) 49
1
(b) 27 3

Solution

1
2
(a) 49 = 49
=7
1
3
(b) 27 = 3 27
=3

2. Write 3x - 2 in index form.

Solution
1
3x - 2 = (3x - 2) 2

1
3. Write (a + b) 7 without fractional indices.

Solution
1
( a + b) 7 = 7 a + b

Putting the fractional and negative indices together gives this rule.

1
-n 1
a = n
a

Here are some further rules.

m
n
a = n am
= (n a ) m

Proof
m 1 m
a = `a j
n n

= ^n a h
m

m 1
n
a = ^ am h
n

= n am
30 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

a -n b n
c m = bal
b

Proof

a -n 1
c m =
b a n
c m
b
1
= n
a
bn
an
=1'
bn
bn
=1# n
a
bn
= n
a
b n
= bal

EXAMPLES

1. Evaluate
4
(a) 8 3
1
-
3
(b) 125
2 -3
(c) c m
3

Solution
4
(a) 8 3 = (3 8 ) 4 (or 3 8 4 )
= 24
= 16
1
- 1
(b) 125 3
= 1
125 3
1
=3
125
1
=
5
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 31

-3
(c) c 2 m 3 3
=c m
3 2
27
=
8
3
=3
8

2. Write in index form.

(a) x5
1
(b)
3
(4x - 1) 2
2

Solution
5
(a) x5 = x 2
(b) 1 1
= 2
3
(4x - 1) 2 2
(4x 2 - 1) 3
2
-
= (4x 2 - 1) 3

3
-
5
3. Write r without the negative and fractional indices.

Solution
3
- 1
r 5
= 3
r5
1
=
5
r3

DID YOU KNOW?

Nicole Oresme (1323–82) was the first mathematician to use fractional indices.
John Wallis (1616–1703) was the first person to explain the significance of zero, negative
and fractional indices. He also introduced the symbol 3 for infinity.
Do an Internet search on these mathematicians and find out more about their work and
backgrounds. You could use keywords such as indices and infinity as well as their names to find
this information.
32 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1.7 Exercises
1. Evaluate 3. Write without fractional indices.
1 1
2
(a) 81 (a) y 3
1 2
(b) 27 3 (b) y 3
1 1
-
(c) 16 2 (c) x 2

1 1
(d) 8 3 (d) (2x + 5) 2
1 1
-
(e) 49 2 (e) (3x - 1) 2

1 1
(f) 1000 3 (f) (6q + r) 3
1 2
-
(g) 16 4 (g) (x + 7) 5

1
(h) 64 2 4. Write in index form.
1
(i) 64 3 (a) t
1
7 (b) 5 y
(j) 1
1 (c) x3
4
(k) 81 (d) 3
9-x
1
(l) 32 5
(e) 4s + 1
1
1
(m) 0 8 (f)
1 2t + 3
3
(n) 125 1
1 (g)
(o) 343 3 (5x - y) 3
(3x + 1) 5
1
(h)
(p) 128 7
1 1
(i)
(q) 256 4 3
(x - 2) 2
3
(r) 9 2 1
(j)
-
1
3 2 y+7
(s) 8
2 5
-
3 (k) 3
(t) 64 x+4
2
2. Evaluate correct to 2 decimal (l)
3 y2 - 1
places.
3
1 (m)
(a) 23 4 5 4 (x 2 + 2) 3
(b) 4 45.8
(c) 7
1.24 + 4.3 2 5. Write in index form and simplify.
1 (a) x x
(d) 5
12.9 x
(b) x
3 .6 - 1 .4
(e) 8
1 .5 + 3 .7 (c) 3
x
4
5 .9 # 3 .7 x
(f) x2
8.79 - 1.4 (d) 3
x
(e) x 4 x
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 33

6. Expand and simplify, and write in 7. Write without fractional or

index form. negative indices.
1
(a) ( x + x) 2 (a) (a - 2b)
-
3

(b) (3 a + 3 b ) (3 a - 3 b ) -
2

1 2 (b) (y - 3) 3

(c) f p + p
p -
4
(c) 4 (6a + 1) 7
1 2
(d) ( x + ) -
5

x ( x + y) 4

(d)
x ( x 2 - 3x + 1 ) 3
(e) 2
x3 -
6 (3 x + 8 ) 9

(e)
7

Scientific notation (standard form)

Very large or very small numbers are usually written in scientific notation to
make them easier to read. What could be done to make the figures in the box
below easier to read?

DID YOU KNOW?

The Bay of Fundy, Canada, has the largest tidal changes in the world. About 100 000 000 000
tons of water are moved with each tide change.
The dinosaurs dwelt on Earth for 185 000 000 years until they died out 65 000 000 years ago.
The width of one plant cell is about 0.000 06 m.
In 2005, the total storage capacity of dams in Australia was 83 853 000 000 000 litres and
households in Australia used 2 108 000 000 000 litres of water.

A number in scientific notation is written as a number between 1 and 10

multiplied by a power of 10.

EXAMPLES

1. Write 320 000 000 in scientific notation.

Write the number
Solution between 1 and 10
and count the decimal
320 000 000 = 3.2 #10 8 places moved.

2. Write 7.1#10 -5 as a decimal number.

Solution
Count 5 places to
-5 the left.
7.1#10 = 7.1 ' 10
5

= 0.000 071
34 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION KEY

Use the EXP or #10 x key to put numbers in scientific notation.

For example, to evaluate 3.1#10 4 ' 2.5 #10 - 2,

press 3.1 EXP 4 ' 2.5 EXP (-) 2 =

= 1 240 000

DID YOU KNOW?

Engineering notation is similar to scientific notation, except the powers of 10 are always
multiples of 3. For example,
3
3.5 # 10
-6
15.4 # 10

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The concept of significant figures is related to rounding off. When we look
at very large (or very small) numbers, some of the smaller digits are not
significant.
For example, in a football crowd of 49 976, the 6 people are not really
significant in terms of a crowd of about 50 000! Even the 76 people are not
significant.
When a company makes a profit of $5 012 342.87, the amount of
87 cents is not exactly a significant sum! Nor is the sum of $342.87.
To round off to a certain number of significant figures, we count from the
first non-zero digit.
In any number, non-zero digits are always significant. Zeros are not
significant, except between two non-zero digits or at the end of a decimal
number.
Even though zeros may not be significant, they are still necessary. For
example 31, 310, 3100, 31 000 and 310 000 all have 2 significant figures but
are very different numbers!
Scientific notation uses the significant figures in a number.

EXAMPLES

12 000 = 1.2 #10 4 (2 significant figures)

0.000 043 5 = 4.35#10 - 5 (3 significant figures)
0.020 7 = 2.07 #10 - 2 (3 significant figures)

When rounding off to significant figures, use the usual rules for rounding off.
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 35

EXAMPLES

1. Round off 4 592 170 to 3 significant figures.

Solution
Remember to put
4 592 170 = 4 590 000 to 3 significant figures the 0’s in!

2. Round off 0.248 391 to 2 significant figures.

Solution
0.248 391 = 0.25 to 2 significant figures

3. Round off 1.396 794 to 3 significant figures.

Solution
1.396 794 = 1.40 to 3 significant figures

1.8 Exercises
1. Write in scientific notation. 3. Write as a decimal number.
(a) 3 800 (a) 3.6 #10 4
(b) 1 230 000 (b) 2.78 #10 7
(c) 61 900 (c) 9.25#10 3
(d) 12 000 000 (d) 6.33#10 6
(e) 8 670 000 000 (e) 4 #10 5
(f) 416 000 (f) 7.23#10 - 2
(g) 900 (g) 9.7 #10 - 5
(h) 13 760 (h) 3.8 # 10 - 8
(i) 20 000 000 (i) 7 #10 - 6
(j) 80 000 (j) 5#10 - 4

2. Write in scientific notation. 4. Round these numbers to

(a) 0.057 2 significant figures.
(b) 0.000 055 (a) 235 980
(c) 0.004 (b) 9 234 605
(d) 0.000 62 (c) 10 742
(e) 0.000 002 (d) 0.364 258
(f) 0.000 000 08 (e) 1.293 542
(g) 0.000 007 6 (f) 8.973 498 011
(h) 0.23 (g) 15.694
(i) 0.008 5 (h) 322.78
(j) 0.000 000 000 07 (i) 2904.686
(j) 9.0741
36 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

5. Evaluate correct to 3 significant 6. Evaluate 4.5#10 4 # 2.9 #10 5,

figures. giving your answer in scientific
(a) 14.6 # 0.453 notation.
(b) 4.8 ' 7
8.72 #10 - 3
(c) 4.47 + 2.59 #1.46 7. Calculate and write
1.34 #10 7
1 your answer in standard form
(d)
3.47 - 2.7
correct to 3 significant figures.

Investigation

A logarithm is an index. It is a way of finding the power (or index) to

which a base number is raised. For example, when solving 3 x = 9, the
solution is x = 2.

The 3 is called the base number and the x is the index or power.

You will learn about logarithms in the HSC course.

The a is called the base
number and the x is the
index or power. If a x = y then log a y = x

1. The expression log7 49 means the power of 7 that gives 49.

The solution is 2 since 7 2 = 49.
2. The expression log2 16 means the power of 2 that gives 16.
The solution is 4 since 2 4 = 16.

Can you evaluate these logarithms?

1. log3 27
2. log5 25
3. log10 10 000
4. log2 64
5. log4 4
6. log7 7
7. log3 1
8. log4 2
1
9. log 3
3
1
10. log 2
4
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 37

Absolute Value
Negative numbers are used in maths and science, to show opposite directions.
For example, temperatures can be positive or negative.

But sometimes it is not appropriate to use negative numbers.

For example, solving c 2 = 9 gives two solutions, c = !3.
However when solving c 2 = 9, using Pythagoras’ theorem, we only use
the positive answer, c = 3, as this gives the length of the side of a triangle. The
negative answer doesn’t make sense.
We don’t use negative numbers in other situations, such as speed. In
science we would talk about a vehicle travelling at –60k/h going in a negative
direction, but we would not commonly use this when talking about the speed
of our cars!

Absolute value definitions

We write the absolute value of x as x We can also define

x as the distance
of x from 0 on the
number line. We will
x when x $ 0 use this in Chapter 3.
x =)
- x when x 1 0

EXAMPLES

1. Evaluate 4 .

Solution
4 = 4 since 4 $ 0

CONTINUED
38 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Evaluate - 3 .

Solution

-3 = - ] - 3 g since - 3 1 0
=3

The absolute value has some properties shown below.

Properties of absolute value

| ab | = | a |#| b | e.g. | 2 # - 3 | = | 2 |#| - 3 | = 6

|a | = a
2 2
e.g. | - 3 | 2 = ] - 3 g2 = 9
a2 = | a | e.g. 5 2 = | 5 | = 5
|- a | = | a | e.g. | -7 | = | 7 | = 7
|a - b | = | b - a | e.g. | 2 - 3 | = | 3 - 2 | = 1
| a + b |#| a | + | b | e.g. | 2 + 3 | = | 2 | + | 3 | but | - 3 + 4 | 1 | - 3 | + | 4 |

EXAMPLES

1. Evaluate 2 - -1 + - 3 2.

Solution

2 - -1 + - 3 2 = 2 - 1 + 3 2
=2 -1 + 9
= 10

2. Show that a + b # a + b when a = - 2 and b = 3.

Solution
LHS means Left Hand Side.
LHS = a + b
= -2 + 3
= 1
=1
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 39

RHS means Right Hand Side.

RHS = a + b
= -2 + 3
= 2+3
=5
Since 11 5
a+b # a + b

3. Write expressions for 2x - 4 without the absolute value signs.

Solution

2x - 4 = 2x - 4 when 2x - 4 $ 0
i.e. 2x $ 4
x$2
2x - 4 = - ] 2x - 4 g when 2x - 4 1 0
= - 2x + 4 i.e. 2x 1 4
x12

Class Discussion

Are these statements true? If so, are there some values for which the
expression is undefined (values of x or y that the expression cannot
have)?

x
1. =1
x
2. 2x = 2x
3. 2x = 2 x
4. x + y = x+y
x = x2
2
5.
x = x3
3
6.
7. x +1 = x +1
3x - 2
8. =1
3x - 2
x
9. =1
x2
10. x $ 0

Discuss absolute value and its definition in relation to these statements.

40 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1.9 Exercises
1. Evaluate (h) a + 1 when a 1 -1
(a) 7 (i) x - 2 when x 2 2
(b) - 5 (j) x - 2 when x 1 2.
(c) - 6
(d) 0 5. Show that a + b # a + b
(e) 2 when
(f) -11 (a) a = 2 and b = 4
(g) - 2 3 (b) a = -1 and b = - 2
(h) 3 - 8 (c) a = - 2 and b = 3
(i) - 5
2
(d) a = - 4 and b = 5
(j) - 5 3 (e) a = -7 and b = - 3.

2. Evaluate 6. Show that x 2 = x when

(a) 3 + - 2 (a) x = 5
(b) - 3 - 4 (b) x = - 2
(c) - 5 + 3 (c) x = - 3
(d) 2 #-7 (d) x = 4
(e) - 3 + -1 (e) x = - 9.
2
(f) 5 - - 2 # 6
7. Use the definition of absolute
(g) - 2 + 5# -1
value to write each expression
(h) 3 - 4
without the absolute value signs
(i) 2 - 3 - 3 - 4
(a) x + 5
(j) 5 - 7 + 4 - 2
(b) b - 3
3. Evaluate a - b if (c) a + 4
(a) a = 5 and b = 2 (d) 2y - 6
(b) a = -1 and b = 2 (e) 3x + 9
(c) a = - 2 and b = - 3 (f) 4 - x
(d) a = 4 and b = 7 (g) 2k + 1
(e) a = -1 and b = - 2. (h) 5x - 2
(i) a + b
4. Write an expression for (j) p - q
(a) a when a 2 0
8. Find values of x for which x = 3.
(b) a when a 1 0
(c) a when a = 0 n
9. Simplify n where n ! 0.
(d) 3a when a 2 0
(e) 3a when a 1 0 x-2
10. Simplify and state which
(f) 3a when a = 0 x-2
(g) a + 1 when a 2 -1 value x cannot be.
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 41

Test Yourself 1
1. Convert 6. Evaluate
(a) 0.45 to a fraction 3 7
(a) 1 -
(b) 14% to a decimal 5 8
5 6 2
(c) to a decimal (b) #3
8 7 3
(d) 78.5% to a fraction
3
(e) 0.012 to a percentage (c) 9'
4
11
(f) to a percentage 2 1
15 (d) +2
5 10
2. Evaluate as a fraction. 5
(e) 15#
(a) 7 - 2 6
(b) 5 -1
-
1 7. Evaluate
2
(c) 9 (a) - 4
1
3. Evaluate correct to 3 significant figures. (b) 36 2
(a) 4.5 2 + 7.6 2 (c) - 5 2 - 2 3
(b) 4.3 0.3 (d) 4 - 3 as fraction
2
2
(c) 3 (e) 8 3
5.7
(f) - 2 - 1
1.3#10 9
(d) -
1
3.8 #10 6 (g) 49 2
as a fraction
2
- 1
3
(e) 6 (h) 16 4

(i) ] -3 g0
4. Evaluate
(j) 4 - 7 2 - -2 - 3
(a) |-3 | -| 2 |
(b) | 4 - 5 | 8. Simplify
(c) 7 + 4 # 8 (a) a 14 ' a 9
(d) [(3 + 2)#(5 - 1) - 4] ' 8 (b) _ x 5 y 3 i
6

(e) - 4 + 3 - 9 (c) p 6 # p 5 ' p 2

(f) - 2 - -1 (d) ^ 2b 9h
4

(g) - 24 ' - 6
(2x 7) 3 y 2
(e)
5. Simplify x 10 y
(a) x 5 # x 7 ' x 3
9. Write in index form.
(b) (5y 3) 2
(a 5) 4 b 7 (a) n
(c) 1
a9 b (b) 5
3 x
(d) d
2x 6 n
1
3 (c)
x+y
0
ab 4
(e) e o x +1
4
(d)
a5 b6
42 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(e) 7
a+b (c) If he spends 3 hours watching TV,
2 what fraction of the day is this?
(f) x (d) What percentage of the day does he
1 spend sleeping?
(g)
2x 3
16. The price of a car increased by 12%. If
(h) 3
x4
the car cost $34 500 previously, what is
(i) 7
(5x + 3) 9 its new price?
1
(j) 17. Rachel scored 56 out of 80 for a maths
4
m3
test. What percentage did she score?
10. Write without fractional or negative
18. Evaluate 2118, and write your answer in
indices.
scientific notation correct to 1 decimal
(a) a - 5
1 place.
(b) n 4
1
19. Write in index form.
(c) (x + 1) 2
(a) x
(d) (x - y) -1
1
(e) (4t - 7) - 4 (b) y
1
(f) (a + b) 5 (c) x+3
6
1
-
(g) x 3 1
(d)
3
(2x - 3) 11
(h) b 4
4 (e) 3
y7
(i) (2x + 3) 3

3
-
2
20. Write in scientific notation.
(j) x
(a) 0.000 013
11. Show that a + b # a + b when a = 5 (b) 123 000 000 000
and b = - 3.
21. Convert to a fraction.
•
9 2 (a) 0. 7
12. Evaluate a b when a =
2 4
and b = 1 .
25 3 (b) 0.124
• •

13. If a = c m and b = , evaluate ab 3 as a

1 4 3
22. Write without the negative index.
3 4
fraction. (a) x - 3
(b) (2a + 5)- 1
a -5
(c) c m
14. Increase 650 mL by 6%.
1 b
15. Johan spends of his 24-hour day
3
1 23. The number of people attending a
sleeping and at work. football match increased by 4% from last
4
(a) How many hours does Johan spend week. If there were 15 080 people at the
at work? match this week, how many attended
(b) What fraction of his day is spent at last week?
work or sleeping?
24. Show that | a + b | # a + b when
a = - 2 and b = - 5.
 Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic 43

Challenge Exercise 1
1. Simplify c 8
3 2 2 7
+ 3 m ' c4 - 1 m. 11. Show that 2 (2 k - 1) + 2 k + 1 = 2 (2 k + 1 - 1) .
4 3 5 8
a
3 5 149 7 12. Find the value of in index form if
2. Simplify + + - . b3 c2
5 12 180 30
2 4 1 3 3 2
a = c m , b = c - m and c = c m .
3. Arrange in increasing order of size: 51%, 5 3 5
• 51
0.502, 0. 5, . 13. Which of the following are rational
99 • 3
numbers: 3 , - 0.34, 2, 3r, 1. 5, 0, ?
1 1 7
4. Mark spends of his day sleeping,
3 12 14. The percentage of salt in 1 L of water is
1 10%. If 500 mL of water is added to this
of the day eating and of the day
20
mixture, what percentage of salt is there
watching TV. What percentage of the day
now?
is left?
2
5. Write 64
-
3
as a rational number. |x + 1 |
15. Simplify for x ! !1.
x2 - 1
6. Express 3.2 ' 0.014 in scientific
25

notation correct to 3 significant figures. 4.3 1.3 - 2.9

16. Evaluate 6 correct to
1 2.4 3 + 3.31 2
7. Vinh scored 17 out of 20 for a maths 2 decimal places.
2
1
test, 19 out of 23 for English and 55
2 17. Write 15 g as a percentage of 2.5 kg.
out of 70 for physics. Find his average
score as a percentage, to the nearest 18. Evaluate 2.3 1.8 + 5.7 #10 - 2 correct to
whole percentage. 3 significant figures.
• • •
8. Write 1.3274 as a rational number. - 3.4 #10 - 3 + 1.7 #10 - 2
19. Evaluate and
(6.9 #10 5) 3
9. The distance from the Earth to the moon express your answer in scientific notation
is 3.84 #10 5 km. How long would it take correct to 3 significant figures.
a rocket travelling at 2.13#10 4 km h to
reach the moon, to the nearest hour? 20. Prove | a + b | # | a | + | b | for all real a, b.

8.3# 4.1
10. Evaluate 3 correct to
0.2 + 5.4 ' 1.3
3 significant figures.
2
Algebra and
Surds
TERMINOLOGY

Binomial: A mathematical expression consisting of Rationalising the denominator: A process for replacing a
two terms such as x + 3 or 3x - 1 surd in the denominator by a rational number without
altering its value
Binomial product: The product of two binomial
expressions such as (x + 3) (2x - 4) Surd: From ‘absurd’. The root of a number that has an
irrational value e.g. 3 . It cannot be expressed as a
Expression: A mathematical statement involving numbers,
rational number
pronumerals and symbols e.g. 2x - 3
Term: An element of an expression containing
Factorise: The process of writing an expression as a
pronumerals and/or numbers separated by an operation
product of its factors. It is the reverse operation of
such as + , - , # or ' e.g. 2x, - 3
expanding brackets i.e. take out the highest common
factor in an expression and place the rest in brackets Trinomial: An expression with three terms such as
e.g. 2y - 8 = 2 (y - 4) 3x 2 - 2x + 1
Pronumeral: A letter or symbol that stands for a number
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 45

INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER REVIEWS ALGEBRA skills, including simplifying expressions,
removing grouping symbols, factorising, completing the square and
simplifying algebraic fractions. Operations with surds, including rationalising
the denominator, are also studied in this chapter.

DID YOU KNOW?

One of the earliest mathematicians to use algebra was Diophantus of Alexandria. It is not known
when he lived, but it is thought this may have been around 250 AD.
In Baghdad around 700–800 AD a mathematician named Mohammed Un-Musa
Al-Khowarezmi wrote books on algebra and Hindu numerals. One of his books was named
Al-Jabr wa’l Migabaloh, and the word algebra comes from the first word in this title.

Simplifying Expressions
Addition and subtraction

EXAMPLES
DID YOU KNOW?
Simplify
Box 1. 7x
text... -x

Solution
Here x is called a
pronumeral.
7x - x = 7x - 1 x
= 6x

2. 4x 2 - 3x 2 + 6x 2

Solution
4x 2 - 3x 2 + 6x 2 = x 2 + 6 x 2
= 7x 2

CONTINUED
46 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. x 3 - 3x - 5x + 4
Only add or subtract ‘like’
terms. These have the Solution
same pronumeral (for
example, 3x and 5x).
x 3 - 3 x - 5x + 4 = x 3 - 8 x + 4

4. 3a - 4b - 5a - b

Solution
3a - 4b - 5a - b = 3a - 5a - 4b - b
= - 2a - 5b

2.1 Exercises
Simplify

1. 2x + 5x 16. 7b + b - 3b

2. 9a - 6a 17. 3b - 5b + 4b + 9b

3. 5z - 4z 18. - 5x + 3x - x - 7x

4. 5a + a 19. 6x - 5y - y

5. 4b - b 20. 8a + b - 4b - 7a

6. 2r - 5r 21. xy + 2y + 3xy

7. - 4y + 3y 22. 2ab 2 - 5ab 2 - 3ab 2

8. - 2x - 3x 23. m 2 - 5m - m + 12

9. 2a - 2a 24. p 2 - 7p + 5p - 6

10. - 4k + 7k 25. 3x + 7y + 5x - 4y

11. 3t + 4t + 2t 26. ab + 2b - 3ab + 8b

12. 8w - w + 3w 27. ab + bc - ab - ac + bc

13. 4m - 3m - 2m 28. a 5 - 7x 3 + a 5 - 2x 3 + 1

14. x + 3x - 5x 29. x 3 - 3xy 2 + 4x 2 y - x 2 y + xy 2 + 2y 3

15. 8h - h - 7h 30. 3x 3 - 4x 2 - 3x + 5x 2 - 4x - 6
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 47

Multiplication

EXAMPLES

Simplify
1. - 5x # 3y # 2x

Solution
- 5x # 3y # 2x = - 30xyx
= - 30x 2 y

2. - 3x 3 y 2 # - 4xy 5

Solution Use index laws

to simplify this
question.
- 3x 3 y 2 # - 4xy 5 = 12x 4 y 7

2.2 Exercises
Simplify

5 # 2b 11. ^ 2x 2h
5
1.

2. 2x # 4y 12. 2ab 3 # 3a
3. 5p # 2p 13. 5a 2 b # - 2ab
4. - 3z # 2w 14. 7pq 2 # 3p 2 q 2
5. - 5a # - 3b 15. 5ab # a 2 b 2
6. x # 2y # 7z 16. 4h 3 # - 2h 7
7. 8ab # 6c 17. k 3 p # p 2
4d # 3d 18. ^ - 3t 3 h
4
8.

9. 3a # 4a # a 19. 7m 6 # - 2m 5
10. ^ - 3y h3 20. - 2x 2 # 3x 3 y # - 4xy 2
48 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Division

Use cancelling or index laws to simplify divisions.

EXAMPLES

Simplify
1. 6v 2 y ' 2vy

Solution
By cancelling,
6v 2 y
6v 2 y ' 2vy =
2vy
63 # v # v1 # y1
=
21 # v # y1
= 3v
Using index laws,
6v 2 y ' 2vy = 3v 2 - 1 y 1 - 1
= 3v 1 y 0
= 3v

5a 3 b
2.
15ab 2

Solution
5a 3 b
= 1 a3 -1 b1- 2
15ab 2 3

= 1 a 2 b -1
3
a2
=
3b

2.3 Exercises
Simplify

1. 30x ' 5 xy
6.
2x
2. 2y ' y
7. 12p 3 ' 4p 2
2
8a
3. 3a 2 b 2
2 8.
6ab
8a 2
4. a 20x
9.
15xy
8a 2
5.
2a - 9x 7
10.
3x 4
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 49

11. -15ab ' - 5b 42p 5 q 4

16.
2ab 7pq 3
12.
6a 2 b 3 17. 5a 9 b 4 c - 2 ' 20a 5 b -3 c -1
- 8p 2 ^ a -5 h b 4
2
13. 18.
4pqs 4a - 9 ^ b 2 h
-1

14. 14cd 2 ' 21c 3 d 3 19. - 5x 4 y 7 z ' 15xy 8 z - 2

2xy 2 z 3
20. - 9 ^ a 4 b -1 h ' -18a -1 b 3
3
15.
4x 3 y 2 z

Removing grouping symbols

The distributive law of numbers is given by

a ] b + c g = ab + ac

EXAMPLE

7 # (9 + 11) = 7 # 20
= 140
Using the distributive law,
7 # (9 + 11) = 7 # 9 + 7 # 11
= 63 + 77
= 140

This rule is used in algebra to help remove grouping symbols.

EXAMPLES

Expand and simplify.

1. 2 ] a + 3 g

Solution
2 (a + 3) = 2 # a + 2 # 3
= 2a + 6

CONTINUED
50 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. - ] 2x - 5 g

Solution
-(2x - 5) = -1 (2x - 5)
= -1 # 2x - 1 # - 5
= - 2x + 5

3. 5a 2]4 + 3ab - c g

Solution
5a 2 (4 + 3ab - c) = 5a 2 # 4 + 5a 2 # 3ab - 5a 2 # c
= 20a 2 + 15a 3 b - 5a 2 c

4. 5 - 2 ^ y + 3 h

Solution
5 - 2 (y + 3 ) = 5 - 2 # y - 2 # 3
= 5 - 2y - 6
= - 2y - 1

5. 2 ] b - 5 g - ] b + 1 g

Solution
2 (b - 5) - (b + 1) = 2 # b + 2 # - 5 - 1 # b -1 # 1
= 2b - 10 - b - 1
= b - 11

2.4 Exercises
Expand and simplify

1. 2]x - 4 g 7. ab ] 2a + b g

2. 3 ] 2h + 3 g 8. 5n ] n - 4 g

3. -5 ] a - 2 g 9. 3x 2 y _ xy + 2y 2 i

4. x ^ 2y + 3 h 10. 3 + 4 ] k + 1 g

5. x]x - 2 g 11. 2 ] t - 7 g - 3

6. 2a ] 3a - 8 b g 12. y ^ 4y + 3 h + 8y
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 51

13. 9 - 5 ] b + 3 g 20. 2ab ] 3 - a g - b ] 4a - 1 g

14. 3 - ] 2x - 5 g 21. 5x - ] x - 2 g - 3

15. 5] 3 - 2m g + 7 ] m - 2 g 22. 8 - 4 ^ 2y + 1 h + y

16. 2 ] h + 4 g + 3 ] 2h - 9 g 23. ] a + b g - ] a - b g

17. 3 ] 2d - 3 g - ] 5d - 3 g 24. 2 ] 3t - 4 g - ] t + 1 g + 3

18. a ] 2a + 1 g - ^ a 2 + 3a - 4 h 25. 4 + 3 ] a + 5 g - ] a - 7 g

19. x ] 3x - 4 g - 5 ] x + 1 g

Binomial Products
A binomial expression consists of two numbers, for example x + 3.
A set of two binomial expressions multiplied together is called a binomial
product.
Example: ] x + 3 g ] x - 2 g.
Each term in the first bracket is multiplied by each term in the second
bracket.

] a + b g ^ x + y h = ax + ay + bx + by

Proof
]a + bg]c + d g = a ]c + d g + b ]c + d g
= ac + ad + bc + bd

EXAMPLES

Expand and simplify

1. ^ p + 3h^ q - 4h

Solution

^ p + 3 h ^ q - 4 h = pq - 4p + 3q - 12

2. ]a + 5g2

Solution

] a + 5 g2 = (a + 5)(a + 5)
= a 2 + 5a + 5a + 25 Can you see a quick
way of doing this?
= a 2 + 10a + 25
52 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The rule below is not a binomial product (one expression is a trinomial), but it
works the same way.

] a + b g ^ x + y + z h = ax + ay + az + bx + by + bz

EXAMPLE

Expand and simplify ] x + 4 g ^ 2x - 3y - 1 h .

Solution

(x + 4) (2x - 3y - 1) = 2x 2 - 3xy - x + 8x - 12y - 4

= 2x 2 - 3xy + 7x - 12y - 4

2.5 Exercises
Expand and simplify

1. ]a + 5g]a + 2g 17. ]a + 2bg]a - 2bg

2. ]x + 3g]x - 1g 18. ^ 3x - 4y h^ 3x + 4y h

3. ^ 2y - 3h^ y + 5h 19. ]x + 3g]x - 3g

4. ]m - 4g]m - 2g 20. ^ y - 6h^ y + 6h

5. ]x + 4g]x + 3g 21. ] 3a + 1 g ] 3a - 1 g

6. ^ y + 2h^ y - 5h 22. ]2z - 7g]2z + 7g

7. ]2x - 3g]x + 2g 23. ]x + 9g^ x - 2y + 2h

8. ]h - 7g]h - 3g 24. ] b - 3 g ] 2a + 2b - 1 g

9. ]x + 5g]x - 5g 25. ]x + 2g^ x 2 - 2x + 4h

10. ] 5a - 4 g ] 3a - 1 g 26. ]a - 3g^ a 2 + 3a + 9h

11. ^ 2y + 3h^ 4y - 3h 27. ]a + 9g2

12. ]x - 4g^ y + 7h 28. ]k - 4g2

13. ^ x 2 + 3h]x - 2g 29. ]x + 2g2

14. ]n + 2g]n - 2g 30. ^ y - 7h2

15. ]2x + 3g]2x - 3g 31. ]2x + 3g2

16. ^ 4 - 7y h^ 4 + 7y h 32. ]2t - 1g2

 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 53

33. ]3a + 4bg2 37. ] a + b g2

34. ^ x - 5y h2 38. ] a - b g2

35. ]2a + bg2 39. ] a + b g ^ a 2 - ab + b 2 h

36. ] a - b g ] a + b g 40. ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h

Some binomial products have special results and can be simplified quickly
using their special properties. Binomial products involving perfect squares
and the difference of two squares occur in many topics in mathematics. Their
expansions are given below.

Difference of 2 squares

] a + b g ] a - b g = a2 - b2

Proof
(a + b) (a - b) = a 2 - ab + ab - b 2
= a2 - b2

Perfect squares

] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2

Proof
] a + b g2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a 2 + 2ab + b 2

]a - bg2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2

Proof
] a - b g2 = (a - b) (a - b)
= a 2 - ab - ab + b 2
= a 2 - 2ab + b 2
54 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Expand and simplify

1. ]2x - 3g2

Solution
] 2x - 3 g2 = ] 2x g2 - 2 (2x) 3 + 3 2
= 4x 2 - 12x + 9

2. ^ 3y - 4h^ 3y + 4h

Solution

(3y - 4) (3y + 4) = ^ 3y h2 - 4 2
= 9y 2 - 16

2.6 Exercises
Expand and simplify

1. ]t + 4g2 16. ^ p + 1 h ^ p - 1 h

2. ]z - 6g2 17. ]r + 6g]r - 6g

3. ] x - 1 g2 18. ] x - 10 g ] x + 10 g

4. ^ y + 8h2 19. ]2a + 3g]2a - 3g

5. ^ q + 3h2 20. ^ x - 5y h^ x + 5y h

6. ]k - 7g2 21. ] 4a + 1 g ] 4a - 1 g

7. ] n + 1 g2 22. ]7 - 3xg]7 + 3xg

8. ]2b + 5g2 23. ^ x 2 + 2h^ x 2 - 2h

]3 - xg2 24. ^ x 2 + 5h
2
9.

10. ^ 3y - 1 h2 25. ]3ab - 4cg]3ab + 4c g

11. ^ x + y h2
26. b x + x l
2 2

12. ] 3a - b g2
27. b a - a lb a + a l
1 1
13. ]4d + 5eg2

14. ]t + 4g]t - 4g 28. _ x + 6 y - 2 @ i _ x - 6 y - 2 @ i

15. ] x - 3 g ] x + 3 g 29. 6]a + bg + c @2

 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 55

30. 7 ] x + 1 g - y A
2
36. ] x - 4 g3 Expand (x - 4) (x - 4) 2 .

1 2 1 2
31. ] a + 3 g2 - ] a - 3 g2 37. b x - x l - b x l + 2

32. 16 - ]z - 4g]z + 4g
2
38. _ x 2 + y 2 i - 4x 2 y 2

33. 2x + ]3x + 1g2 - 4 39. ]2a + 5g3

34. ^ x + y h2 - x ^ 2 - y h 40. ] 2x - 1 g ] 2x + 1 g ] x + 2 g2

35. ] 4n - 3 g ] 4n + 3 g - 2n 2 + 5

PROBLEM

Find values of all pronumerals that make this true.

a b c #
d e
f e b
i i i h g
Try c = 9.
i i c c b

Factorisation
Simple factors

Factors are numbers that exactly divide or go into an equal or larger number,
without leaving a remainder.

EXAMPLES

The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 are all the factors of 24.

Factors of 5x are 1, 5, x and 5x.

To factorise an expression, we use the distributive law.

ax + bx = x ] a + b g
56 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Factorise
1. 3x + 12

Solution
Divide each term by 3 to
find the terms inside the The highest common factor is 3.
brackets.
3x + 12 = 3 ] x + 4 g

2. y 2 - 2y

Solution
Check answers by
The highest common factor is y.
y 2 - 2y = y ^ y - 2 h
expanding brackets.

3. x 3 - 2x 2

Solution
x and x2 are both common factors. We take out the highest common
factor which is x2.
x 3 - 2x 2 = x 2 ] x - 2 g

4. 5] x + 3 g + 2y ] x + 3 g

Solution
The highest common factor is x + 3.
5 ] x + 3 g + 2y ] x + 3 g = ] x + 3 g ^ 5 + 2 y h

5. 8a 3 b 2 - 2ab 3

Solution
There are several common factors here. The highest common
factor is 2ab2.
8a 3 b 2 - 2ab 3 = 2ab 2 ^ 4a 2 - bh
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 57

2.7 Exercises
Factorise

1. 2y + 6 19. x ] m + 5 g + 7 ] m + 5 g

2. 5x - 10 20. 2 ^ y - 1 h - y ^ y - 1 h

3. 3m - 9 21. 4^ 7 + y h - 3x ^ 7 + y h

4. 8x + 2 22. 6x ]a - 2g + 5]a - 2g

5. 24 - 18y 23. x ] 2t + 1 g - y ] 2t + 1 g

6. x 2 + 2x 24. a ] 3x - 2 g + 2b ] 3x - 2 g
- 3c ] 3x - 2 g
7. m 2 - 3m
25. 6x 3 + 9x 2
8. 2y 2 + 4y
26. 3pq 5 - 6q 3
9. 15a - 3a 2
27. 15a 4 b 3 + 3ab
10. ab 2 + ab
28. 4x 3 - 24x 2
11. 4x 2 y - 2xy
29. 35m 3 n 4 - 25m 2 n
12. 3mn 3 + 9mn
30. 24a 2 b 5 + 16ab 2
13. 8x 2 z - 2xz 2
31. 2rr 2 + 2rrh
14. 6ab + 3a - 2a 2

32. ]x - 3g2 + 5]x - 3g

15. 5x 2 - 2x + xy
33. y 2 ]x + 4g + 2]x + 4g
16. 3q 5 - 2q 2
34. a ] a + 1 g - ] a + 1 g2
17. 5b 3 + 15b 2
35. 4ab ^ a 2 + 1 h - 3 ^ a 2 + 1 h
18. 6a 2 b 3 - 3a 3 b 2

Grouping in pairs

If an expression has 4 terms, it may be factorised in pairs.

ax + bx + ay + by = x(a + b) + y (a + b)
= ( a + b) ( x + y)
58 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Factorise
1. x 2 - 2x + 3x - 6

Solution

x 2 - 2x + 3x - 6 = x (x - 2) + 3 (x - 2)
= (x - 2) (x + 3)

2. 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy

Solution

2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2 (x - 2) + 3y (2 - x)
= 2 ( x - 2) - 3y ( x - 2 )
= (x - 2) (2 - 3y)
or 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2 (x - 2) - 3y (- 2 + x)
= 2 ( x - 2) - 3y ( x - 2 )
= (x - 2) (2 - 3y)

2.8 Exercises
Factorise

1. 2x + 8 + bx + 4b 12. m - 2 + 4y - 2my

2. ay - 3a + by - 3b 13. 2x 2 + 10xy - 3xy - 15y 2

3. x 2 + 5x + 2x + 10 14. a 2 b + ab 3 - 4a - 4b 2

4. m 2 - 2m + 3m - 6 15. 5x - x 2 - 3x + 15

5. ad - ac + bd - bc 16. x 4 + 7x 3 - 4x - 28

6. x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 3 17. 7x - 21 - xy + 3y

7. 5ab - 3b + 10a - 6 18. 4d + 12 - de - 3e

8. 2xy - x 2 + 2y 2 - xy 19. 3x - 12 + xy - 4y

9. ay + a + y + 1 20. 2a + 6 - ab - 3b

10. x 2 + 5x - x - 5 21. x 3 - 3x 2 + 6x - 18

11. y + 3 + ay + 3a 22. pq - 3p + q 2 - 3q
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 59

23. 3x 3 - 6x 2 - 5x + 10 27. 4x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x - 12

24. 4a - 12b + ac - 3bc 28. 3a 2 + 9a + 6ab + 18b

25. xy + 7x - 4y - 28 29. 5y - 15 + 10xy - 30x

26. x 4 - 4x 3 - 5x + 20 30. rr 2 + 2rr - 3r - 6

Trinomials

A trinomial is an expression with three terms, for example x 2 - 4x + 3.

Factorising a trinomial usually gives a binomial product.

x 2 + ] a + b g x + ab = ] x + a g ] x + b g

Proof
x 2 + (a + b) x + ab = x 2 + ax + bx + ab
= x(x + a) + b(x + a)
= (x + a) (x + b)

EXAMPLES

Factorise
1. m 2 - 5m + 6

Solution
a + b = - 5 and ab = + 6
-2
+6 '
-3 Guess and check by
-5 trying - 2 and - 3
Numbers with sum - 5 and product + 6 are - 2 and - 3. or -1 and - 6.

` m 2 - 5m + 6 = [m + ] - 2 g] [m + ] - 3 g]
= ]m - 2g]m - 3g

2. y 2 + y - 2

Solution
a + b = + 1 and ab = - 2
+2
-2 '
-1 Guess and check by
+1 trying 2 and -1 or
Two numbers with sum + 1 and product - 2 are + 2 and -1. - 2 and 1.

` y2 + y - 2 = ^ y + 2 h ^ y - 1 h
60 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2.9 Exercises
Factorise

1. x 2 + 4x + 3 14. a 2 - 4a + 4

2. y 2 + 7y + 12 15. x 2 + 14x - 32

3. m 2 + 2m + 1 16. y 2 - 5y - 36

4. t 2 + 8t + 16 17. n 2 - 10n + 24

5. z2 + z - 6 18. x 2 - 10x + 25

6. x 2 - 5x - 6 19. p 2 + 8p - 9

7. v 2 - 8v + 15 20. k 2 - 7k + 10

8. t 2 - 6t + 9 21. x 2 + x - 12

9. x 2 + 9x - 10 22. m 2 - 6m - 7

10. y 2 - 10y + 21 23. q 2 + 12q + 20

11. m 2 - 9m + 18 24. d 2 - 4d - 5

12. y 2 + 9y - 36 25. l 2 - 11l + 18

13. x 2 - 5x - 24

The result x 2 + ] a + b g x + ab = ] x + a g ] x + b g only works when the coefficient

of x 2 (the number in front of x 2) is 1. When the coefficient of x 2 is not 1, for
example in the expression 5x 2 - 2x + 4, we need to use a different method to
factorise the trinomial.
There are different ways of factorising these trinomials. One method is
the cross method. Another is called the PSF method. Or you can simply guess
and check.

EXAMPLES

Factorise
1. 5y 2 - 13y + 6

Solution—guess and check

For 5y2, one bracket will have 5y and the other y:
^ 5y h ^ y h .
Now look at the constant (term without y in it): + 6.
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 61

The two numbers inside the brackets must multiply to give + 6.

To get a positive answer, they must both have the same signs.
But there is a negative sign in front of 13y so the numbers cannot be both
positive. They must both be negative.
^ 5y - h ^ y - h
To get a product of 6, the numbers must be 2 and 3 or 1 and 6.
Guess 2 and 3 and check:
^ 5y - 2 h ^ y - 3 h = 5y 2 - 15y - 2y + 6
= 5y 2 - 17y + 6
This is not correct.
Notice that we are mainly interested in checking the middle two terms,
-15y and - 2y.
Try 2 and 3 the other way around:
^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h .
Checking the middle terms: -10y - 3y = -13y
This is correct, so the answer is ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h .
Note: If this did not check out, do the same with 1 and 6.

Solution—cross method
Factors of 5y 2 are 5y and y.
Factors of 6 are -1 and - 6 or - 2 and - 3.
Possible combinations that give a middle term of -13y are
5y -2 5y -3 5y -1 5y -6

y -3 y -2 y -6 y -1
By guessing and checking, we choose the correct combination.
5y -3 5y # - 2 = -10y
y # - 3 = - 3y
y -2 -13y
` 5y 2 - 13y + 6 = ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h

Solution—PSF method
P: Product of first and last terms 30y 2
S: Sum or middle term -13y
F: Factors of P that give S - 3y, -10y
- 3y
30y 2 )
-10y
-13y
` 5y 2 - 13y + 6 = 5y 2 - 3y - 10y + 6
= y ^ 5y - 3 h - 2 ^ 5 y - 3 h
= ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h

CONTINUED
62 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. 4y 2 + 4y - 3

Solution—guess and check

For 4y2, both brackets will have 2y or one bracket will have 4y and the
other y.
Try 2y in each bracket:
^ 2y h ^ 2y h .
Now look at the constant: - 3.
The two numbers inside the brackets must multiply to give - 3.
To get a negative answer, they must have different signs.
^ 2y - h ^ 2y + h
To get a product of 3, the numbers must be 1 and 3.
Guess and check:
^ 2y - 3 h ^ 2 y + 1 h
Checking the middle terms: 2y - 6y = - 4y
This is almost correct, as the sign is wrong but the coefficient is right
(the number in front of y).
Swap the signs around:
^ 2y - 1 h ^ 2 y + 3 h = 4y 2 + 6 y - 2 y - 3
= 4y 2 + 4y - 3
This is correct, so the answer is ^ 2y - 1 h ^ 2y + 3 h .

Solution—cross method
Factors of 4y 2 are 4y and y or 2y and 2y.
Factors of 3 are -1 and 3 or - 3 and 1.
Trying combinations of these factors gives
2y 3 2y #- 1 = - 2y
2y # 3 = 6y
2y -1 4y
` 4y 2 + 4y - 3 = ^ 2 y + 3 h ^ 2 y - 1 h

Solution—PSF method
P: Product of first and last terms -12y 2
S: Sum or middle term 4y
F: Factors of P that give S + 6y, - 2y
2 + 6y
-12y )
-2y
+ 4y
` 4y 2 + 4y - 3 = 4 y 2 + 6 y - 2 y - 3
= 2y ^ 2y + 3 h - 1 ^ 2 y + 3 h
= ^ 2y + 3 h ^ 2y - 1 h
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 63

2.10 Exercises
Factorise

1. 2a 2 + 11a + 5 16. 4n 2 - 11n + 6

2. 5y 2 + 7y + 2 17. 8t 2 + 18t - 5

3. 3x 2 + 10x + 7 18. 12q 2 + 23q + 10

4. 3x 2 + 8x + 4 19. 8r 2 + 22r - 6

5. 2b 2 - 5b + 3 20. 4x 2 - 4x - 15

6. 7x 2 - 9x + 2 21. 6y 2 - 13y + 2

7. 3y 2 + 5y - 2 22. 6p 2 - 5p - 6

8. 2x 2 + 11x + 12 23. 8x 2 + 31x + 21

9. 5p 2 + 13p - 6 24. 12b 2 - 43b + 36

10. 6x 2 + 13x + 5 25. 6x 2 - 53x - 9

11. 2y 2 - 11y - 6 26. 9x 2 + 30x + 25

12. 10x 2 + 3x - 1 27. 16y 2 + 24y + 9

13. 8t 2 - 14t + 3 28. 25k 2 - 20k + 4

14. 6x 2 - x - 12 29. 36a 2 - 12a + 1

15. 6y 2 + 47y - 8 30. 49m 2 + 84m + 36

Perfect squares

You have looked at some special binomial products, including

]a + bg2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 and ]a - bg2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2 .
When factorising, use these results the other way around.

a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = ] a + b g2
a 2 - 2ab + b 2 = ] a - b g2
64 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

In a perfect square, the Factorise

constant term is always a
square number. 1. x 2 - 8x + 16

Solution
x 2 - 8x + 16 = x 2 - 2 (4) x + 4 2
= ] x - 4 g2

2. 4a 2 + 20a + 25

Solution

4a 2 + 20a + 25 = ] 2a g2 + 2 (2a) (5) + 5 2

= ] 2a + 5 g2

2.11 Exercises
Factorise

1. y 2 - 2y + 1 12. 16k 2 - 24k + 9

2. x 2 + 6x + 9 13. 25x 2 + 10x + 1

3. m 2 + 10m + 25 14. 81a 2 - 36a + 4

4. t 2 - 4t + 4 15. 49m 2 + 84m + 36

x 2 - 12x + 36 1
5. 16. t 2 + t +
4
6. 4x 2 + 12x + 9 4x 4
17. x 2 - +
3 9
7. 16b 2 - 8b + 1
6y 1
18. 9y 2 + +
8. 9a 2 + 12a + 4 5 25
1
9. 25x 2 - 40x + 16 19. x 2 + 2 +
x2
10. 49y 2 + 14y + 1 20. 25k 2 - 20 +
4
k2
11. 9y 2 - 30y + 25
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 65

Difference of 2 squares

A special case of binomial products is ] a + b g ] a - b g = a 2 - b 2.

a2 - b2 = ] a + b g ] a - b g

EXAMPLES

Factorise
1. d 2 - 36

Solution
d 2 - 36 = d 2 - 6 2
= ]d + 6 g]d - 6 g

2. 9b 2 - 1

Solution
9b 2 - 1 = ] 3b g2 - 1 2
= ( 3 b + 1) ( 3 b - 1 )

3. (a + 3) 2 - (b - 1) 2

Solution
] a + 3 g2 - ] b - 1 g2 = [(a + 3) + (b - 1)] [(a + 3) - (b - 1)]
= (a + 3 + b - 1) ( a + 3 - b + 1)
= ( a + b + 2 ) (a - b + 4 )

2.12 Exercises
Factorise

1. a2 - 4 7. 1 - 4z 2

2. x2 - 9 8. 25t 2 - 1

3. y2 - 1 9. 9t 2 - 4

4. x 2 - 25 10. 9 - 16x 2

5. 4x 2 - 49 11. x 2 - 4y 2

6. 16y 2 - 9 12. 36x 2 - y 2

66 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

13. 4a 2 - 9b 2 y2
20. -1
9
14. x 2 - 100y 2
21. ] x + 2 g2 - ^ 2y + 1 h2
15. 4a - 81b
2 2

22. x 4 - 1
16. ]x + 2g2 - y 2
23. 9x 6 - 4y 2
17. ] a - 1 g - ] b - 2 g
2 2

24. x 4 - 16y 4
18. z - ] 1 + w g
2 2

1 25. a 8 - 1
19. x 2 -
4

Sums and differences of 2 cubes

a 3 + b 3 = ] a + b g ^ a 2 - ab + b 2 h

Proof
(a + b) (a 2 - ab + b 2) = a 3 - a 2 b + ab 2 + a 2 b - ab 2 + b 3
= a3 + b3

a 3 - b 3 = ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h

Proof
(a - b) (a 2 + ab + b 2) = a 3 + a 2 b + ab 2 - a 2 b - ab 2 - b 3
= a3 - b3

EXAMPLES

Factorise
1. 8x 3 + 1

Solution
8x 3 + 1 = ] 2x g3 + 1 3
= (2x + 1) [] 2x g2 - (2x) (1) + 1 2]
= (2x + 1 ) (4 x 2 - 2 x + 1 )
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 67

2. 27a 3 - 64b 3

Solution
27a 3 - 64b 3 = ] 3a g3 - ] 4b g3
= (3a - 4b) [] 3a g2 + (3a) (4b) + ] 4b g2]
= (3a - 4b) (9a 2 + 12ab + 16b 2)

2.13 Exercises
Factorise

1. b3 - 8 x3
12. - 27
8
2. x 3 + 27
1000 1
13. + 3
3. t3 + 1 a 3
b

4. a 3 - 64 14. ] x + 1 g3 - y 3

5. 1 - x3 15. 125x 3 y 3 + 216z 3

6. 8 + 27y 3 16. ]a - 2g3 - ]a + 1g3

7. y 3 + 8z 3 x3
17. 1 -
27
8. x 3 - 125y 3
18. y 3 + ]3 + xg3
9. 8x 3 + 27y 3
19. ] x + 1 g3 + ^ y - 2 h3
10. a 3 b 3 - 1
20. 8]a + 3g3 - b 3
11. 1000 + 8t 3

Mixed factors

Sometimes more than one method of factorising is needed to completely

factorise an expression.

EXAMPLE

Factorise 5x 2 - 45.

Solution
5x 2 - 45 = 5 (x 2 - 9) (using simple factors)
= 5 (x + 3) (x - 3) (the difference of two squares)
68 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2.14 Exercises
Factorise

1. 2x 2 - 18 16. x 3 - 3x 2 - 10x

2. 3p 2 - 3p - 36 17. x 3 - 3x 2 - 9x + 27

3. 5y 3 - 5 18. 4x 2 y 3 - y

4. 4a 3 b + 8a 2 b 2 - 4ab 2 - 2a 2 b 19. 24 - 3b 3

5. 5a 2 - 10a + 5 20. 18x 2 + 33x - 30

6. - 2x 2 + 11x - 12 21. 3x 2 - 6x + 3

7. 3z 3 + 27z 2 + 60z 22. x 3 + 2x 2 - 25x - 50

8. 9ab - 4a 3 b 3 23. z 3 + 6z 2 + 9z

9. x3 - x 24. 4x 4 - 13x 2 + 9

10. 6x 2 + 8x - 8 25. 2x 5 + 2x 2 y 3 - 8x 3 - 8y 3

11. 3m - 15 - 5n + mn 26. 4a 3 - 36a

12. ] x - 3 g2 - ] x + 4 g2 27. 40x - 5x 4

13. y 2 ^ y + 5 h - 16 ^ y + 5 h 28. a 4 - 13a 2 + 36

14. x 4 - x 3 + 8x - 8 29. 4k 3 + 40k 2 + 100k

15. x 6 - 1 30. 3x 3 + 9x 2 - 3x - 9

DID YOU KNOW?

Long division can be used to find factors of an expression. For example, x - 1 is a factor of
x 3 + 4x - 5. We can find the other factor by dividing x 3 + 4x - 5 by x - 1.
x2 + x + 5
g
x - 1 x3 + 4x - 5
x3 - x2
x 2 + 4x
x2 - x
5x - 5
5x - 5
0
So the other factor of x 3 + 4x - 5 is x 2 + x + 5
` x 3 + 4x - 5 = (x - 1) (x 2 + x + 5)
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 69

Completing the Square

Factorising a perfect square uses the results
a 2 ! 2ab + b 2 = ] a ! b g2

EXAMPLES

1. Complete the square on x 2 + 6x.

Solution
Using a 2 + 2ab + b 2:
a=x
2ab = 6x
Substituting a = x:
2xb = 6x Notice that 3 is half of 6.
b=3
To complete the square:
a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = ] a + b g2
x + 2x ] 3 g + 3 2 = ] x + 3 g2
2

x 2 + 6x + 9 = ] x + 3 g2

2. Complete the square on n 2 - 10n.

Solution
Using a 2 - 2ab + b 2:
a=n
2ab = 10x
Substituting a = n:
2nb = 10n Notice that 5 is half of 10.
b=5
To complete the square:
a 2 - 2ab + b 2 = ] a - b g2
n 2 - 2n ] 5 g + 5 2 = ] n - 5 g2
n 2 - 10n + 25 = ] n - 5 g2

To complete the square on a 2 + pa, divide p by 2 and square it.

p 2 p 2
a 2 + pa + d n = d a + n
2 2
70 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Complete the square on x 2 + 12x.

Solution
Divide 12 by 2 and square it:
12 2
x 2 + 12x + c m = x 2 + 12x + 6 2
2
= x 2 + 12x + 36
= ]x + 6g2

2. Complete the square on y 2 - 2y.

Solution
Divide 2 by 2 and square it:
y 2 - 2y + c m = y 2 - 2 y + 1 2
2 2
2
= y 2 - 2y + 1
= ^ y - 1 h2

2.15 Exercises
Complete the square on

1. x 2 + 4x 12. y 2 + 3y

2. b 2 - 6b 13. x 2 - 7x

3. x 2 - 10x 14. a 2 + a

4. y 2 + 8y 15. x 2 + 9x

5. m 2 - 14m 5y
16. y 2 -
2
6. q 2 + 18q
11k
17. k 2 -
7. x 2 + 2x 2

8. t 2 - 16t 18. x 2 + 6xy

9. x 2 - 20x 19. a 2 - 4ab

10. w 2 + 44w 20. p 2 - 8pq

11. x 2 - 32x
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 71

Algebraic Fractions
Simplifying fractions

EXAMPLES

Simplify
4x + 2
1.
2

Solution
4x + 2 2 ] 2x + 1 g Factorise first, then cancel.
=
2 2
= 2x + 1

2x 2 - 3x - 2
2.
x3 - 8

Solution
2x 2 - 3x - 2 ] 2x + 1 g ] x - 2 g
=
x -8
3
] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 2x + 4 h
2x + 1
= 2
x + 2x + 4

2.16 Exercises
Simplify

5a + 10 b3 - 1
1. 9.
5 b2 - 1
6t - 3 2p 2 + 7p - 15
2.
3 10.
6p - 9
8y + 2
3. a2 - 1
6 11.
a + 2a - 3
2

8
4.
4d - 2 3 ]x - 2g + y ]x - 2g
12.
x 2
x3 - 8
5.
5x 2 - 2x
x 3 + 3x 2 - 9x - 27
y-4 13.
6. x 2 + 6x + 9
y - 8y + 16
2

2p 2 - 3p - 2
2ab - 4a 2 14.
7. 8p 3 + 1
a 2 - 3a
s2 + s - 2 ay - ax + by - bx
8. 15.
s 2 + 5s + 6 2ay - by - 2ax + bx
72 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Operations with algebraic fractions

EXAMPLES

Simplify
x-1 x+3
1. -
5 4

Solution
x -1 x +3 4 ]x - 1 g - 5 ]x + 3 g
Do algebraic fractions - =
the same way as ordinary 5 4 20
fractions. 4x - 4 - 5x - 15
=
20
- x - 19
=
20

2a 2 b + 10ab a 2 - 25
2. '
b + 27
3
4b + 12

Solution
2a 2 b + 10ab a 2 - 25 2a 2 b + 10ab 4b + 12
' = # 2
b 3 + 27 4b + 12 b 3 + 27 a - 25
2ab ] a + 5 g 4 ]b + 3 g
= #
] b + 3 g ^ b - 3b + 9 h
2 ] a + 5 g]a - 5 g
8ab
=
] a - 5 g ^ b 2 - 3b + 9 h

2 1
3. +
x-5 x+2

Solution
2 1 2 ]x + 2g + 1 ]x - 5g
+ =
x-5 x+2 ]x - 5g]x + 2g
2x + 4 + x - 5
=
]x - 5g]x + 2g
3x - 1
=
]x - 5g]x + 2g
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 73

2.17 Exercises
1. Simplify 1 1
(f) +
x 3x x+1 x-3
(a) +
2 4 2 3
(g) -
y + 1 2y x -4
2
x + 2
(b) +
5 3 1 1
(h) +
a+2 a a 2 + 2a + 1 a + 1
(c) -
3 4
2 1 5
p-3 p+2 (i) - +
(d) + y+2 y+3 y-1
6 2
2 7
x-5 x-1 (j) -
(e) - x 2 - 16 x 2 - x - 12
2 3

2. Simplify 4. Simplify
3 b 2 + 2b 3x 2 y2 - 9 x 2 - 2x - 8
(a) # (a) # #
b + 2 6a - 3 4y - 12 6x - 24 y 3 + 27
3a - 15 y - y - 2
2
p2 - 4 q3 + 1 a 2 - 5a
(b) 2 # (b) ' #
q + 2q + 1 p + 2 y 2 - 4y + 4 y2 - 4 5ay

3ab 2 12ab - 6a 3 2x + 8 x 2 + 3x
(c) ' 2 (c) + 2 #
5xy x y + 2xy 2 x-3 x -9 4x - 16

ax - ay + bx - by x3 + y3 5b b2 b
(d) ' 2 -
(d) # 2b + 6 b +b-6 b + 1
x2 - y2 ab 2 + a 2 b
x 2 - 8x + 15 x 2 - 9 x 2 + 5x + 6
x 2 - 6x + 9 x 2 - 5x + 6 (e) ' #
(e) ' 5x + 10x
2
10x 2 2x - 10
x 2 - 25 x 2 + 4x - 5
5. Simplify
3. Simplify
1 2 4
2 3 (a) - +
(a) x + x x 2 - 7x + 10 x 2 - 2x - 15 x 2 + x - 6
1 2 5 3 2
(b) - (b) - -
x-1 x x -4
2
x - 2 x + 2
3 2 3
(c) 1 + (c) +
a+b p 2 + pq pq - q 2
x2 a b 1
(d) x - (d) - +
x+2 a + b a - b a2 - b2
1 x+y y
(e) p - q + x
p+q (e) x - y + y - x - 2
y - x2

Substitution
Algebra is used in writing general formulae or rules. For example, the formula
A = lb is used to find the area of a rectangle with length l and breadth b. We
can substitute any values for l and b to find the area of different rectangles.
74 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. P = 2l + 2b is the formula for finding the perimeter of a rectangle

with length l and breadth b. Find P when l = 1.3 and b = 3.2.

Solution
P = 2 l + 2b
= 2 ] 1 . 3 g + 2 ] 3 .2 g
= 2 .6 + 6 . 4
=9

2. V = rr 2 h is the formula for finding the volume of a cylinder with

radius r and height h. Find V (correct to 1 decimal place) when r = 2.1
and h = 8.7.

Solution
V = rr 2 h
= r ] 2.1 g2 (8.7)
= 120.5 correct to 1 decimal place

9C
3. If F = + 32 is the formula for changing degrees Celsius ] °C g into
5
degrees Fahrenheit ] °F g find F when C = 25.

Solution
9C
F= + 32
5
9 ] 25 g
= + 32
5
225
= + 32
5
225 + 160
=
5
385
=
5
= 77
This means that 25°C is the same as 77°F.
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 75

2.18 Exercises

1. Given a = 3.1 and b = - 2.3 find,

10. Given V = 1 lbh is the volume
correct to 1 decimal place. 3
(a) ab formula for a rectangular
(b) 3b pyramid, find V if l = 4.7, b = 5.1
(c) 5a 2 and h = 6.5.
(d) ab 3 11. The gradient of a straight line is
(e) ]a + bg2 y2 - y1
given by m = x - x . Find m
(f) a-b 2 1

(g) - b 2 if x 1 = 3, x 2 = -1, y 1 = - 2 and

y 2 = 5.
2. T = a + ] n - 1 g d is the formula
for finding the term of an 12. If A = 1 h ] a + b g gives the area
2
arithmetic series. Find T when of a trapezium, find A when
a = - 4, n = 18 and d = 3. h = 7, a = 2.5 and b = 3.9.
3. Given y = mx + b, the equation 13. Find V if V = 4 rr 3 is the volume
of a straight line, find y if 3
formula for a sphere with radius r
m = 3, x = - 2 and b = - 1.
and r = 7.6, to 1 decimal place.
4. If h = 100t - 5t 2 is the height of
a particle at time t, find h when
t = 5.

5. Given vertical velocity v = - gt,

find v when g = 9.8 and t = 20.
14. The velocity of an object at a
6. If y = 2 x + 3 is the equation of
certain time t is given by the
a function, find y when x = 1.3,
formula v = u + at. Find v when
correct to 1 decimal place.
u = 1 , a = 3 and t = 5 .
4 5 6
7. S = 2r r ] r + h g is the formula for a
the surface area of a cylinder. 15. Given S = , find S if a = 5
1-r
Find S when r = 5 and h = 7,
and r = 2 . S is the sum to infinity
correct to the nearest whole 3
of a geometric series.
number.
16. c = a 2 + b 2 , according to
8. A = rr 2 is the area of a circle with
Pythagoras’ theorem. Find the
radius r. Find A when r = 9.5,
value of c if a = 6 and b = 8.
correct to 3 significant figures.
n-1
17. Given y = 16 - x 2 is the
9. Given u n = ar is the nth term
equation of a semicircle, find the
of a geometric series, find u n if
exact value of y when x = 2.
a = 5, r = - 2 and n = 4.
76 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

18. Find the value of E in the energy a ^rn - 1h

equation E = mc 2 if m = 8.3 and 20. If S = is the sum of
r -1
c = 1.7. a geometric series, find S if
a = 3, r = 2 and n = 5.
19. A = P c 1 + m is the formula
r n
100
a3 b2
for finding compound interest. 21. Find the value of if
c2
Find A when P = 200, r = 12 and
a = c 3 m , b = c 2 m and c = c m .
2 3
1 4
n = 5, correct to 2 decimal places. 4 3 2

Surds
An irrational number is a number that cannot be written as a ratio or fraction
(rational). Surds are special types of irrational numbers, such as 2, 3 and 5 .
Some surds give rational values: for example, 9 = 3. Others, like 2 , do
not have an exact decimal value. If a question involving surds asks for an exact
answer, then leave it as a surd rather than giving a decimal approximation.

Simplifying surds

Class Investigations

1. Is there an exact decimal equivalent for 2 ?

2. Can you draw a line of length exactly 2 ?
3. Do these calculations give the same results?
(a) 9 # 4 and 9 # 4
4 4
(b) and
9 9
(c) 9 + 4 and 9 + 4
(d) 9 - 4 and 9 - 4

Here are some basic properties of surds.

a# b = ab
a a
a' b = =
b b

^ x h2 = x2 = x
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 77

EXAMPLES

1. Express in simplest surd form 45 . 45 also equals

3 # 15 but this will
Solution not simplify. We look
for a number that is a
45 = 9 # 5 perfect square.

= 9 # 5
=3# 5
=3 5

2. Simplify 3 40 .

Solution
Find a factor of 40 that
is a perfect square.
3 40 = 3 4 # 10
= 3 # 4 # 10
= 3 # 2 # 10
= 6 10

3. Write 5 2 as a single surd.

Solution

5 2 = 25 # 2
= 50

2.19 Exercises

1. Express these surds in simplest (k) 112

surd form.
(l) 300
(a) 12
(m) 128
(b) 63
(n) 243
(c) 24
(o) 245
(d) 50
(p) 108
(e) 72
(q) 99
(f) 200
(r) 125
(g) 48
(h) 75 2. Simplify

(i) 32 (a) 2 27

(j) 54 (b) 5 80
78 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(c) 4 98 (g) 3 13
(d) 2 28 (h) 7 2
(e) 8 20 (i) 11 3
(f) 4 56 (j) 12 7
(g) 8 405
4. Evaluate x if
(h) 15 8
(a) x =3 5
(i) 7 40
(b) 2 3 = x
(j) 8 45
(c) 3 7 = x
3. Write as a single surd. (d) 5 2 = x
(a) 3 2 (e) 2 11 = x
(b) 2 5 (f) x =7 3
(c) 4 11 (g) 4 19 = x
(d) 8 2 (h) x = 6 23
(e) 5 3 (i) 5 31 = x
(f) 4 10 (j) x = 8 15

Addition and subtraction

Calculations with surds are similar to calculations in algebra. We can only add
or subtract ‘like terms’ with algebraic expressions. This is the same with surds.

EXAMPLES

1. Simplify 3 2 + 4 2 .

Solution
3 2+4 2 =7 2

2. Simplify 3 - 12 .

Solution
First, change into ‘like’ surds.
3 - 12 = 3 - 4 # 3
= 3 -2 3
=- 3

3. Simplify 2 2 - 2 + 3 .

Solution
2 2- 2+ 3= 2+ 3
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 79

2.20 Exercises
Simplify

1. 5 +2 5 14. 50 - 32

2. 3 2 -2 2 15. 28 + 63

3. 3 +5 3 16. 2 8 - 18

4. 7 3 -4 3 17. 3 54 + 2 24

5. 5 -4 5 18. 90 - 5 40 - 2 10

6. 4 6 - 6 19. 4 48 + 3 147 + 5 12

7. 2 -8 2 20. 3 2 + 8 - 12

8. 5 +4 5 +3 5 21. 63 - 28 - 50

9. 2 -2 2 -3 2 22. 12 - 45 - 48 - 5

10. 5 + 45 23. 150 + 45 + 24

11. 8 - 2 24. 32 - 243 - 50 + 147

12. 3 + 48 25. 80 - 3 245 + 2 50

13. 12 - 27

Multiplication and division

To get a b # c d = ac bd ,

a # b = ab multiply surds with surds and

rationals with rationals.
a b # c d = ac bd
a# a = a2 = a

a a
=
b b

EXAMPLES

Simplify
1. 2 2 #- 5 7

Solution
2 2 #- 5 7 = -10 14

CONTINUED
80 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. 4 2 # 5 18

Solution

4 2 # 5 18 = 20 36
= 20 # 6
= 120

2 14
3.
4 2

Solution

2 14 2 2 # 7
=
4 2 4 2
7
=
2

3 10
4.
15 2

Solution

3 10 3# 5 # 2
=
15 2 15 2
5
=
5

2
5. d
10 n
3

Solution

10 n
2
^ 10 h 2

d =
3 ^ 3 h2
10
=
3
=31
3
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 81

2.21 Exercises
Simplify

1. 7 # 3 5 8
23.
10 2
2. 3# 5
16 2
3. 2 #3 3 24.
2 12
4. 5 7 #2 2
10 30
25.
5. -3 3 #2 2 5 10

6. 5 3 #2 3 26.
2 2
6 20
7. - 4 5 # 3 11
4 2
8. 2 7# 7 27.
8 10
9. 2 3 # 5 12 3
28.
10. 6# 2 3 15

11. 8 #2 6 2
29.
8
12. 3 2 # 5 14
3 15
13. 10 # 2 2 30.
6 10
14. 2 6 #-7 6 5 12
31.
15. ^ 2 h 5 8
2

16. ^ 2 7 h 15 18
2
32.
10 10
17. 3# 5# 2
15
33.
18. 2 3 # 7 #- 5 2 6
19. 2 # 6 #3 3 2
34. d
2n
3
20. 2 5 # - 3 2 # - 5 5
2
5n
21.
4 12 35. d
7
2 2

12 18
22.
3 6

Expanding brackets

The same rules for expanding brackets and binomial products that you use in
algebra also apply to surds.
82 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Simplifying surds by removing grouping symbols uses these general rules.

a^ b + ch= ab + ac

Proof
a^ b + ch = a# b + a# c
= ab + ac

Binomial product:

^ a + b h^ c + d h = ac + ad + bc + bd

Proof
^ a + b h^ c + d h = a # c + a # d + b # c + b # d
= ac + ad + bc + bd

Perfect squares:

^ a + b h2 = a + 2 ab + b

Proof
^ a + b h2 = ^ a + b h ^ a + b h
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a + 2 ab + b

^ a - b h2 = a - 2 ab + b

Proof
^ a - b h2 = ^ a - b h ^ a - b h
= a 2 - ab - ab + b 2
= a - 2 ab + b

Difference of two squares:

^ a + b h^ a - b h = a - b

Proof
^ a + b h ^ a - b h = a 2 - ab + ab - b 2
=a-b
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 83

EXAMPLES

Expand and simplify

1. 2 ^ 5 + 2 h

Solution

2( 5 + 2) = 2# 5 + 2# 2
= 10 + 4
= 10 + 2

2. 3 7 ^ 2 3 - 3 2 h

Solution

3 7 (2 3 - 3 2 ) = 3 7 # 2 3 - 3 7 # 3 2
= 6 21 - 9 14

3. ^ 2 + 3 5 h ^ 3 - 2h

Solution

( 2 + 3 5)( 3 - 2) = 2# 3 - 2# 2 +3 5# 3 -3 5# 2
= 6 - 2 + 3 15 - 3 10

4. ^ 5 + 2 3 h ^ 5 - 2 3 h

Solution

( 5 + 2 3 ) ( 5 - 2 3 ) = 5 # 5 - 5 #2 3 + 2 3 # 5 - 2 3 #2 3
Notice that using the
= 5 - 2 15 + 2 15 - 4#3 difference of two
= 5 - 12 squares gives a rational
answer.
= -7
Another way to do this question is by using the difference of two squares.
( 5 + 2 3)( 5 - 2 3) = ^ 5 h - ^2 3 h
2 2

= 5 - 4#3
= -7
84 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2.22 Exercises

1. Expand and simplify (m)^ 2 11 + 5 2 h^ 2 11 - 5 2 h

(a) 2^ 5 + 3h (n) ^ 5 + 2 h
2

3 ^2 2 - 5 h (o) ^ 2 2 - 3 h
2
(b)
(c) 4 3 ^ 3 + 2 5 h (p) ^ 3 2 + 7 h
2

(d) 7 ^5 2 - 2 3 h (q) ^ 2 3 + 3 5 h
2

(e) - 3 ^ 2 - 4 6 h (r) ^ 7 - 2 5 h
2

(f) 3 ^ 5 11 + 3 7 h (s) ^ 2 8 - 3 5 h
2

(g) - 3 2 ^ 2 + 4 3 h (t) ^ 3 5 + 2 2 h
2

(h) 5^ 5 - 5 3h
3. If a = 3 2 , simplify
(i) 3 ^ 12 + 10 h
(a) a2
(j) 2 3 ^ 18 + 3 h (b) 2a3
(k) - 4 2 ^ 2 - 3 6 h (c) (2a)3
(l) - 7 5 ^ - 3 20 + 2 3 h (d) ]a + 1g2
(e) ] a + 3 g ] a – 3 g
(m) 10 3 ^ 2 - 2 12 h
(n) - 2 ^ 5 + 2 h 4. Evaluate a and b if
(o) 2 3 ^ 2 - 12 h (a) ^ 2 5 + 1h = a + b
2

(b) ^ 2 2 - 5 h ^ 2 - 3 5 h
2. Expand and simplify = a + b 10
(a) ^ 2 + 3h^ 5 + 3 3 h
5. Expand and simplify
(b) ^ 5 - 2 h^ 2 - 7 h (a) ^ a + 3 - 2 h ^ a + 3 + 2 h
(c) ^ 2 + 5 3 h^ 2 5 - 3 2 h (b) _ p - 1 - p i
2

(d) ^ 3 10 - 2 5 h^ 4 2 + 6 6 h
6. Evaluate k if
(e) ^ 2 5 - 7 2 h^ 5 - 3 2 h ^ 2 7 - 3 h ^ 2 7 + 3 h = k.
(f) ^ 5 + 6 2 h^ 3 5 - 3 h
Simplify _ 2 x + y i _ x - 3 y i .
(g) ^ 7 + 3 h^ 7 - 3 h
7.

(h) ^ 2 - 3 h^ 2 + 3 h If ^ 2 3 - 5 h = a - b , evaluate
2
8.
(i) ^ 6 + 3 2 h^ 6 - 3 2 h
a and b.

(j) ^ 3 5 + 2 h^ 3 5 - 2 h 9. Evaluate a and b if

(k) ^ 8 - 5 h^ 8 + 5 h ^ 7 2 - 3 h2 = a + b 2 .

(l) ^ 2 + 9 3 h^ 2 - 9 3 h 10. A rectangle has sides 5 + 1 and

2 5 - 1. Find its exact area.

Rationalising the denominator

Rationalising the denominator of a fractional surd means writing it with a

rational number (not a surd) in the denominator. For example, after
3 3 5
rationalising the denominator, becomes .
5 5
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 85

DID YOU KNOW?

A major reason for rationalising the denominator used to be to make it easier to evaluate the
fraction (before calculators were available). It is easier to divide by a rational number than an
irrational one; for example, This is hard to do
without a calculator.
3
= 3 ' 2.236
5
This is easier to calculate.
3 5
= 3 # 2.236 ' 5
5

Squaring a surd in the denominator will rationalise it since ^ x h = x.

2

b
Multiplying by
b
is the same as
a b a b multiplying by 1.
# =
b b b

Proof
a b a b
# =
b b b2
a b
=
b

EXAMPLES

3
1. Rationalise the denominator of .
5
Solution

3 5 3 5
# =
5 5 5

2
2. Rationalise the denominator of .
5 3
Solution Don’t multiply by
5 3
as it takes
2 3 2 3 5 3
# = longer to simplify.
5 3 3 5 9
2 3
=
5# 3
2 3
=
15
86 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

When there is a binomial denominator, we use the difference of two

squares to rationalise it, as the result is always a rational number.

a+ b c- d
To rationalise the denominator of , multiply by
c+ d c- d

Proof

a+ b c- d ^ a + b h^ c - d h
# =
c+ d c- d ^ c + d h^ c - d h
^ a + b h^ c - d h
=
^ c h2 - ^ d h2
^ a + b h^ c - d h
=
c-d

EXAMPLES

1. Write with a rational denominator

5
.
2 -3
Multiply by the conjugate
surd 2 + 3.
Solution

5 2 +3 5 ^ 2 + 3h
# =
2 -3 2 +3 ^ 2 h2 - 3 2
10 + 3 5
=
2-9
10 + 3 5
=
-7
10 + 3 5
=-
7

2. Write with a rational denominator

2 3+ 5
.
3+4 2

Solution

2 3 + 5 3 -4 2 ^2 3 + 5 h^ 3 - 4 2 h
# =
3 +4 2 3 -4 2 ^ 3 h2 - ^ 4 2 h2
2 # 3 - 8 6 + 15 - 4 10
=
3 - 16 # 2
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 87

6 - 8 6 + 15 - 4 10
=
- 29
- 6 + 8 6 - 15 + 4 10
=
29

3 3
3. Evaluate a and b if = a + b.
3- 2

Solution

3 3 3+ 2 3 3^ 3 + 2h
# =
3- 2 3+ 2 ^ 3 - 2 h^ 3 + 2 h
3 9+3 6
=
^ 3 h2 - ^ 2 h2
3#3+3 6
=
3-2
9+3 6
=
1
=9+3 6
=9+ 9# 6
= 9 + 54
So a = 9 and b = 54.

4. Evaluate as a fraction with rational denominator

2 5
+ .
3+2 3-2

Solution

2 5 2^ 3 - 2h + 5 ^ 3 + 2h
+ =
3+2 3 -2 ^ 3 + 2h ^ 3 - 2h
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
=
^ 3 h2 - 2 2
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
=
3-4
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
=
-1
= - 2 3 + 4 - 15 - 2 5
88 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2.23 Exercises

1. Express with rational 3. Express as a single fraction with

denominator rational denominator
1 1 1
(a) (a) +
7 2 +1 2 -1
3 2 3
(b) (b) -
2 2 2 - 3 2 + 3
2 3 1 3
(c) (c) +
5 5 + 2 3 2 - 5
6 7 2 - 7 2
(d) (d) #
5 2 2 + 3 2 3 + 2
1+ 2 1
(e) (e) t + where t = 3 -2
3 t
6 -5 1
(f) (f) z 2 - where z = 1 + 2
2 z2

5 +2 2 3 2 +4 2 -1 2
(g) (g) + -
5 6 - 3 6 + 3 6 -1
3 2 -4 2 +3 1
(h) (h) +
2 7 2 3
8+3 2 3 2
(i) (i) +
4 5 2 +3 3
4 3 -2 2 5 2
(j) (j) -
7 5 6 +2 5 3
2 +7 2
2. Express with rational (k) -
4+ 3 4- 3
denominator
5 - 2 2+ 3
4 (l) -
(a) 3 - 2 3 +1
3 + 2
3 4. Find a and b if
(b)
2 -7 3 a
(a) =
2 3 2 5 b
(c)
5 +2 6 3 a 6
(b) =
3 -4 4 2 b
(d)
3 +4 2
(c) =a+b 5
2 +5 5 +1
(e)
3 - 2 2 7
(d) =a+b 7
3 3 + 2 7 -4
(f)
2 5 +3 2 2 +3
(e) =a+ b
2 -1
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 89

2 -1 4 7. Write
2
+
1
-
5. Show that + is
2 +1 2 5 + 2 5 - 2
rational. 5 +1
as a single fraction with
3
6. If x = 3 + 2, simplify rational denominator.
1 2 8
(a) x + x 8. Show that + is
3+2 2 2
1 rational.
(b) x 2 +
x2
1
9. If 2 + x = 3 , where x ! 0,
(c) b x + x l
2
1
find x as a surd with rational
denominator.

10. Rationalise the denominator of

b +2
]b ! 4 g
b -2
90 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Test Yourself 2
1. Simplify 6. (a) Expand and simplify
(a) 5y - 7y ^ 2 5 + 3 h ^ 2 5 - 3 h.
3a + 12 (b) Rationalise the denominator of
(b)
3 3 3
.
(c) - 2k 3 # 3k 2 2 5+ 3
x y 3 1 2
(d) + 7. Simplify + - 2 .
3 5 x-2 x+3 x +x-6
(e) 4a - 3b - a - 5b
(f) 8 + 32 8. If a = 4, b = - 3 and c = - 2, find the
(g) 3 5 - 20 + 45 value of
(a) ab 2
2. Factorise (b) a - bc
(a) x 2 - 36 (c) a
(b) a 2 + 2a - 3 (d) ]bcg3
(c) 4ab 2 - 8ab (e) c ] 2a + 3b g
(d) 5y - 15 + xy - 3x
(e) 4n - 2p + 6 9. Simplify
(f) 8 - x 3 3 12
(a)
6 15
3. Expand and simplify 4 32
(a) b + 3 ] b - 2 g (b)
2 2
(b) ] 2x - 1 g ] x + 3 g
(c) 5 ] m + 3 g - ] m - 2 g 10. The formula for the distance an object
(d) ]4x - 3g2 falls is given by d = 5t 2 . Find d when
(e) ^ p - 5h^ p + 5h t = 1.5.
(f) 7 - 2 ] a + 4 g - 5a
(g) 3 ^ 2 2 - 5 h 11. Rationalise the denominator of
2
(h) ^ 3 + 7 h^ 3 - 2h (a)
5 3
4. Simplify 1+ 3
4a - 12 10b (b)
(a) # 3 2
5b 3 a - 27
5m + 10 m2 - 4 12. Expand and simplify
(b) '
m - m - 2 3m + 3
2 (a) ^ 3 2 - 4h^ 3 - 2 h
(b) ^ 7 + 2h
2

5. The volume of a cube is V = s 3.

Evaluate V when s = 5.4. 13. Factorise fully
(a) 3x 2 - 27
(b) 6x 2 - 12x - 18
(c) 5y 3 + 40
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 91

14. Simplify 22. Expand and simplify

3x 4 y (a) 2 2 ^ 3 + 2 h
(b) ^ 5 7 - 3 5 h^ 2 2 - 3 h
(a)
9xy 5
5 (c) ^ 3 + 2 h^ 3 - 2 h
(d) ^ 4 3 - 5 h^ 4 3 + 5 h
(b)
15x - 5
(e) ^ 3 7 - 2 h
2
15. Simplify
(a) ^ 3 11 h
2
23. Rationalise the denominator of
(b) ^ 2 3 h
3
3
(a)
16. Expand and simplify 7
(a) ] a + b g ] a - b g 2
(b)
(b) ] a + b g 2 5 3
(c) ] a - b g 2 (c)
2
5 -1
17. Factorise
2 2
(a) a 2 - 2ab + b 2 (d)
3 2+ 3
(b) a 3 - b 3
5+ 2
1 (e)
18. If x = 3 + 1, simplify x + x and 4 5-3 3
give your answer with a rational
denominator. 24. Simplify
3x x-2
19. Simplify (a) -
5 2
4 3 a+2 2a - 3
(a) a + (b) +
b 7 3
x-3 x-2 1 2
(b) - (c) 2 -
2 5 x -1 x + 1
4 1
3 2 (d) 2 +
20. Simplify - , writing k + 2k - 3 k + 3
5+2 2 2-1
3 5
your answer with a rational denominator. (e) -
2+ 5 3- 2
21. Simplify
(a) 3 8 25. Evaluate n if
(b) - 2 2 # 4 3 (a) 108 - 12 = n
(c) 108 - 48 (b) 112 + 7 = n
8 6 (c) 2 8 + 200 = n
(d)
2 18 (d) 4 147 + 3 75 = n
(e) 5a # - 3b # - 2a 180
(e) 2 245 + = n
2
2m 3 n
(f)
6m 2 n 5
(g) 3x - 2y - x - y
92 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1 1+2 3 31. Simplify

3
+
2
-
1
.
26. Evaluate x 2 + if x = x-2 x+2
x 2
1-2 3 x2 - 4
x+5
(a)
3 ]x + 2g]x - 2g
27. Rationalise the denominator of
2 7 x+1
(b)
(there may be more than one answer). ]x + 2g]x - 2g
21 x+9
(a) (c)
28 ]x + 2g]x - 2g
2 21 x-3
(d)
]x + 2g]x - 2g
(b)
28
21
(c) 32. Simplify 5ab - 2a 2 - 7ab - 3a 2 .
14
21 (a) 2ab + a 2
(d)
7 (b) - 2ab - 5a 2
(c) - 13a 3 b
x-3 x +1
28. Simplify - . (d) - 2ab + 5a 2
5 4
-]x + 7 g
(a) 80
20 33. Simplify .
x+7 27
(b) 4 5
20 (a)
x + 17 3 3
(c)
20 4 5
(b)
- ] x + 17 g 9 3
(d)
20
8 5
(c)
29. Factorise x 3 - 4x 2 - x + 4 (there may be 9 3
more than one answer). 8 5
(d)
(a) ^ x 2 - 1 h ] x - 4 g 3 3
(b) ^ x 2 + 1 h ] x - 4 g
34. Expand and simplify ^ 3x - 2y h2 .
(c) x 2 ] x - 4 g
(a) 3x 2 - 12xy - 2y 2
(d) ] x - 4 g ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g
(b) 9x 2 - 12xy - 4y 2
30. Simplify 3 2 + 2 98 . (c) 3x 2 - 6xy + 2y 2
(a) 5 2 (d) 9x 2 - 12xy + 4y 2
(b) 5 10
35. Complete the square on a 2 - 16a.
(c) 17 2
(a) a 2 - 16a + 16 = ^ a - 4 h2
(d) 10 2
(b) a 2 - 16a + 64 = ^ a - 8 h2
(c) a 2 - 16a + 8 = ^ a - 4 h2
(d) a 2 - 16a + 4 = ^ a - 2 h2
 Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds 93

Challenge Exercise 2
1. Expand and simplify 2x + y x-y 3x + 2y
(a) 4ab ] a - 2b g - 2a 2 ] b - 3a g 11. Simplify + - 2 .
x-3 x+3 x +x-6
(b) _ y 2 - 2 i_ y 2 + 2 i
(c) ] 2x - 5 g3 12. (a) Expand ^ 2x - 1 h3.
6x 2 + 5x - 4
(b) Simplify .
2. Find the value of x + y with rational 8x 3 - 12x 2 + 6x - 1
denominator if x = 3 + 1 and
y=
1
. 13. Expand and simplify ] x - 1 g ^ x - 3 h2.
2 5-3
14. Simplify and express with rational
2 3 2 + 5 5 3
3. Simplify . denominator - .
7 6 - 54 3 +4 2 -1

b 15. Complete the square on x 2 + 2 x.

4. Complete the square on x 2 + a x. 3

5. Factorise lx 1 + kx 2
16. If x = , find the value of x when
(a) (x + 4)2 + 5 (x + 4) k+l
(b) x 4 - x 2 y - 6y 2 k = 3, l = - 2, x 1 = 5 and x 2 = 4.
(c) 125x 3 + 343 17. Find the exact value with rational
(d) a 2 b - 2a 2 - 4b + 8 1
denominator of 2x 2 - 3x + x if x = 2 5 .
6. Complete the square on 4x 2 + 12x.
18. Find the exact value of
2xy + 2x - 6 - 6y 1 1+2 3
7. Simplify . (a) x 2 + 2 if x =
4x 2 - 16x + 12 x 1-2 3
3 -4
| ax 1 + by 1 + c | (b) a and b if =a+b 3
8. d= is the formula for 2+3 3
a2 + b2
the perpendicular distance from a 19. A = 1 r 2 i is the area of a sector of a
2
point to a line. Find the exact value circle. Find the value of i when A = 12
of d with a rational denominator if and r = 4.
a = 2, b = -1, c = 3, x 1 = - 4 and y 1 = 5.
20. If V = rr 2 h is the volume of a cylinder,
^a + 1h 3
find the exact value of r when V = 9 and
9. Simplify .
a3 + 1 h = 16.

4 a2 21. If s = u + 1 at 2, find the exact value of s

10. Factorise - 2. 2
2
x b when u = 2, a = 3 and t = 2 3 .
3
Equations

TERMINOLOGY

Absolute value: the distance of a number from zero on a pronumeral that is solved to find values that make the
number line statement true e.g. 2x - 3 2 4
Equation: A mathematical statement that has a Quadratic equation: An equation involving x 2 as the
pronumeral or unknown number and an equal sign. highest power of x that may have two, one or no
An equation can be solved to find the value of the solutions
unknown number e.g. 2x - 3 = 5
Simultaneous equations: Two or more independent
Exponential equation: Equation where the unknown equations that can be solved together to produce a
pronumeral is the power or index e.g. 2 x = 8 solution that makes each equation true at the same time.
The number of equations required is the same as the
Inequation: A mathematical statement involving an
number of unknowns
inequality sign, 1, 2, # or $ that has an unknown
 Chapter 3 Equations 95

INTRODUCTION
EQUATIONS ARE FOUND IN most branches of mathematics. They are also
important in many other fields, such as science, economics, statistics and
engineering. In this chapter you will revise basic equations and inequations.
Equations involving absolute values, exponential equations, quadratic
equations and simultaneous equations are also covered here.

DID YOU KNOW?

Algebra was known in ancient civilisations. Many equations were known in Babylonia, although
general solutions were difficult because symbols were not used in those times.
Diophantus, around 250 AD, first used algebraic notation and symbols (e.g. the minus sign).
He wrote a treatise on algebra in his Arithmetica, comprising 13 books. Only six of these books
survived. About 400 AD, Hypatia of Alexandria wrote a commentary on them.
Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, a mathematician who ensured that she had the best
education. She was the first female mathematician on record, and was a philosopher and teacher.
She was murdered for her philosophical views by a fanatical Christian sect.
In 1799 Carl Friedrich Gauss proved the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: that every
algebraic equation has a solution.

PROBLEM

The age of Diophantus at his death can be calculated from this epitaph:

Diophantus passed one-sixth of his life in childhood, one-twelfth in youth, and

DIDone-seventh
YOU more
KNOW?as a bachelor; five years after his marriage a son was born
who died four years before his father at half his father’s final age. How old
Boxwas Diophantus?
text...

Simple Equations
Here are the four rules for changing numbers or pronumerals from one side of
an equation to the other.

Do the opposite operation

• If a number is added, subtract it from both sides to take a number to the
other side of an equation.
• If a number is subtracted, add it to both sides
• If a number is multiplied, divide both sides by the number
• If a number is divided, multiply both sides by the number
96 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. 3x + 5 = 17

Solution
3x + 5 = 17
3x + 5 - 5 = 17 - 5
3x = 12
3x 12
=
3 3
x=4
You can check the solution by substituting the value into the equation.
LHS = 3x + 5
= 3 ( 4) + 5
= 12 + 5
= 17
= RHS
Since LHS = RHS, x = 4 is the correct solution.

2. 4y - 3 = 8y + 21

Solution
4y - 3 = 8y + 21
4 y - 4y - 3 = 8y - 4y + 21
-3 = 4y + 21
- 3 - 21 = 4y + 21 - 21
- 24 = 4y
- 24 4y
=
4 4
-6 = y
` y = -6

3. 2 ] 3x + 7 g = 6 - ] x - 1 g

Solution
Check these solutions
by substituting them
into the equation.
2 (3 x + 7 ) = 6 - ( x - 1 )
6x + 14 = 6 - x + 1
=7-x
6x + x + 14 = 7 - x + x
7x + 14 = 7
 Chapter 3 Equations 97

7x + 14 - 14 = 7 - 14
7x = -7
7x -7
=
7 7
x = -1

3.1 Exercises
Solve

1. t + 4 = -1 x
16. -3 =7
2
2. z + 1.7 = -3.9
m
17. + 7 = 11
3. y - 3 = -2 5

4. w - 2 .6 = 4 .1 18. 3x + 5 = 17

5. 5 = x -7 19. 4a + 7 = - 21

6. 1.5x = 6 20. 7y - 1 = 20

21. 8b - 4 = - 36
7. 5y = 1
3
22. 3 (x + 2) = 15
b
8. =5
7 23. -2 (3a + 1) = 8
n 24. 7t + 4 = 3t - 12
9. -2 =
8
r 2 25. x - 3 = 6x - 9
10. =
6 3
26. 2 (a - 2) = 4 - 3a
11. 2y + 1 = 19
27. 5b + 2 = - 3(b - 1)
12. 33 = 4k + 9
28. 3 (t + 7) = 2 (2t - 9)
13. 7d - 2 = 12
29. 2 + 5( p - 1) = 5p - ( p - 2)
14. -2 = 5x - 27
30. 3.7x + 1.2 = 5.4x - 6.3
y
15. +4=9
3

A S TA R T L I N G FA C T !
Half full = half empty
` full = empty
98 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Equations involving fractions

There are different ways to solve this type of equation. One way is to multiply
both sides of the equation by the common denominator of the fractions.

EXAMPLES

Solve
m 1
1. -4=
3 2

Solution
m 1
Multiply by -4 =
the common
3 2
m
denominator, 6. 6c m - 6 (4) = 6 c 1 m
3 2
2m - 24 = 3
2m - 24 + 24 = 3 + 24
2m = 27
2m 27
=
2 2
27
m=
2
= 13 1
2

x+1 x
2. + =5
3 4

Solution

x +1 x
The common
+ =5
3 4
denominator of
x +1
12 c m + 12 c m = 12 (5)
3 and 4 is 12.
x
3 4
4 (x + 1) + 3x = 60
4x + 4 + 3x = 60
7x + 4 = 60
7x + 4 - 4 = 60 - 4
7x = 56
7x 56
=
7 7
x=8
 Chapter 3 Equations 99

y +1 y-2 5
3. - =
5 3 6

Solution

y +1 y-2 5
- =
5 3 6 The common
y +1 y -2 denominator of 5, 3
30 e o - 30 e o = 30 c 5 m and 6 is 30.
5 3 6
6 (y + 1) - 10 (y - 2) = 25
6y + 6 - 10y + 20 = 25
- 4y + 26 = 25
- 4y + 26 - 26 = 25 - 26
- 4y = -1
- 4y -1
=
-4 -4
y=1
4

When there is a fraction on either side of the equation, multiplying by

the common denominator is the same as cross multiplying.

EXAMPLES

5 8
1. Solve x = (x ! 0 )
3

Solution
5 8
x =3
8x = 15
8x 15
=
8 8
7
x=1
8

^n ! 0h
8 3
2. Solve =
5 2n

Solution
8 3
=
5 2n
16n = 15
16n 15
=
16 16
15
n=
16
100 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3.2 Exercises
Solve
x x 3
b 2 14. - =
1. = 5 2 10
5 3
x+4 x
7 1 15. + =1
2. x = 5 (x ! 0 ) 3 2

p-3 2p
4 9 16. + =2
3. y = 10 (y ! 0) 2 3

t +3 t -1
4.
5x
=
11 17. + =4
4 7 7 3

x+5 x+2
4 9 18. - =1
5. = ( k ! 0) 9 5
5 2k
x q-1 q-2
6. -4=8 19. - =2
3 3 4

5t 3 x+3 x +7
7. = 20. +2=
4 4 5 2

5+x 2 3b 1 b
8. = 21. - =
7 7 4 5 2
y 3 a 3 5
9. =- 22. + =
2 5 3 4 8

^ x ! 0, -2 h
x 2 5 3
10. - =7 23. =x
9 3 x+2

w-3 c y ! -1, m
1 1 1
11. =5 24. =
2 y +1 3y - 1 3

= 0 ^ t ! 3, - 4 h
2t t 2 1
12. - =2 25. +
5 3 t-3 t+4

x 1
13. + =4
4 2

Substitution
Sometimes substituting values into a formula involves solving an equation.

Investigation

Body mass index (BMI) is a formula that is used to measure body fatness
and is used by health professionals to screen for weight categories that
may lead to health problems.
 Chapter 3 Equations 101

This is not the only measure that is used when looking for health
problems, however. For example, there are other factors in cardiac (heart)
disease. Research these to find out what other things doctors look for.

The BMI is used in a different way with children and teens, and is taken
in relation to the child’s age.

w
The formula for BMI is BMI = 2 where w is weight in kg and h is height
h
in metres.

For adults over 20, a BMI under

18.5 means that the person
is underweight and over 25 is
overweight. Over 30 is obese.

The BMI may not always be

reliable in measuring body fat. Can
you think of some reasons?

Is it important where the body fat

is stored? Does it make a difference if it is on the hips or the stomach?

Research these questions and find out more about BMI generally.

EXAMPLES

1. The formula for the surface area of a rectangular prism is given by

S = 2 (lb + bh + lh) . Find the value of b when S = 180, l = 9 and h = 6.

Solution

S = 2 (lb + bh + lh)
180 = 2 (9b + 6b + 9 # 6)
= 2 (15b + 54)
= 30b + 108
180 - 108 = 30b + 108 - 108
72 = 30b Another way of doing
this would be to change
72 30b
= the subject of the
30 30 formula first.
2. 4 = b

CONTINUED
102 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. The volume of a cylinder is given by V = rr 2 h. Evaluate the radius r,

correct to 2 decimal places, when V = 350 and h = 6.5.

Solution
V = rr 2 h
350 = rr 2 (6.5)
350 r r 2 ( 6 .5 )
=
6 .5 r 6.5r
350
= r2
6 .5 r
350
= r2
6 .5 r
350
=r
6 .5 r
4.14 = r

3.3 Exercises

1. Given that v = u + at is the 7. The area of a rhombus is given by

formula for the velocity of the formula A = 1 xy where x and
2
a particle at time t, find the y are its diagonals. Find the value
value of t when u = 17.3, of x correct to 2 decimal places
v = 100.6 and a = 9.8. when y = 7.8 and A = 25.1.
2. The sum of an arithmetic series is 8. The simple interest formula is
n
given by S = (a + l ) . Find l if I=
Pr n
. Find n if r = 14.5,
2 100
a = 3, n = 26 and S = 1625. P = 150 and I = 326.25.
3. The formula for finding the area 9. The gradient of a straight
of a triangle is A = 1 bh. Find b y2 - y1
2 line is given by m = x - x .
when A = 36 and h = 9. 2 1

Find y 1 when m = - 5 ,
6
4. The area of a trapezium is given
y 2 = 7, x 2 = - 3 and x 1 = 1.
by A = 1 h (a + b) . Find
2
10. The surface area of a cylinder
the value of a when A = 120,
is given by the formula
h = 5 and b = 7.
S = 2rr ] r + h g . Evaluate h
5. Find the value of y when x = 3, correct to 1 decimal place if
given the straight line equation S = 232 and r = 4.5.
5x - 2y - 7 = 0.

6. The area of a circle is given

by A = rr 2 . Find r correct to 3
significant figures if A = 140.
 Chapter 3 Equations 103

There are two solutions to

11. The formula for body mass index 15. If y = x 2 + 1, evaluate x when this question.
w y = 5.
is BMI = 2 . Evaluate
h
(a) the BMI when w = 65 and 16. If the surface area of a sphere
h = 1.6 is S = 4rr 2, evaluate r to 3
(b) w when BMI = 21.5 and significant figures when S = 56.3.
h = 1.8
17. The area of a sector of a circle
(c) h when BMI = 19.7 and 1
w = 73.8. is A = r 2 i. Evaluate r when
2
A = 24.6 and i = 0.45.
12. A formula for depreciation
is D = P ] 1 - r g n . Find r if 18. If y =
2
, find the value of x
D = 12 000, P = 15 000 and n = 3. x3 - 1
when y = 3.
13. The x-value of the midpoint is
x1 + x2 19. Given y = 2x + 5 , evaluate x
given by x = . Find x1 when y = 4.
2
when x = - 2 and x 2 = 5.
20. The volume of a sphere is
4
14. Given the height of a particle at V = rr 3. Evaluate r to 1 decimal
3
time t is h = 5t 2, evaluate t when place when V = 150.
h = 23.

Inequations

• 2 means greater than

• 1 means less than
• $ means greater than or equal to
• # means less than or equal to

In order to solve inequations, we need to see what effect one operation applied
to both sides has on the inequality sign.

If a 2 b then a + c 2 b + c for all c

For example, 3 2 2 and 3 + 1 2 2 + 1 are both true.

If a 2 b then a - c 2 b - c for all c

For example, 3 2 2 and 3 - 1 2 2 - 1 are both true.

104 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

If a 2 b then ac 2 bc for all c 2 0

For example, 3 2 2 and 3 # 2 2 2 # 2 are both true.

If a 2 b then ac 1 bc for all c 1 0

For example, 3 2 2 but 3 # -2 1 2 # -2.

If a 2 b then a ' c 2 b ' c for all c 2 0

For example, 6 2 4 and 6 ' 2 2 4 ' 2 are both true.

If a 2 b then a ' c 1 b ' c for all c 1 0

For example, 6 2 4 but 6 ' -2 1 4 ' -2.

1 1
If a 2 b then a 1 for all positive numbers a and b
b

1 1
For example, 3 2 2 but 1 .
3 2

The inequality sign reverses when:

• multiplying by a negative
• dividing by a negative
• taking the reciprocal of both sides

On the number plane, we graph inequalities using arrows and circles

(open for greater than and less than and closed in for greater than or
equal to and less than or equal to)
1

$
 Chapter 3 Equations 105

EXAMPLES

Solve and show the solutions on a number line

1. 5x + 7 $ 17

Solution

5x + 7 $ 17
5x + 7 - 7 $ 17 - 7
5x $ 10
5x 10
$
5 5
x$2

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

2. 3t - 2 2 5t + 4

Solution
3t - 2 2 5t + 4
3t - 3t - 2 2 5t - 3t + 4
-2 2 2t + 4
- 2 - 4 2 2t + 4-4
-6 2 2t
-6 2t
2
2 2
-3 2 t
or
3t - 2 2 5t + 4
3t - 5t - 2 2 5t - 5t + 4
-2t - 2 24
- 2t - 2 + 2 24+2
-2t 26
Remember to change
-2t 6
2 the inequality sign when
-2 -2 dividing by -2.
t 1 -3

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

CONTINUED
106 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Solve 1 1 2z + 7 # 11.

Solution
Method 1: Separate into two separate questions.
(i) 1 1 2z + 7
1 - 7 1 2z + 7 - 7
- 6 1 2z
-6 2z
1
2 2
-3 1 z
(ii) 2z + 7 # 11
2z + 7 - 7 # 11 - 7
2z # 4
2z 4
#
2 2
z #2
Putting these together gives the solution -3 1 z # 2.
Method 2: Do as a single question.
1 1 2z + 7 # 11
1 - 7 1 2z + 7 - 7 # 11 - 7
-6 1 2z # 4
-6 2z 4
Solving this inequation as a 1 #
single question is quicker than 2 2 2
splitting it into two parts. -3 1 z # 2
Notice that the circle is not
filled in for 1 and filled in
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
for #.

3.4 Exercises

1. Solve and plot the solution on a (h) 2x + 9 1 1 - 4 (x + 1)

number line a
(i) # - 3
(a) x + 4 2 7 2
(b) y - 3 # 1 2y
(j) 8 2
3
2. Solve b
(k) + 5 1 - 4
(a) 5t 2 35 2
(b) 3x - 7 $ 2 x
(l) - 4 2 6
(c) 2 (p + 5) 2 8 3
(d) 4 - (x - 1) # 7 1 x
(m) + # 1
(e) 3y + 5 2 2y - 4 4 5
(f) 2a - 6 # 5a - 3 m 2
(n) -3 2
(g) 3 + 4y $ - 2 (1 - y) 4 3
 Chapter 3 Equations 107

2b 1 2x x -1 2
(o) - $6 (v) - 2
5 2 3 2 9
r-3 2b - 5 b+6
(p) # -6 (w) +3#
2 8 12
z+1
(q) +223 3. Solve and plot the solutions on a
9
number line
w 2w + 5
(r) + 14 (a) 3 1 x + 2 1 9
6 3
(b) -4 # 2p 1 10
x+1 x-2
(s) - $7 (c) 2 1 3x - 1 1 11
2 3
(d) -6 # 5y + 9 # 34
t+2 t+3
(t) - #2 (e) -2 1 3 (2y - 1) 1 7
7 2
q-2 3q
(u) 12+
3 4

PROBLEM

Find a solution for this sum. Is it a unique solution?

CR OS S
+RO A DS
DANGE R

Equations and Inequations Involving Absolute Values

On a number line, x means the distance of x from zero in either direction.

EXAMPLES

Plot on a number line and evaluate x

1. x = 2

Solution
x = 2 means the distance of x from zero is 2 (in either direction).
2 2

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x = !2

CONTINUED
108 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. x # 2

Solution
x # 2 means the distance of x from zero is less than or equal to 2 (in
either direction).

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
The solution of
| x | 1 2 would be
Notice that there is one region on the number line. We can write this as
- 2 1 x 1 2. the single statement - 2 # x # 2.

3. x 2 2

Solution
x 2 2 means the distance of x from zero is greater than 2 (in either
direction).
2 2

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
The solution of
| x | $ 2 would be There are two regions on the number line, so we write two separate
x # - 2, x $ 2. inequalities x 1 - 2, x 2 2.

x = a means x = ! a

x 1 a means -a 1 x 1 a

x 2 a means x 2 a, x 1 -a

Class Discussion

What does a - b mean as a distance along the number line?

Select different values of a and b to help with this discussion.

We use absolute value as a distance on a number line to solve equations

and inequations involving absolute values.
 Chapter 3 Equations 109

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. x + 4 = 7

Solution
This means that the distance from x + 4 to zero is 7 in either direction.
So x + 4 = ! 7.
x+4 =7
x+4=7 or x + 4 = -7
x+4-4=7-4 x + 4 - 4 = -7 - 4
x=3 x = -11

2. 2y - 1 1 5

Solution
This means that the distance from 2y - 1 to zero is less than 5 in either
direction. So it means - 5 1 2y - 1 1 5.
- 5 1 2y - 1 1 5
- 5 + 1 1 2y - 1 + 1 1 5 + 1 You could solve these as
two separate inequations.
-4 2y 6
1 1
2 2 2
-2 1 y 1 3

3. 5b - 7 $ 3

Solution
5b - 7 $ 3 means that the distance from 5b - 7 to zero is greater than
or equal to 3 in either direction.
5b - 7 # - 3 5b - 7 $ 3
5b - 7 + 7 # -3 + 7 5b - 7 + 7 $ 3 + 7
5b # 4 5b $ 10
5b 4 5b 10
# $
5 5 5 5
4
b # b$2
5 These must be solved
4 and written as two
So b # , b $ 2. separate inequations.
5
110 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

While it is always a good habit to check solutions to equations and

inequations by substituting in values, in these next examples it is essential to
check, as some of the solutions are impossible!

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. 2x + 1 = 3x - 2

Solution
2x + 1 = 3x - 2 means that 2x + 1 is at a distance of 3x - 2 from zero.
2x + 1 = ! ] 3x - 2 g
This question is impossible if 3x - 2 is negative. Can you see why? If
2x + 1 is equal to a negative number, this is impossible as the absolute
value is always positive.
Case (i)
2x + 1 = 3x - 2
2x - 2x + 1 = 3x - 2x - 2
1=x-2
1+2=x-2+2
3=x
Check solution is possible:
Substitute x = 3 into 2x + 1 = 3x - 2.
LHS = 2 # 3 + 1
= 7
=7
RHS = 3 # 3 - 2
=9-2
=7
Since LHS = RHS, x = 3 is a solution.
Case (ii)
2 x + 1 = - ( 3x - 2 )
= - 3x + 2
2x + 3x + 1 = - 3 x + 3x + 2
5x + 1 = 2
5x + 1 - 1 = 2 - 1
5x = 1
5x 1
=
5 5
1
x=
5
 Chapter 3 Equations 111

Check:
1
Substitute x = into 2x + 1 = 3x - 2.
5
1
LHS = 2 # + 1
5
2
= 1
5
2
=1
5
1
RHS = 3 # - 2
5
3
= -2
5
2
= -1
5
It is often easier to solve
1
Since LHS ! RHS, x = is not a solution. these harder equations
5 graphically. You will do
So the only solution is x = 3. this in Chapter 5.

2. 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9

Solution
In this question it is difficult to use distances on the number line, so we
use the definition of absolute value.
2x - 3
2x - 3 = ' - (2 when 2x - 3 $ 0
x - 3) when 2x - 3 1 0
x + 1 = ' -(xx ++1 when x + 1 $ 0
1) when x + 1 1 0
This gives 4 cases:
(i) (2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9
(ii) (2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9
(iii) -(2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9
(iv) -(2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9
Case (i)
( 2x - 3 ) + ( x + 1 ) = 9
2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9
3x - 2 = 9
3x - 2 + 2 = 9 + 2
3x = 11
3x 11
=
3 3
2
x=3
3
2
Check by substituting x = 3 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
3
CONTINUED
112 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2 2
LHS = 2 # 3 -3 + 3 +1
3 3
1 2
= 4 + 4
3 3
1 2
=4 +4
3 3
=9
= RHS
2
So x = 3 is a solution.
3
Case (ii)
( 2 x - 3 ) - (x + 1 ) = 9
2x - 3 - x - 1 = 9
x-4=9
x-4+4=9+4
x = 13
Check by substituting x = 13 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
LHS = 2 # 13 - 3 + 13 + 1
= 23 + 14
= 23 + 14
= 37
! RHS
So x = 13 is not a solution.
Case (iii)
-(2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9
- 2x + 3 + x + 1 = 9
-x + 4 = 9
-x + 4 - 4 = 9 - 4
-x = 5
-x 5
=
-1 -1
x = -5
Check by substituting x = - 5 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
LHS = 2 # - 5 - 3 + - 5 + 1
= - 13 + - 4
= 13 + 4
= 17
! RHS
So x = - 5 is not a solution.
Case (iv)
- (2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9
- 2x + 3 - x - 1 = 9
- 3x + 2 = 9
- 3x + 2 - 2 = 9 - 2
- 3x = 7
 Chapter 3 Equations 113

- 3x 7
=
-3 -3
1
x = -2
3
1
Check by substituting x = - 2 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
3
1 1
LHS = 2 # - 2 - 3 + - 2 + 1
3 3
2 1
= -7 + -1
3 3
2 1
= 7 +1
3 3
=9
= RHS
1
So x = - 2 is a solution.
3
2 1 You will learn how to
So solutions are x = 3 , - 2 . solve equations involving
3 3
absolute values graphically
in Chapter 5. With
graphical solutions it is
While you should always check solutions, you can see that there are some easy to see how many
cases where this is really important. solutions there are.

3.5 Exercises
Remember to check solutions
in questions 3, 4 and 5.
1. Solve 3. Solve
(a) x = 5 (a) x + 2 = 5x - 3
(b) y = 8 (b) 2a - 1 = a + 2
(c) b - 3 = 2b - 4
(c) a 1 4
(d) 3k - 2 = k - 4
(d) k $ 1
(e) 6y + 23 = y - 7
(e) x 2 6 (f) 4x + 3 = 5x - 4
(f) p # 10 (g) 2m - 5 = m
(g) x = 0 (h) 3d + 1 = d + 6
(h) a 2 14 (i) 5 - y = 4y + 1
(i) y 1 12 (j) 2t - 7 = 3 - t

(j) b $ 20
4. Solve

2. Solve (a) x + 3 = 3x - 1

(a) x + 2 = 7 (b) 2y - 5 = y - 2

(b) n - 1 = 3 (c) 3a + 1 = 2a - 9

(c) 2a 2 4 (d) 2x + 5 + x = 17

(d) x - 5 # 1 (e) 3d - 2 + d + 4 = 18

(e) 9 = 2x + 3 5. (a) Solve 4t - 3 + t - 1 = 11.

(f) 7x - 1 = 34 (b) By plotting the solutions on
(g) 4y + 3 1 11 a number line and looking at
(h) 2x - 3 $ 15 values in between the solutions,
x solve 4t - 3 + t - 1 1 11.
(i) =4
3
a
(j) -3 #2
2
114 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Exponential Equations
An exponential equation involves an unknown index or power e.g. 2 x = 8.
We can also solve other equations involving indices. In order to solve
these, you need to understand their relationship. For example, squares and
square roots are the reverse of each other (we call them inverse operations).
Similarly cubes and cube roots are inverses, and this extends to all indices.

To solve equations, use inverse operations:

For squares, take the square root
For cubes, take the cube root
For square roots, take the square
For cube roots, take the cube

You have previously used these rules when substituting into formulae
involving squares and cubes.

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. x 2 = 9

Solution
There are two possible
solutions for x – one
x2 = 9
positive and one
negative since 3 2 = 9 x2 = ! 9
and (- 3) 2 = 9. ` x= !3

2. 5n 3 = 40

Solution
5n 3 = 40
5n 3 40
There is only one =
5 5
answer for this
question since 2 3 = 8 n =8
3

but (- 2) 3 = -8. 3
n3 = 3 8
n=2
 Chapter 3 Equations 115

2
3. a 3 = 4

Solution
3 2

We use the fact that ` a j = ` a j = a.

2 2 3 3
3 2

2
a3 = 4
3

`a j = 4 2
2 2 3
3
3
a= 42
a = ^ 4h
3
`
= 23
=8

Investigation

Investigate equations of the type x n = k where k is a constant, for

example, x n = 9.

Look at these questions:

1. What is the solution when n = 0?

2. What is the solution when n = 1?
3. How many solutions are there when n = 2?
4. How many solutions are there when n = 3?
5. How many solutions are there when n is even?
6. How many solutions are there when n is odd?

In other types of equations, the pronumeral (or unknown variable) is in

the index. We call these exponential equations, and we use the fact that
if the base numbers are equal, then the powers (or indices or exponents)
must be equal.

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. 3 x = 81

Solution
3 x = 81
Equating indices:
3x = 34
`x=4
CONTINUED
116 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. 5 2k - 1 = 25

Solution

5 2k - 1 = 25
5 2k - 1 = 5 2
` 2k - 1 = 2
2k - 1 + 1 = 2 + 1
2k = 3
2k 3
We can check this solution =
1 2 2
by substituting k = 1 into
2 1
the equation 5 2k -1 = 25. k=1
2

3. 8 n = 4

Solution
It is hard to write 8 as a power of 4 or 4 as a power of 8, but both can be
written as powers of 2.
8n = 4
3 n
(2 ) = 2 2
2 3n = 2 2
` 3n = 2
3n 2
=
3 3
2
n=
3

3.6 Exercises

1. Solve 2. Solve and give the answer correct

(a) x 3 = 27 to 2 decimal places.
(b) y 2 = 64 (a) p 2 = 45
(c) n 4 = 16 (b) x 3 = 100
(d) x 2 = 20 (give the exact answer) (c) n 5 = 240
(e) p 3 = 1000 (d) 2x 2 = 70
(f) 2x 2 = 50 (e) 4y 3 + 7 = 34
(g) 6y 4 = 486 d4
(f) = 14
(h) w 3 + 7 = 15 3
(i) 6n 2 - 4 = 92 k2
(g) -3=7
(j) 3q 3 + 20 = - 4 2
x3 - 1
(h) =2
5
(i) 2y 2 - 9 = 20
(j) 7y 3 + 9 = 200
 Chapter 3 Equations 117

3. Solve 6. Solve
2
(a) 2 n = 16
(a) n = 9
3

3 (b) 3 y = 243
(b) t 4 = 8 (c) 2 m = 512
2
(c) x 5 = 4 (d) 10 x = 100 000
4 (e) 6 m = 1
(d) t 3 = 16
3
(f) 4 x = 64
(e) p 5 = 27 (g) 4 x + 3 = 19
3
(h) 5 (3 x ) = 45
(f) 2m 4 = 250
2 (i) 4 x = 4
(g) b 3 + 3 = 39 6k
4 (j) = 18
(h) 5y 3 = 405 2
2
(i) 3a 7 - 2 = 10 7. Solve
3
4
(a) 3 2x = 81
t
(j) =9 (b) 2 5x - 1 = 16
3
(c) 4 x + 3 = 4
4. Solve (all pronumerals ! 0)
(d) 3 n - 2 = 1
(a) x - 1 = 5
(e) 7 2x + 1 = 7
(b) a - 3 = 8
(f) 3 x - 3 = 27
(c) y - 5 = 32
(g) 5 3y + 2 = 125
(d) x - 2 + 1 = 50
(h) 7 3x - 4 = 49
(e) 2n - 1 = 3
(i) 2 4x = 256
1
(f) a - 3 = (j) 9 3a + 1 = 9
8
-2 1
(g) x = 8. Solve
4
(a) 4 m = 2
1
(h) b - 1 = (b) 27 x = 3
9
1 (c) 125 x = 5
(i) x - 2 = 2
(d) c m =7
4 1 k
16 49
(j) b - 4 =
(e) c m = 100
81 1 k
5. Solve (all pronumerals ! 0) 1000
-
1 (f) 16 n = 8
(a) x 3
=8 (g) 25 x = 125
3
- 8 (h) 64 n = 16
(b) x 2
=
125
(i) c m = 2
1
1 3k
-
(c) a 4
=3 4
-
3 (j) 8 x - 1 = 4
(d) k 4
= 125
2
- 9. Solve
(e) 3x 3
= 12
3 (a) 2 4x + 1 = 8 x
- 1
(f) x 2
= (b) 3 5x = 9 x - 2
8
-
2
1 (c) 7 2k + 3 = 7 k - 1
(g) y =3
4 (d) 4 3n = 8 n + 3
-
2
4 (e) 6 x - 5 = 216 x
(h) n 5 =
9 (f) 16 2x - 1 = 4 x - 4
-
5
1 (g) 27 x + 3 = 3 x
(i) b 3
=
1 2x + 3
(h) c m = c m
32 1 x
-
2
36 2 64
(j) m 3
=
49
118 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

27 2x - 3
(i) c m = c
3 x
m (d) 3 k = 3 3
4 64 1 3n + 1
(e) c m
3
1 x-9 =
(j) ] 5 g- x = c m 27 81
25
2 3n + 1 5 -n
(f) c m =c m
10. Solve 5 2
(a) 4 m = 1
2 (g) 32 - x =
16
9 k+3
(b) c m
3
= (h) 9 2b + 5 = 3 b 3
25 5
1 (i) 81 x + 1 = 3x
(c) = 4 2x - 5
1 3m - 5
2 (j) 25 - m = c m
5

PUZZLE

Test your logical thinking and that of your friends.

1. How many months have 28 days?
2. If I have 128 sheep and take away all but 10, how many
do I have left?
3. A bottle and its cork cost $1.10 to make. If the bottle costs $1 more
than the cork, how much does each cost?
4. What do you get if you add 1 to 15 four times?
5. On what day of the week does Good Friday fall in 2016?

Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation is an equation involving a square. For example, x 2 - 4 = 0.

Solving by factorisation

When solving quadratic equations by factorising, we use a property of zero.

For any real numbers a and b, if ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. x 2 + x - 6 = 0

Solution

x2 + x - 6 = 0
(x + 3) (x - 2) = 0
 Chapter 3 Equations 119

` x+3=0 or x-2=0
x+3-3=0-3 x-2+2 =0 +2
x = -3 or x= 2

So the solution is x = - 3 or 2.

2. y 2 - 7y = 0

Solution

y 2 - 7y = 0
y ( y - 7) = 0
` y=0 or y-7=0
y-7+7=0+7
y=7
So the solution is y = 0 or 7.

3. 3a 2 - 14a = - 8

Solution

3a 2 - 14a = - 8
3a 2 - 14a + 8 = - 8 + 8
3a 2 - 14a + 8 = 0
(3a - 2) (a - 4) = 0
` 3a - 2 = 0 or a-4 =0
3a - 2 + 2 = 0 or a-4+4 =0+4
3a = 2 a=4
3a 2
=
3 3
2
a=
3
2
So the solution is a = or 4.
3

3.7 Exercises

Solve

1. y2 + y = 0 4. t 2 - 5t = 0

2. b2 - b - 2 = 0 5. x 2 + 9x + 14 = 0

3. p 2 + 2p - 15 = 0 6. q2 - 9 = 0
120 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

7. x2 - 1 = 0 17. 5x - x 2 = 0

8. a 2 + 3a = 0 18. y 2 = y + 2

9. 2x 2 + 8x = 0 19. 8n = n 2 + 15

10. 4x 2 - 1 = 0 20. 12 = 7x - x 2

11. 3x 2 + 7x + 4 = 0 21. m 2 = 6 - 5m

12. 2y 2 + y - 3 = 0 22. x (x + 1) (x + 2) = 0

13. 8b 2 - 10b + 3 = 0 23. (y - 1) (y + 5) (y + 2) = 0

14. x 2 - 3x = 10 24. (x + 3) (x - 1) = 32

15. 3x 2 = 2x 25. (m - 3) (m - 4) = 20

16. 2x 2 = 7x - 5

Application
1 2
A formula for displacement s at time t is given by s = ut + at where u is the
2
initial velocity and a is the acceleration. Find the time when the displacement will
be zero, given u = - 12 and a = 10.

s = ut + 1 at
2
2
0 = -12t + 1 (10) t
2
2
2
= -12t + 5t
= t (-12 + 5t )
` t = 0 or -12 + 5t = 0
-12 + 12 + 5t = 0 + 12
5t = 12
5t 12
=
5 5
t = 2.4
So displacement will be zero when t = 0 or 2.4.

Solving by completing the square

Not all trinomials will factorise, so other methods need to be used to solve
quadratic equations.
 Chapter 3 Equations 121

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. x 2 = 7

Solution

x2 = 7
x=! 7
= ! 2.6

2. ] x + 3 g2 = 11

Solution
] x + 3 g2 = 11 Take the square root of
x + 3 = ! 11 both sides.

x + 3 - 3 = ! 11 - 3
x = ! 11 - 3
= 0.3, - 6.3

3. ^ y - 2 h2 = 7

Solution

^ y - 2 h2 = 7
y-2=! 7
y-2+2=! 7+2
y=! 7+2
= 4.6, - 0.6

You learnt how to

To solve a quadratic equation like x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0, which will not factorise, we complete the square in
Chapter 2.
can use the method of completing the square.

EXAMPLES

Solve by completing the square

1. x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0 (give exact answer)

Solution

x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0 Halve 6, square it and

2 add to both sides of the
x 2 - 6x = - 3 c 6 m = 32 = 9 equation.
2

CONTINUED
122 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

x 2 - 6x + 9 = - 3 + 9
] x - 3 g2 = 6
` x-3=! 6
x-3+3=! 6+3
x=! 6+3

2. y 2 + 2y - 7 = 0 (correct to 3 significant figures)

Solution
y 2 + 2y - 7 = 0
2
y 2 + 2y = 7 c 2 m = 12 = 1
2
y 2 + 2y + 1 = 7 + 1
^ y + 1 h2 = 8
` y+1=! 8
y + 1 - 1 = ! 8 -1
y = ! 8 -1
= !2 2 - 1
y = 1.83 or - 3.83

3.8 Exercises

1. Solve by completing the square, 2. Solve by completing the square

giving exact answers in simplest and write your answers correct to
surd form 3 significant figures
(a) x 2 + 4x - 1 = 0 (a) x 2 - 2x - 5 = 0
(b) a 2 - 6a + 2 = 0 (b) x 2 + 12x + 34 = 0
(c) y 2 - 8y - 7 = 0 (c) q 2 + 18q - 1 = 0
(d) x 2 + 2x - 12 = 0 (d) x 2 - 4x - 2 = 0
(e) p 2 + 14p + 5 = 0 (e) b 2 + 16b + 50 = 0
(f) x 2 - 10x - 3 = 0 (f) x 2 - 24x + 112 = 0
(g) y 2 + 20y + 12 = 0 (g) r 2 - 22r - 7 = 0
(h) x 2 - 2x - 1 = 0 (h) x 2 + 8x + 5 = 0
(i) n 2 + 24n + 7 = 0 (i) a 2 + 6a - 1 = 0
(j) y 2 - 3y + 1 = 0 (j) y 2 - 40y - 3 = 0

Solving by formula

Completing the square is difficult with harder quadratic equations, for

example 2x 2 - x - 5 = 0. Completing the square on a general quadratic
equation gives the following formula.
 Chapter 3 Equations 123

For the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0

-b ! b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a

Proof
Solve ax 2 + b + c = 0 by completing the square.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 bx c 0
a + a +a=a
bx c
x2 + a + a = 0
bx c c c
x2 + a + a - a = 0 - a
2 2 2
bx c b b ' 2l = c b m = b 2
x2 + a = - a a 2a 4a
bx b2 c b2
x2 + a + 2 = - a + 2
4a 4a
b 2 c b2
cx + m = -a + 2
2a 4a
- 4ac + b 2
=
4a 2
b - 4ac + b 2
x+ =!
2a 4a 2
b - 4ac
2
=!
2a
b b b 2 - 4ac b
x+ - =! -
2a 2a 2a 2a
-b b 2 - 4ac
x= !
2a 2a
- b ! b - 4ac
2
=
2a

EXAMPLES

1. Solve x 2 - x - 2 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.

Solution
a = 1, b = -1, c = - 2
-b ! b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a
- (-1) ! (-1) 2 - 4 (1) (-2)
=
2 (1 )
1! 1+8
=
2
CONTINUED
124 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1! 3 1! 9
x =
2
gives two =
1+ 3 2
separate solutions,
2 1!3
and
1- 3
. =
2 2
= 2 or - 1

2. Solve 2y 2 - 9y + 3 = 0 by formula and give your answer correct to

2 decimal places.

Solution
a = 2, b = -9, c = 3
-b ! b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a
- ] -9 g ! ] -9 g2 - 4 ] 2 g ] 3 g
y=
2] 2 g
9 ! 81 - 24
=
4
9 ! 57
These solutions are
=
irrational. 4
Z 4.14 or 0.36

3.9 Exercises

1. Solve by formula, correct to 3 2. Solve by formula, leaving the

significant figures where necessary answer in simplest surd form
(a) y 2 + 6y + 2 = 0 (a) x 2 + x - 4 = 0
(b) 2x 2 - 5x + 3 = 0 (b) 3x 2 - 5x + 1 = 0
(c) b 2 - b - 9 = 0 (c) q 2 - 4q - 3 = 0
(d) 2x 2 - x - 1 = 0 (d) 4h 2 + 12h + 1 = 0
(e) - 8x 2 + x + 3 = 0 (e) 3s 2 - 8s + 2 = 0
(f) n 2 + 8n - 2 = 0 (f) x 2 + 11x - 3 = 0
(g) m 2 + 7m + 10 = 0 (g) 6d 2 + 5d - 2 = 0
(h) x 2 - 7x = 0 (h) x 2 - 2x = 7
(i) x 2 + 5x = 6 (i) t 2 = t + 1
(j) y 2 = 3y - 1 (j) 2x 2 + 1 = 7x

Class Investigation

Here is a proof that 1 = 2. Can you see the fault in the proof?
x2 - x2 = x2 - x2
x(x - x) = (x + x) (x - x)
x=x+x
x = 2x
` 1=2
 Chapter 3 Equations 125

Quadratic Inequations
Solving quadratic inequations is similar to solving quadratic equations, but
you need to do this in two stages. The first is to solve the equation and then
the second step is to look at either the number line or the number plane for
the inequality.

To solve a quadratic inequation:

1. Factorise and solve the quadratic equation
2. Test values in the inequality

In Chapter 9 you will look at how to use the number plane to solve these
quadratic inequations. Here are some examples of solving quadratic
inequations using the number line.

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. x 2 + x - 6 2 0

Solution
Be careful: x 2 + x - 6 2 0
First solve x + x - 6 = 0
2
does not mean x - 2 2 0
and x + 3 2 0.
(x - 2 ) (x + 3 ) = 0
` x = 2 or -3
Now look at the number line.

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Choose a number between - 3 and 2, say x = 0.

Substitute x = 0 into the inequation.

x2 + x - 6 2 0
02 + 0 - 6 2 0
-6 2 0 (false)
So the solution is not between -3 and 2.
` the solution lies either side of -3 and 2.
Check by choosing a number on either side of the two numbers.
Choose a number on the RHS of 2, say x = 3.
CONTINUED
126 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Substitute x = 3 into the inequation.

32 + 3 - 6 2 0
620 (true)
So the solution is on the RHS of 2.
Choose a number on the LHS of -3, say x = -4
Substitute x = -4 into the inequation
( - 4) 2 + ( -4) - 6 2 0
620 (true)
So the solution is on the LHS of -3.

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

This gives the solution x 1 -3, x 2 2.

2. 9 - x 2 $ 0

Solution

First solve 9 - x 2 = 0
(3 - x) (3 + x) = 0
` x = !3

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Choose a number between -3 and 3, say x = 0.

Substitute x = 0 into the inequation.
9 - x2 $ 0
Check numbers on the 9 - 02 $ 0
RHS and LHS to verify this. 9$0 (true)
So the solution is between -3 and 3, that is -3 # x # 3.
On the number line:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
 Chapter 3 Equations 127

3.10 Exercises

Solve
1. x 2 + 3x 1 0 14. 6 - 13b - 5b 2 1 0

2. y 2 - 4y 1 0 15. 6x 2 + 11x + 3 # 0

3. n2 - n $ 0 16. y 2 + y # 12

4. x2 - 4 $ 0 17. x 2 2 16

5. 1 - n2 1 0 18. a 2 # 1

6. n 2 + 2n - 15 # 0 19. x 2 1 x + 6

7. c2 - c - 2 2 0 20. x 2 $ 2x + 3

8. x 2 + 6x + 8 # 0 21. x 2 1 2x

9. x 2 - 9x + 20 1 0 22. 2a 2 - 5a + 3 # 0

10. 4b 2 + 10b + 4 $ 0 23. 5y 2 + 6y $ 8

11. 1 - 2a - 3a 2 1 0 24. 6m 2 2 15 - m

12. 2y 2 - y - 6 2 0 25. 3x 2 # 7x - 4

13. 3x 2 - 5x + 2 $ 0

Simultaneous Equations
Two equations, each with two unknown pronumerals, can be solved together
to find one solution that satisfies both equations.
There are different ways of solving simultaneous equations. The
elimination method adds or subtracts the equations. The substitution
method substitutes one equation into the other.

Linear equations

These equations can be solved by either method. Many students prefer the
elimination method.
128 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Solve simultaneously
1. 3a + 2b = 5 and 2a - b = -6

Solution
3a + 2b = 5 (1 )
2a - b = -6 (2 )
] 2 g # 2: 4a - 2b = -12 (3 )
] 1 g + (3): 3 a + 2b = 5 (1 )
7a = - 7
a = -1
Substitute a = -1 in (1)
3 (-1) + 2b = 5
-3 + 2b = 5
2b = 8
b=4
` solution is a = -1, b = 4

2. 5x - 3y = 19 and 2x - 4y = 16

Solution
5x - 3y = 19 ( 1)
2x - 4y = 16 ( 2)
(1) # 4: 20x - 12y = 76 (3 )
( 2 ) # 3: 6x - 12y = 48 (4 )
(3) - (4): 14x = 28
x=2
Substitute x = 2 in (2)
2 ( 2) - 4 y = 16
4 - 4y = 16
- 4y = 12
y = -3
 Chapter 3 Equations 129

3.11 Exercises

Solve simultaneously
1. a - b = -2 and a + b = 4 12. 3a - 4b = -16 and 2a + 3b = 12

2. 5x + 2y = 12 and 3x - 2y = 4 13. 5p + 2q + 18 = 0 and

2p - 3q + 11 = 0
3. 4p - 3q = 11 and 5p + 3q = 7
14. 7x 1 + 3x 2 = 4 and 3x 1 + 5x 2 = - 2
4. y = 3x - 1 and y = 2x + 5
15. 9x - 2y = -1 and 7x - 4y = 9
5. 2x + 3y = -14 and x + 3y = -4
16. 5s - 3t - 13 = 0 and
6. 7t + v = 22 and 4t + v = 13
3s - 7t - 13 = 0
7. 4x + 5y + 2 = 0 and
17. 3a - 2b = - 6 and a - 3b = - 2
4x + y + 10 = 0
18. 3k - 2h = -14 and
8. 2x - 4y = 28 and 2x - 3y = -11
2k - 5h = -13
9. 5x - y = 19 and 2x + 5y = -14
19. 2v 1 + 5v 2 - 16 = 0 and
10. 5m + 4n = 22 and m - 5n = -13 7v 1 + 2v 2 + 6 = 0

11. 4w 1 + 3w 2 = 11 and 3w 1 + w 2 = 2 20. 1.5x + 3.4y = 7.8 and

2 . 1 x - 1 . 7y = 1 . 8

PROBLEM

A group of 39 people went to see a play. There were both adults and
children in the group. The total cost of the tickets was $939, with
children paying $17 each and adults paying $29 each. How many in
the group were adults and how many were children? (Hint: let x be the
number of adults and y the number of children.)

Non-linear equations

In questions involving non-linear equations there may be more than one set
of solutions. In some of these, the elimination method cannot be used. Here
are some examples using the substitution method.
130 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Solve simultaneously
1. xy = 6 and x + y = 5

Solution
xy = 6 ( 1)
x+y=5 (2 )
From (2): y=5-x (3 )
Substitute (3) in (1)
x (5 - x) = 6
5x - x 2 = 6
0 = x 2 - 5x + 6
0 = (x - 2 ) (x - 3 )
` x - 2 = 0 or x - 3 = 0
x = 2 or x = 3
Substitute x = 2 in (3)
y=5-2=3
Substitute x = 3 in (3)
y=5-3=2
` solutions are x = 2, y = 3 and x = 3, y = 2

2. x 2 + y 2 = 16 and 3x - 4y - 20 = 0

Solution
x 2 + y 2 = 16 (1)
3x - 4y - 20 = 0 (2 )
From ] 2 g: 3x - 20 = 4y
3x - 20
=y (3)
4
Substitute (3) into (1)
3x - 20 2
x2 + c m = 16
4
9x 2 - 120x + 400 n
x2 + d = 16
16
16x 2 + 9x 2 - 120x + 400 = 256
25x 2 - 120x + 144 = 0
(5x - 12)2 = 0
` 5x - 12 = 0
5x = 12
x = 2.4
Substitute x = 2.4 into ] 3 g
3 (2.4) - 20
y=
4
= -3.2
So the solution is x = 2.4, y = -3.2.
 Chapter 3 Equations 131

3.12 Exercises

Solve the simultaneous equations.

1. y = x 2 and y = x 11. y = x - 1 and y = x 2 - 3

2. y = x 2 and 2x + y = 0 12. y = x 2 + 1 and y = 1 - x 2

3. x 2 + y 2 = 9 and x + y = 3 13. y = x 2 - 3x + 7 and y = 2x + 3

4. x - y = 7 and xy = -12 14. xy = 1 and 4x - y + 3 = 0

5. y = x 2 + 4x and 2x - y - 1 = 0 15. h = t 2 and h = ] t + 1 g2

6. y = x 2 and 6x - y - 9 = 0 16. x + y = 2 and 2x 2 + xy - y 2 = 8

7. x = t 2 and x + t - 2 = 0 17. y = x 3 and y = x 2 + 6x

8. m 2 + n 2 = 16 and m + n + 4 = 0 18. y = | x | and y = x 2

9. xy = 2 and y = 2x 19. y = x 2 - 7x + 6 and

24x + 4y - 23 = 0
10. y = x 3 and y = x 2
20. x 2 + y 2 = 1 and 5x + 12y + 13 = 0

Equations with 3 unknown variables

Three equations can be solved simultaneously to find 3 unknown Four unknowns need 4
pronumerals. equations, and so on.

EXAMPLE

Solve simultaneously a - b + c = 7, a + 2b - c = -4 and 3a - b - c = 3.

Solution

a-b +c=7 (1 )
a + 2b - c = - 4 (2)
3a - b - c = 3 (3)
(1) + (2): a-b+c=7
a + 2b - c = - 4
2a + b =3 ( 4)
(1) + (3): a- b+c=7
3a - b - c = 3
4a - 2b = 10
or 2a - b =5 (5)
(4) + (5): 2a + b =3
4a =8
a=2
132 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Substitute a = 2 in (4)
2 ( 2) + b = 3
You will solve 3
simultaneous equations in 4+b=3
later topics (for example, b = -1
in Chapter 9).
Substitute a = 2 and b = -1 in (1)
2 - (-1) + c = 7
2 +1 + c = 7
3+c=7
c=4
` solution is a = 2, b = -1, c = 4

3.13 Exercises

Solve the simultaneous equations.

1. x = - 2, 2x - y = 4 and 7. 2p + 5q - r = 25,
x - y + 6z = 0 2p - 2q - r = -24 and
3p - q + 5r = 4
2. a = - 2, 2a - 3b = -1 and
a - b + 5c = 9 8. 2x - y + 3 z = 9 ,
3x + y - 2z = -2 and
3. 2a + b + c = 1, a + b = - 2
3x - y + 5z = 14
and c = 7
9. 3h + j - k = -3,
4. a + b + c = 0, a - b + c = - 4 and
h + 2j + k = -3 and
2a - 3b - c = -1
5h - 3j - 2k = -13
5. x + y - z = 7, x + y + 2z = 1 and
10. 2a - 7b + 3c = 7,
3x + y - 2z = 19
a + 3b + 2c = -4 and
6. x - y - z = 1 , 2x + y - z = - 9 4a + 5b - c = 9
and 2x - 3y - 2z = 7
 Chapter 3 Equations 133

Test Yourself 3
1. Solve 9. Solve -2 1 3y + 1 # 10, and plot your
(a) 8 = 3b - 22 solution on a number line.
a a+2
(b) - =9 10. Solve correct to 3 significant figures
4 3
(c) 4 (3x + 1) = 11x - 3 (a) x 2 + 7x + 2 = 0
(b) y 2 - 2y - 9 = 0
(d) 3p + 1 # p + 9
(c) 3n 2 + 2n - 4 = 0
2. The compound interest formula is
11. The surface area of a sphere is given by
r n
A = P c1 + m . Find correct to 2 A = 4rr 2 . Evaluate to 1 decimal place
100
decimal places. (a) A when r = 7.8
(a) A when P = 1000, r = 6 and n = 4 (b) r when A = 102.9
(b) P when A = 12 450, r = 5.5 and n = 7 x-3 3
12. Solve - 2 9.
7 4
3. Complete the square on 13. Solve x 2 - 11x + 18 2 0.
(a) x 2 - 8x
(b) k 2 + 4k 14. Solve the simultaneous equations
x 2 + y 2 = 16 and 3x + 4y - 20 = 0.
4. Solve these simultaneous equations.
4 3
(a) x - y + 7 = 0 and 3x - 4y + 26 = 0 15. The volume of a sphere is V = rr .
3
(b) xy = 4 and 2x - y - 7 = 0 Evaluate to 2 significant figures
(a) V when r = 8
5. Solve
(b) r when V = 250
(a) 3 x + 2 = 81
(b) 16 y = 2 16. Which of the following equations has
(i) 2 solutions (ii) 1 solution
6. Solve
(iii) no solutions?
(a) 3b - 1 = 5
(a) x 2 - 6x + 9 = 0
(b) 5g - 3 = 3g + 1
(b) 2x - 3 = 7
(c) 2x - 7 $ 1
(c) x - 2 = 7 - x
7. The area of a trapezium is given by (d) x 2 - x + 4 = 0
A = 1 h (a + b). Find (e) 2x + 1 = x - 2
2
(a) A when h = 6, a = 5 and b = 7
17. Solve simultaneously
(b) b when A = 40, h = 5 and a = 4.
a + b = 5, 2 a + b + c = 4, a - b - c = 5.
8. Solve 2x 2 - 3x + 1 = 0 by
18. Solve 3n + 5 2 5, and plot the solution
(a) factorisation
on a number line.
(b) quadratic formula.
3 4
19. Solve =x ^ x ! 0, -1 h .
x+1
134 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

20. Solve 9 2x + 1 = 27 x . (h) 8 x + 1 = 4 x

(i) y 2 - 4 2 0
21. Solve
(j) 1 - x 2 # 0
(a) 2 ^ 3y - 5 h 2 y + 5
(k) 27 2x - 1 = 9
(b) n 2 + 3n # 0
(l) 4b - 3 # 5
(c) 3 2x - 1 = 27
(m) 3x + 2 = 2x - 3
(d) 5x 3 - 1 = 39
(n) 4t - 5 = t + 2
(e) 5x - 4 = 11
(o) x 2 1 2x + 3
(f) 2t + 1 $ 3
(p) m 2 + m $ 6
(g) x 2 + 2x - 8 # 0

Challenge Exercise 3
1
1. Find the value of y if a 3y - 5 = . 9. Solve t + 2 + 3t - 1 1 5.
a2
2. Solve x 2 2 a 2 . 10. Solve ] x - 4 g ] x - 1 g # 28.
3
3. The solutions of x 2 - 6x - 3 = 0 are in 1
11. Solve x 2 = .
8
the form a + b 3 . Find the values of
a and b. 12. The volume of a sphere is given by
4
2 1 V = rr 3 . Find the value of r when
4. Solve - = 1 correct to 3 3
x-1 x+1 V = 51.8 (correct to three significant
significant figures. (x ! ! 1) figures).
5. Factorise x 5 - 9x 3 - 8x 2 + 72. Hence 13. Solve x - 3 + x + 4 = x - 2 .
solve x 5 - 9x 3 - 8x 2 + 72 = 0.
14. Find the solutions of x 2 - 2ax - b = 0 by
6. Solve simultaneous equations y = x + x 3 2
completing the square.
and y = x + 1.
r n
15. Given A = P c 1 + m , find P
7. Find the value of b if x - 8x + b
2 2
100
is a perfect square. Hence solve correct to 2 decimal places when
x 2 - 8x - 1 = 0 by completing the A = 3281.69, r = 1.27 and n = 30.
square.
16. Solve 3x 2 = 8 (2x - 1) and write the
8. Considering the definition of absolute solution in the simplest surd form.
x-3
value, solve = x, where x ! 3. 17. Solve 3y - 1 + 2y + 3 2 5.
3-x
4
Geometry 1

TERMINOLOGY

Altitude: Height. Any line segment from a vertex to the Polygon: General term for a many sided plane figure. A
opposite side of a polygon that is perpendicular to that side closed plane (two dimensional) figure with straight sides
Congruent triangles: Identical triangles that are the same Quadrilateral: A four-sided closed figure such as a square,
shape and size. Corresponding sides and angles are rectangle, trapezium etc.
equal. The symbol is /
Similar triangles: Triangles that are the same shape but
Interval: Part of a line including the endpoints different sizes. The symbol is zy
Median: A line segment that joins a vertex to the Vertex: The point where three planes meet. The corner of
opposite side of a triangle that bisects that side a figure
Perpendicular: A line that is at right angles to another Vertically opposite angles: Angles that are formed
line. The symbol is = opposite each other when two lines intersect
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 137

INTRODUCTION
GEOMETRY IS USED IN many areas, including surveying, building and graphics.
These fields all require a knowledge of angles, parallel lines and so on, and
how to measure them. In this chapter, you will study angles, parallel lines,
triangles, types of quadrilaterals and general polygons.
Many exercises in this chapter on geometry need you to prove something
or give reasons for your answers. The solutions to geometry proofs only give
one method, but other methods are also acceptable.

DID YOU KNOW?

Geometry means measurement of the earth and comes from Greek. Geometry was used in ancient
civilisations such as Babylonia. However, it was the Greeks who formalised the study of geometry,
in the period between 500 BC and AD 300.

Notation
In order to show reasons for exercises, you must know how to name figures
correctly.
•B
The point is called B.

The interval (part of a line) is called AB or BA.

If AB and CD are parallel lines, we write AB < CD.

This angle is named +BAC or +CAB. It can sometimes be named +A.

^
Angles can also be written as BAC or BAC

This triangle is named 3ABC.

138 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

To name a quadrilateral,
go around it: for example,
BCDA is correct, but ACBD
is not.
This quadrilateral is called ABCD.

Producing a line is the same

as extending it. Line AB is produced to C.

+ABD and +DBC are

equal.

DB bisects +ABC.

AM is a median of D ABC.

AP is an altitude of D ABC.

Types of Angles
Acute angle

0c1 xc1 90c

 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 139

Right angle

A right angle is 90c.

Complementary angles are angles whose sum is 90c.

Obtuse angle

90c1 xc1180c

Straight angle

A straight angle is 180c.

Supplementary angles are angles whose sum is 180c.

Reflex angle

180c1 xc1 360c

Angle of revolution

An angle of revolution is 360c.

Vertically opposite angles

+AEC and +DEB are called vertically opposite angles. +AED and +CEB are
also vertically opposite angles.
140 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Vertically opposite angles are equal.

That is, +AEC = +DEB and +AED = +CEB.

Proof
Let +AEC = xc
Then +AED = 180c - xc (+CED straight angle, 180c)
Now +DEB = 180c - (180c - xc) (+AEB straight angle, 180c)
= xc
Also +CEB = 180c - xc (+CED straight angle, 180c)
` +AEC = +DEB and +AED =+CEB

EXAMPLES

Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons.

1.

Solution

x + 154 = 180 (+ABC is a straight angle, 180c)

x + 154 - 154 = 180 - 154
` x = 26

2.

Solution
2x + 142 + 90 = 360 (angle of revolution, 360c )
2x + 232 = 360
2x + 232 - 232 = 360 - 232
2x = 128
2x 128
=
2 2
x = 64
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 141

3.

Solution
y + 2y + 30 = 90 (right angle, 90c)
3y + 30 = 90
3y + 30 - 30 = 90 - 30
3y = 60
3y 60
=
3 3
y = 20

4.

Solution
x + 50 = 165 (+WZX and +YZV vertically opposite)
x + 50 - 50 = 165 - 50
x = 115
y = 180 - 165 (+XZY straight angle, 180c)
= 15
w = 15 (+WZY and +XZV vertically opposite)

5.

CONTINUED
142 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution

a = 90 (vertically opposite angles)

b + 53 + 90 = 180 (straight angle, 180c)
b + 143 = 180
b + 143 - 143 = 180 - 143
b = 37
d = 37 (vertically opposite angles)
c = 53 (similarly)

6. Find the supplement of 57c 12l.

Solution
Supplementary angles add up to 180c.
So the supplement of 57c 12l is
180c - 57c 12l = 122c 48l.

7. Prove that AB and CD are straight lines.

A
D
(6x + 10)c
(x + 30)c 2 + 10)c
(2x
E
(5x + 30)c
C
B

Solution

6x + 10 + x + 30 + 5x + 30 + 2x + 10 = 360 ^ angle of revolution h

14x + 80 - 80 = 360 - 80
14x = 280
14x 280
=
14 14
x = 20
+AEC = (20 + 30)c
= 50c
+DEB = (2 # 20 + 10)c
= 50c
These are equal vertically opposite angles.
` AB and CD are straight lines
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 143

4.1 Exercises

1. Find values of all pronumerals, (i)

giving reasons.
(a)
yc
133c

(b) (j)

(c)
2. Find the supplement of
(a) 59c
(b) 107c 31l
(c) 45c 12l
(d)
3. Find the complement of
(a) 48c
(b) 34c 23l
(c) 16c 57l
(e)
4. Find the (i) complement and
(ii) supplement of
(a) 43c
(b) 81c
(c) 27c
(d) 55c
(f)
(e) 38c
(f) 74c 53l
(g) 42c 24l
(h) 17c 39l
(i) 63c 49l
(g) (j) 51c 9l

5. (a) Evaluate x.
(b) Find the complement of x.
(c) Find the supplement of x.

(h)
(2x + 30)c

142c
144 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

6. Find the values of all 8.

pronumerals, giving reasons for
each step of your working.
(a)

Prove that CD bisects +AFE.

9. Prove that AC is a straight line.

D

(b) C

(3x + 70)c

(c) (110 - 3x)c

B

10. Show that +AED is a right angle.

(d) A B

C
(e) (50 - 8y)c

(5y - 20)c

(3y + 60)c
E D
(f)

7.

Prove that AC and DE are straight

lines.
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 145

Parallel Lines
When a transversal cuts two lines, it forms pairs of angles. When the two
lines are parallel, these pairs of angles have special properties.

Alternate angles

Alternate angles form

a Z shape. Can you
find another set of
alternate angles?

If the lines are parallel, then alternate angles are equal.

Corresponding angles

Corresponding angles form

an F shape. There are 4 pairs
of corresponding angles. Can
you find them?

If the lines are parallel, then corresponding angles are equal.

146 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Cointerior angles

Cointerior angles form

a U shape. Can you find
another pair?

If the lines are parallel, cointerior angles are supplementary (i.e. their sum
is 180c).

Tests for parallel lines

If alternate angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.

If +AEF = +EFD,
then AB < CD.

If corresponding angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.

If +BEF = +DFG,
then AB < CD.

If cointerior angles are supplementary, then the lines are parallel.

If +BEF + +DFE = 180c,

then AB < CD.
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 147

If 2 lines are both parallel to a third line, then the 3 lines are parallel to
each other. That is, if AB < CD and EF < CD, then AB < EF.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the value of y, giving reasons for each step of your working.

Solution
+AGF = 180c - 125c (+FGH is a straight angle)
= 55c
` y = 55c (+AGF, +CFE corresponding angles, AB < CD)

2. Prove EF < GH.

Solution

+CBF = 180c - 120c (+ABC is a straight angle)

= 60c
` +CBF = +HCD = 60c
But +CBF and +HCD are corresponding angles Can you prove this
` EF < GH in a different way?
148 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

4.2 Exercises
Think about the reasons for
each step of your calculations.
1. Find values of all pronumerals. (h)
(a)

(i)

(b)
(j)

(c) 2. Prove AB < CD.

(a)

(d)

(b)
(e)

(c) A

(f)

104c
E
B C 76c
(g)

D
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 149

(d) A (e) A
B
B
52c 138c
D
E
F
23c
C C 115c G
E
H
128c D
F

Types of Triangles
Names of triangles

A scalene triangle has no two sides or angles equal.

A right (or right-angled) triangle contains a right angle.

The side opposite the right angle (the longest side) is called the
hypotenuse.
An isosceles triangle has two equal sides.

The angles (called the base angles) opposite the equal sides in an
isosceles triangle are equal.

An equilateral triangle has three equal sides and angles.

150 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

All the angles are acute in an acute-angled triangle.

An obtuse-angled triangle contains an obtuse angle.

Angle sum of a triangle

The sum of the interior angles in any triangle is 180c,

that is, a + b + c = 180

Proof

Let +YXZ = ac, +XYZ = bc and +YZX = cc

Draw line AB < YZ
Then +BXZ = cc (+BXZ, +XZY alternate angles, AB < YZ)
+AXY = bc (similarly)
+YXZ + +AXY + +BXZ = 180c (+AXB is a straight angle)
` a + b + c = 180
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 151

Class Investigation

1. Could you prove the base angles in an isosceles triangle are equal?
2. Can there be more than one obtuse angle in a triangle?
3. Could you prove that each angle in an equilateral triangle is 60c?
4. Can a right-angled triangle be an obtuse-angled triangle?
5. Can you find an isosceles triangle with a right angle in it?

Exterior angle of a triangle

The exterior angle in any triangle is equal to the sum of the two opposite
interior angles. That is,
x+y=z

Proof

Let +ABC = xc , +BAC = yc and +ACD = zc

Draw line CE < AB
zc = +ACE + +ECD
+ECD = xc (+ECD,+ABC corresponding angles, AB < CE)
+ACE = yc (+ACE,+BAC alternate angles, AB < CE)
` z=x+y

EXAMPLES

Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons for each step.
1.

CONTINUED
152 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution

x + 53 + 82 = 180 (angle sum of D 180c)

x + 135 = 180
x + 135 - 135 = 180 - 135
x = 45

2.

Solution
+A = +C = x (base angles of isosceles D)
x + x + 48 = 180 (angle sum in a D 180c)
2x + 48 = 180
2x + 48 - 48 = 180 - 48
2x = 132
2x 132
=
2 2
x = 66

3.

Solution

y + 35 = 141 (exterior angle of D)

y + 35 - 35 = 141 - 35
` y = 106
This example can be done using the interior sum of angles.
+BCA = 180c - 141c (+BCD is a straight angle 180c)
= 39c
y + 39 + 35 = 180 (angle sum of D 180c)
y + 74 = 180
y + 74 - 74 = 180 - 74
` y = 106
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 153

Think of the reasons

for each step of your
4.3 Exercises calculations.

1. Find the values of all (h)

pronumerals.
(a)

(b)
(i)

(j)
(c)

(d) (k)

(e)

2. Show that each angle in an

equilateral triangle is 60c.

3. Find +ACB in terms of x.

(f)

(g)
154 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

4. Prove AB < ED. (d)

8. Prove D IJL is equilateral and

D JKL is isosceles.
5. Show D ABC is isosceles.

9. In triangle BCD below, BC = BD.

Prove AB ED.
6. Line CE bisects +BCD. Find the
A
value of y, giving reasons.
B

C 46c

E
88c
D

7. Evaluate all pronumerals, giving

reasons for your working. 10. Prove that MN QP .
(a) N
32c
M

(b)
O
75c

73c P

(c)
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 155

Congruent Triangles
Two triangles are congruent if they are the same shape and size. All pairs of
corresponding sides and angles are equal.
For example:

We write D ABC / D XYZ.

Tests

To prove that two triangles are congruent, we only need to prove that certain
combinations of sides or angles are equal.

Two triangles are congruent if

• SSS: all three pairs of corresponding sides are equal
The included angle
• SAS: two pairs of corresponding sides and their included angles are is the angle between
equal the 2 sides.
• AAS: two pairs of angles and one pair of corresponding sides are equal
• RHS: both have a right angle, their hypotenuses are equal and one
other pair of corresponding sides are equal

EXAMPLES

1. Prove that DOTS / DOQP where O is the centre of the circle.

CONTINUED
156 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution
S: OS = OQ (equal radii)
A: +TOS = +QOP (vertically opposite angles)
S: OT = OP (equal radii)
` by SAS, DOTS / DOQP

2. Which two triangles are congruent?

Solution
To find corresponding sides, look at each side in relation to the angles.
For example, one set of corresponding sides is AB, DF, GH and JL.
D ABC / D JKL (by SAS)

3. Show that triangles ABC and DEC are congruent. Hence prove that
AB = ED.

Solution

A: +BAC = +CDE (alternate angles, AB < ED)

A: +ABC = +CED (similarly)
S: AC = CD (given)
` by AAS, D ABC / D DEC
` AB = ED (corresponding sides in congruent D s)
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 157

4.4 Exercises

1. Are these triangles congruent? 2. Prove that these triangles are

If they are, prove that they are congruent.
congruent. (a)
(a)

B
(b)

Y 4.7
2.3 m A
m 110c m 110
4.7 c .3 m
(b)
Z 2
C
X

(c)

(c)

(d)

(d)

(e)

(e)
158 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Prove that A
(a) Δ ABD is congruent to Δ ACD
(b) AB bisects BC, given D ABC is
isosceles with AB = AC.
B D

4. Prove that triangles ABD and CDB C

are congruent. Hence prove that
(a) Prove that TABC and TADC
AD = BC.
are congruent.
(b) Show that +ABC = +ADC.

7. The centre of a circle is O and AC

is perpendicular to OB.
A

5. In the circle below, O is the centre

of the circle.

O
A D

C
(a) Show that TOAB and TOBC
are congruent.
B C
(b) Prove that +ABC = 90c.

(a) Prove that TOAB and TOCD 8. ABCF is a trapezium with

are congruent. AF = BC and FE = CD. AE and BD
(b) Show that AB = CD. are perpendicular to FC.
A B
6. In the kite ABCD, AB = AD and
BC = DC.

F C
E D
(a) Show that TAFE and TBCD
are congruent.
(b) Prove that +AFE = +BCD.
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 159

9. The circle below has centre O and 10. ABCD is a rectangle as shown
OB bisects chord AC. below.
A B

B D C
(a) Prove that TADC is
congruent to TBCD.
A (b) Show that diagonals AC and
(a) Prove that TOAB is congruent BD are equal.
to TOBC.
(b) Prove that OB is perpendicular
to AC.

Investigation

The triangle is used in many

structures, for example trestle
tables, stepladders and roofs.

Find out how many different ways

the triangle is used in the building
industry. Visit a building site, or
interview a carpenter. Write a
report on what you find.

Similar Triangles
Triangles, for example ABC and XYZ, are similar if they are the same shape but
different sizes.
As in the example, all three pairs of corresponding angles are equal.
All three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion (in the same ratio).
160 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

We write: D ABC <; D XYZ

D XYZ is three times larger than D ABC.
XY 6
= =3
AB 2
XZ 12
= =3
AC 4
YZ 15
= =3
This shows that all 3 pairs
BC 5
of sides are in proportion.
XY XZ YZ
` = =
AB AC BC

Application

Similar figures are used in many areas, including maps, scale drawings, models
and enlargements.

EXAMPLE

1. Find the values of x and y in similar triangles CBA and XYZ.

Solution
First check which sides correspond to one another (by looking at their
relationships to the angles).
YZ and BA, XZ and CA, and XY and CB are corresponding sides.
XZ XY
` =
CA CB
y 5.4
=
4.9 3.6
3.6y = 4.9 # 5.4
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 161

4 . 9 # 5 .4
y=
3 .6
= 7.35
YZ XY
=
BA CB
x 5 .4
=
2 .3 3.6
3 .6x = 2 . 3 # 5 .4
2 . 3 # 5 .4
x =
3 .6
= 3.45

Tests

There are three tests for similar triangles.

If 2 pairs of angles are

Two triangles are similar if: equal then the third
pair must also be equal.
• three pairs of corresponding angles are equal
• three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion
• two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles
are equal

EXAMPLES

1.
(a) Prove that triangles ABC and ADE are similar.
(b) Hence find the value of y, to 1 decimal place.

Solution
(a) +A is common
+ABC = +ADE (corresponding angles, BC < DE)
+ACB = +AED (similarly)
` D ABC <; D ADE (3 pairs of angles equal)
(b)

CONTINUED
162 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

AE = 2.4 + 1.9
= 4 .3
DE AE
=
BC AC
y 4 .3
=
3 .7 2.4
2 .4 y = 3 . 7 # 4. 3
3 .7 # 4 .3
y=
2 .4
= 6 .6

2. Prove D XYZ <; DWVZ.

Solution
XZ 15 3
= =
ZV 35 7
YZ 6 3
= =
ZW 14 7
XZ YZ
` =
ZV ZW
+XZY = +WZV (vertically opposite angles)
` since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are
equal the triangles are similar

Ratio of intercepts

The following result comes from similar triangles.

When two (or more) transversals cut a series of parallel lines, the
ratios of their intercepts are equal.
That is, AB : BC = DE : EF
AB DE
or =
BC EF
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 163

Proof
Draw DG and EH parallel to AC.

Then DG = AB (opposite sides of a parallelogram)

Also EH = BC (similarly)
AB DG
` = (1)
BC EH
+GDE = +HEF (corresponding +s, DG < EH)
+DEG = +EFH (corresponding +s, BE < CF)
` +DGE = +EHF (angle sum of Ds)
So D DGE <; D EHF
DG DE
` = (2)
EH EF
From (1) and (2):
AB DE
=
BC EF

EXAMPLES

1. Find the value of x, to 3 significant figures.

Solution

x 1.5
= ^ ratios of intercepts on parallel lines h
8.9 9.3
9.3x = 8.9 # 1.5
8.9 # 1.5
x=
9.3
= 1.44

CONTINUED
164 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Evaluate x and y, to 1 decimal place.

Solution
Use either similar triangles or ratios of intercepts to find x. You must use
Why? similar triangles to find y.
x 2.7
=
5.8 3. 4
These ratios come 2.7 # 5.8
from intercepts on x=
3.4
parallel lines.
= 4.6
y 2.7 + 3.4
=
7.1 3.4
6.1 # 7.1
These ratios come from y=
3.4
similar triangles.
= 12.7

4.5 Exercises

1. Find the value of all pronumerals, (c)

to 1 decimal place where
appropriate.
(a)

(d)

(e)

(b)
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 165

(f) 5. Show that D ABC and D DEF are

similar. Hence find the value of y.
46 c

A
xc 1.3 4.2
11
5c
B
y D
9.1 8.9 4.9 yc
46 87c
25.7 c 5.88 C
1.82

a 52c
E 6.86 F

14.3
19 6. The diagram shows two
c
concentric circles with centre O.
(a) Prove that DOAB <; D OCD.
(g)
(b) If radius OC = 5.9 cm and
radius OB = 8.3 cm, and the
length of CD = 3.7 cm, find the
length of AB, correct to 2 decimal
places.

2. Evaluate a and b to 2 decimal

places.

7. (a) Prove that D ABC <; D ADE.

(b) Find the values of x and y,
correct to 2 decimal places.

3. Show that D ABC and DCDE are

similar.

8. ABCD is a parallelogram, with

CD produced to E. Prove that
D ABF <; DCEB.
4. EF bisects +GFD. Show that
D DEF and D FGE are similar.
166 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

9. Show that D AED <; D ABC. Find (e)

the value of m.

12. Show that

AB AF
10. Prove that D ABC and D ACD are (a) =
BC FG
similar. Hence evaluate x and y. AB AF
(b) =
AC AG
BD DF
(c) =
CE EG

11. Find the values of all

pronumerals, to 1 decimal place.
(a)

13. Evaluate a and b correct to

1 decimal place.

(b)

14. Find the value of y to 2

significant figures.
(c)

(d)
15. Evaluate x and y correct to
2 decimal places.
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 167

Pythagoras’ Theorem

DID YOU KNOW?

The triangle with sides in the

proportion 3:4:5 was known to be
right angled as far back as ancient
Egyptian times. Egyptian surveyors
used to measure right angles by
stretching out a rope with knots tied
in it at regular intervals.
They used the rope for forming
right angles while building and
dividing fields into rectangular plots.
It was Pythagoras (572–495 BC)
who actually discovered the
relationship between the sides of the
right-angled triangle. He was able to
generalise the rule to all right-angled triangles.
Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician,
philosopher and mystic. He founded the Pythagorean
School, where mathematics, science and philosophy
were studied. The school developed a brotherhood and
performed secret rituals. He and his followers believed
that the whole universe was based on numbers.
Pythagoras was murdered when he was 77, and the
brotherhood was disbanded.

The square on the hypotenuse in any right-angled triangle is equal to the

sum of the squares on the other two sides.
That is, c2 = a2 + b2
or c= a2 + b2
168 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Proof

Draw CD perpendicular to AB
Let AD = x, DB = y
Then x + y = c
In D ADC and D ABC,
+A is common
+ADC = +ACB = 90c
` D ADC <; D ABC (equal corresponding +s)
AC AD
=
AB AC
b x
c =b
b 2 = xc
Similarly, D BDC <; D ABC
DB BC
=
BC AB
y a
a= c
a 2 = yc
Now a 2 + b 2 = yc + xc
= c ^y + xh
= c ]c g
= c2

If c 2 = a 2 + b 2, then D ABC must be right angled

EXAMPLES

1. Find the value of x, correct to 2 decimal places.

Solution
c2 = a2 + b2
x2 = 72 + 42
= 49 + 16
= 65
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 169

x = 65
= 8.06 to 2 decimal places

2. Find the exact value of y.

Solution

c2 = a2 + b2
82 = y2 + 42
64 = y 2 + 16
48 = y 2 Leave the answer in
surd form for the exact
` y = 48
answer.
= 16 # 3
=4 3

3. Find the length of the diagonal in a square with sides 6 cm. Answer to
1 decimal place.

Solution

6 cm

6 cm
c =a +b
2 2 2

= 62 + 62
= 72
c = 72
= 8 .5
So the length of the diagonal is 8.5 cm.

CONTINUED
170 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

4. A triangle has sides 5.1 cm, 6.8 cm and 8.5 cm. Prove that the triangle
is right angled.

Solution

8.5 cm
5.1 cm

6.8 cm
Let c = 8.5 (largest side) and a and b the other two smaller sides.
a 2 + b 2 = 5 . 1 2 + 6. 8 2
= 72.25
c 2 = 8. 5 2
= 72.25
` c2 = a2 + b2
So the triangle is right angled.

4.6 Exercises
1. Find the value of all pronumerals, 2. Find the exact value of all
correct to 1 decimal place. pronumerals.
(a) (a)

(b)
(b)

(c)
(c)

(d)
(d)
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 171

3. Find the slant height s of a 7. Show that AC = 2 BC.

cone with diameter 6.8 m and
perpendicular height 5.2 m, to
1 decimal place.

8. (a) Find the length of diagonal

AC in the figure.
4. Find the length of CE, correct (b) Hence, or otherwise, prove
to 1 decimal place, in this that AC is perpendicular to DC.
rectangular pyramid. AB = 8.6 cm
and CF = 15.9 cm.

5. Prove that D ABC is a right-angled

triangle.

9. Find the length of side AB in

terms of b.

6. Show that D XYZ is a right-angled

isosceles triangle.
X
XY
10. Find the exact ratio of in
YZ
terms of x and y in D XYZ.
1 2

Y 1 Z
172 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

11. Show that the distance squared

between A and B is given by
d 2 = 13t 2 - 180t + 625.

16. A ramp is 4.5 m long and 1.3 m

high. How far along the ground
does the ramp go? Answer correct
to one decimal place.

12. An 850 mm by 1200 mm gate

4.5 m
is to have a diagonal timber 1.3 m
brace to give it strength. To what
length should the timber be cut,
to the nearest mm? 17. The diagonal of a television
screen is 72 cm. If the screen is
58 cm high, how wide is it?

18. A property has one side 1.3 km

and another 1.1 km as shown
with a straight road diagonally
through the middle of the
property. If the road is 1.5 km
long, show that the property is
not rectangular.
13. A rectangular park has a length of
620 m and a width of 287 m. If I
walk diagonally across the park,
how far do I walk?
1.5 km 1.3 km
14. The triangular garden bed below
is to have a border around it.
How many metres of border are
needed, to 1 decimal place?

1.1 km

19. Jodie buys a ladder 2 m long and

wants to take it home in the boot
15. What is the longest length of of her car. If the boot is 1.2 m by
stick that will fit into the box 0.7 m, will the ladder fit?
below, to 1 decimal place?
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 173

20. A chord AB in a circle with (a) By finding the lengths of AC

centre O and radius 6 cm has a and BC, show that OC bisects the
perpendicular line OC as shown chord.
4 cm long. (b) By proving congruent
triangles, show that OC bisects
the chord.

A 4 cm
6 cm
C

Types of Quadrilaterals

A quadrilateral is any four-sided figure

In any quadrilateral the sum of the interior angles is 360c

Proof
Draw in diagonal AC
+ADC + +DCA + +CAD = 180c (angle sum of D)
+ABC + +BCA + +CAB = 180c (similarly)
` +ADC + +DCA + +CAD + +ABC + +BCA + +CAB = 360c
That is, +ADC + +DCB + +CBA + +BAD = 360c
174 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLE

Find the value of i.

Solution
i + 120 + 56 + 90 = 360 ^ angle sum of quadrilateral h
i + 266 = 360
i = 94

Parallelogram

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel

PROPERTIES

• opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal

These properties can • opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal
all be proven.
• diagonals in a parallelogram bisect each other
• each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two
congruent triangles

TESTS

A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if:

• both pairs of opposite sides are equal
• both pairs of opposite angles are equal
• one pair of sides is both equal and parallel
• the diagonals bisect each other
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 175

Rectangle

If one angle is a right

angle, then you can
prove all angles are
right angles.
A rectangle is a parallelogram with one angle a right angle

PROPERTIES

• the same as for a parallelogram, and also

• diagonals are equal

TEST

A quadrilateral is a rectangle if its diagonals are equal

Application

Builders use the property of equal diagonals to check if a rectangle is accurate.

For example, a timber frame may look rectangular, but may be slightly slanting.
Checking the diagonals makes sure that a building does not end up like the
Leaning Tower of Pisa!

Rhombus

It can be proved that

all sides are equal.
A rhombus is a parallelogram with a pair of adjacent sides equal

PROPERTIES

• the same as for parallelogram, and also

• diagonals bisect at right angles
• diagonals bisect the angles of the rhombus
176 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

TESTS

A quadrilateral is a rhombus if:

• all sides are equal
• diagonals bisect each other at right angles

Square

A square is a rectangle with a pair of adjacent sides equal

PROPERTIES

• the same as for rectangle, and also

• diagonals are perpendicular
• diagonals make angles of 45c with the sides

Trapezium

A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of sides parallel

Kite

A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal

 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 177

EXAMPLES

1. Find the values of i, x and y, giving reasons.

Solution
i = 83c (opposite +s in < gram)
x = 6.7 cm (opposite sides in < gram)
y = 2.3 cm (opposite sides in < gram)

2. Find the length of AB in square ABCD as a surd in its simplest form if

BD = 6 cm.

Solution

Let AB = x
Since ABCD is a square, AB = AD = x (adjacent sides equal)
Also, +A = 90c (by definition)
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
62 = x2 + x2
36 = 2x 2
18 = x 2
` x = 18
= 3 2 cm

CONTINUED
178 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3.
(a) Two equal circles have centres O and P respectively. Prove that OAPB
is a rhombus.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that AB is the perpendicular bisector
of OP.

Solution
(a) OA = OB (equal radii)
PA = PB (similarly)
Since the circles are equal, OA = OB = PA = PB
` since all sides are equal, OAPB is a rhombus
(b) The diagonals in any rhombus are perpendicular bisectors.
Since OAPB is a rhombus, with diagonals AB and OP, AB is the
perpendicular bisector of OP.

4.7 Exercises
1. Find the value of all pronumerals, (e)
giving reasons.
(a)

(f)

(b)

(g)
(c)

(d)
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 179

2. Given AB = AE, prove CD is (c)

perpendicular to AD.

(d)

3. (a) Show that +C = xc and

+B = +D = (180 - x)c.
(b) Hence show that the sum of (e)
angles of ABCD is 360c.

(f)
7 6
x+

4. Find the value of a and b.

y
3x

6. In the figure, BD bisects

+ADC. Prove BD also bisects
+ABC.

5. Find the values of all

pronumerals, giving reasons. 7. Prove that each figure is a
(a) parallelogram.
(a)

(b) (b)
180 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(c) (d)

(e)

(d)

9. The diagonals of a rhombus

8. Evaluate all pronumerals.
are 8 cm and 10 cm long. Find
(a) the length of the sides of the
rhombus.

10. ABCD is a rectangle with

+EBC = 59c . Find +ECB, +EDC
and +ADE.
(b)

(c) 11. The diagonals of a square are

8 cm long. Find the exact length
of the side of the square.

12. In the rhombus, +ECB = 33c.

Find the value of x and y.

ABCD is a kite

Polygons

A polygon is a closed plane figure with straight sides

A regular polygon has all sides and all interior angles equal
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 181

EXAMPLES

3-sided 4-sided 5-sided 6-sided 8-sided 10-sided

(equilateral (square) (pentagon) (hexagon) (octagon) (decagon)
triangle)

DID YOU KNOW?

Carl Gauss (1777–1855) was a famous German mathematician, physicist and astronomer. When
he was 19 years old, he showed that a 17-sided polygon could be constructed using a ruler and
compasses. This was a major achievement in geometry.
Gauss made a huge contribution to the study of mathematics and science, including
correctly calculating where the magnetic south pole is and designing a lens to correct
astigmatism.
He was the director of the Göttingen Observatory for 40 years. It is said that he did not
become a professor of mathematics because he did not like teaching.

The sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is given by

S = 180n - 360
or S = (n - 2) # 180c

Proof
Draw any n-sided polygon and divide it into n triangles as
shown. Then the total sum of angles is n # 180c or 180n.
But this sum includes all the angles at O. So the sum of
interior angles is 180n - 360c .
That is, S = 180n - 360
= ] n - 2 g #180c

The sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360c

Proof
Draw any n-sided polygon. Then the sum of both the
exterior and interior angles is n #180c.
Sum of exterior angles = n #180c - sum of interior angles
= 180n - ] 180n - 360c g
= 180n - 180n + 360c
= 360c
182 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon with 15 sides.
How large is each angle?

Solution

n = 15
S = (n - 2)#180c
= (15 - 2)#180c
= 13#180c
= 2340c
Each angle has size 2340c' 15 = 156c.

2. Find the number of sides in a regular polygon whose interior angles

are 140c.

Solution
Let n be the number of sides
Then the sum of interior angles is 140n
There are n sides and so n But S = (n - 2)#180c
angles, each 140c.
So 140n = (n - 2)#180c
= 180n - 360
360 = 40n
9=n
So the polygon has 9 sides.

4.8 Exercises
1. Find the sum of the interior 3. Find the size of each exterior
angles of angle of a regular
(a) a pentagon (a) hexagon
(b) a hexagon (b) decagon
(c) an octagon (c) octagon
(d) a decagon (d) 15-sided polygon
(e) a 12-sided polygon
4. Calculate the size of each
(f) an 18-sided polygon
interior angle in a regular 7-sided
2. Find the size of each interior polygon, to the nearest minute.
angle of a regular
5. The sum of the interior angles of
(a) pentagon
a regular polygon is 1980c.
(b) octagon
(a) How many sides has the
(c) 12-sided polygon
polygon?
(d) 20-sided polygon
(b) Find the size of each interior
(e) 15-sided polygon
angle, to the nearest minute.
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 183

6. Find the number of sides of a 13. A regular octagon has a

regular polygon whose interior quadrilateral ACEG inscribed as
angles are 157c 30l. shown.
B
7. Find the sum of the interior
angles of a regular polygon whose
A C
exterior angles are 18c.

8. A regular polygon has interior

angles of 156c. Find the sum of its H D
interior angles.

9. Find the size of each interior

angle in a regular polygon if
G E
the sum of the interior angles is
5220c.
F
10. Show that there is no regular
Show that ACEG is a square.
polygon with interior angles of
145c. 14. In the regular pentagon below,
show that EAC is an isosceles
11. Find the number of sides of a
triangle.
regular polygon with exterior
A
angles
(a) 40c
(b) 30c
(c) 45c
E B
(d) 36c
(e) 12c

12. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.

A B

D C

15. (a) Find the size of each exterior

F C
angle in a regular polygon with
side p.
(b) Hence show that each interior
E D 180 (p - 2)
angle is .
p
(a) Show that triangles AFE and
BCD are congruent.
(b) Show that AE and BD are
parallel.
184 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Areas
Most areas of plane figures come from the area of a rectangle.

Rectangle

A = lb

Square

A square is a
special rectangle.
A = x2

Triangle

The area of a triangle

is half the area of a
rectangle.
1
A= bh
2

Proof

Draw rectangle ABCD, where b = length and h = breadth.

 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 185

` area = bh
1 1
Area D DEF = area AEFD and area DCEF = area EBCF
2 2
1
` area DCDE = area ABCD
2
1
That is, A = bh
2

Parallelogram

The area of a
parallelogram is the
same as the area of
two triangles.
A = bh

Proof
In parallelogram ABCD, produce DC to E and draw BE perpendicular to CE.
Then ABEF is a rectangle.

Area ABEF = bh
In D ADF and D BCE,
+AFD = +BEC = 90c
AF = BE = h (opposite sides of a rectangle)
AD = BC (opposite sides of a parallelogram)
` by RHS, D ADF / D BCE
` area D ADF = area D BCE
So area ABCD = area ABEF
= bh

Rhombus

1
A= xy
2
(x and y are lengths of diagonals)
186 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Proof

Let AC = x and BD = y
By properties of a rhombus,
1 1
AE = EC = x and DE = EB = y
2 2
Also +AEB = 90c
1 1
Area D ABC = x: y
2 2
1
= xy
4
1 1
Area D ADC = x: y
2 2
1
= xy
4
1 1
` total area of rhombus = xy + xy
4 4
1
= xy
2

Trapezium

1
A= h ( a + b)
2

Proof

Let DE = x
Then DF = x + a
` FC = b - ] x + a g
=b-x-a
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 187

Area trapezium = area D ADE + area rectangle ABFE + area D BFC

1 1
= xh + ah + (b - x - a) h
2 2
1
= h ( x + 2 a + b - x - a)
2
1
= h (a + b )
2

Circle

A = rr 2

EXAMPLES

1. Find the area of this trapezium.

Solution

1
A= h ( a + b)
2
1
= ( 4) ( 7 + 5)
2
= 2 # 12
= 24 m 2

2. Find the area of the shaded region in this figure.

3.7 cm

8.9 cm

4.2 cm

12.1 cm

CONTINUED
188 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution
Area large rectangle = lb
= 8.9 #12.1
= 107.69 cm 2
Area small rectangle = lb
= 3 . 7 # 4 .2
= 15.54 cm 2
` shaded area = 107.69 - 15.54
= 92.15 cm 2

3. A park with straight sides of length 126 m and width 54 m has semi-
circular ends as shown. Find its area, correct to 2 decimal places.
126 m

54 m
Solution
Area of 2 semi-circles = area of 1 circle
54
r =
2
= 27
A = rr 2
= r (27) 2
= 2290.22 m2
Area rectangle = 126 # 54
= 6804
Total area = 2290.22 + 6804
= 9094.22 m2

4.9 Exercises
1. Find the area of each figure. (b)
(a)
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 189

(c) (b)

(c)
(d)

(e)
(d)

(f) (e)

2 cm
cm
6

(g)
4. Find the area of each figure.
(a)

2. Find the area of a rhombus with (b)

diagonals 2.3 m and 4.2 m.

3. Find each shaded area.

(a)
190 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(c)

(d)

8. The dimensions of a battleaxe

block of land are shown below.
(e)
(a) Find its area.
(b) A house in the district where
this land is can only take up 55%
of the land. How large (to the
nearest m 2) can the area of the
house be?
(c) If the house is to be a
5. Find the exact area of the figure. rectangular shape with width
8.5 m, what will its length be?

6. Find the area of this figure,

correct to 4 significant figures. 9. A rhombus has one diagonal
The arch is a semicircle. 25 cm long and its area is
600 cm 2 . Find the length of
(a) its other diagonal and
(b) its side, to the nearest cm.

10. The width w of a rectangle is

a quarter the size of its length.
If the width is increased by 3
units while the length remains
7. Jenny buys tiles for the floor of constant, find the amount of
her bathroom (shown top next increase in its area in terms of w.
column) at $45.50 per m 2 . How
much do they cost altogether?
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 191

Test Yourself 4
1. Find the values of all pronumerals 2. Prove that AB and CD are parallel lines.
(a)

(b)

3. Find the area of the figure, to 2 decimal

(c)
places.

(d) x
4. (a) Prove that triangles ABC and ADE are
similar.
(b) Evaluate x and y to 1 decimal place.

(e)

(O is the centre
of the circle.)

(f) 5. Find the size of each interior angle in a

regular 20-sided polygon.

6. Find the volume of a cylinder with radius

5.7 cm and height 10 cm, correct to
1 decimal place.

(g) 7. Find the perimeter of the triangle below. The perimeter

is the distance
around the outside
of the figure.
192 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

8. (a) Prove triangles ABC and ADC are 12. Triangle ABC is isosceles, and AD bisects
congruent in the kite below. BC.

(b) Prove triangle AOB and COD are (a) Prove triangles ABD and ACD are
congruent. (O is the centre of the circle.) congruent.
(b) Prove AD and BC are perpendicular.

13. Triangle ABC is isosceles, with AB = AC.

Show that triangle ACD is isosceles.

9. Find the area of the figure below.

14. Prove that opposite sides in any

parallelogram are equal.

15. A rhombus has diagonals 6 cm and 8 cm.

(a) Find the area of the rhombus.
10. Prove triangle ABC is right angled. (b) Find the length of its side.

16. The interior angles in a regular polygon

are 140c . How many sides has the
polygon?

17. Prove AB and CD are parallel.

AF AB
11. Prove = .
AG AC
 Chapter 4 Geometry 1 193

18. Find the area of the figure below. 20. (a) Prove triangles ABC and DEF are
6 cm similar.
(b) Evaluate x to 1 decimal place.
5 cm
8 cm
2 cm

10 cm

19. Prove that z = x + y in the triangle

below.

Challenge Exercise 4
1. Find the value of x. 4. Given +BAD =+DBC, show that D ABD
and D BCD are similar and hence find d.

2. Evaluate x, y and z. 5. Prove that ABCD is a parallelogram.

AB = DC.

3. Find the sum of the interior angles of a

regular 11-sided polygon. How large is 6. Find the shaded area.
each exterior angle?
194 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

7. Prove that the diagonals in a square 12. Find the values of x and y correct to
make angles of 45c with the sides. 1 decimal place.

8. Prove that the diagonals in a kite are

perpendicular.

9. Prove that MN is parallel to XY.

13. Find the values of x and y, correct to

2 decimal places.

10. Evaluate x.

14. ABCD is a square and BD is produced to

1
E such that DE = BD.
2
(a) Show that ABCE is a kite.
2x
(b) Prove that DE = units when
11. The letter Z is painted on a billboard. 2
sides of the square are x units long.

(a) Find the area of the letter.

(b) Find the exact perimeter of the letter.
5
Functions and
Graphs
TERMINOLOGY

Arc of a curve: Part or a section of a curve between two Even function: An even function has line symmetry
points (reflection) about the y-axis, and f ] - x g = - f ] x g
Asymptote: A line towards which a curve approaches but Function: For each value of the independent variable x,
never touches there is exactly one value of y, the dependent variable.
A vertical line test can be used to determine if a
Cartesian coordinates: Named after Descartes. A system of
relationship is a function
locating points (x, y) on a number plane. Point (x, y) has
Cartesian coordinates x and y Independent variable: A variable is independent if it may
be chosen freely within the domain of the function
Curve: Another word for arc. When a function consists
of all values of x on an interval, the graph of y = f ] x g is Odd function: An odd function has rotational symmetry
called a curve y = f ] x g about the origin (0, 0) and where f ] - x g = - f ] x g
Dependent variable: A variable is a symbol that can Ordered pair: A pair of variables, one independent and
represent any value in a set of values. A dependent one dependent, that together make up a single point in
variable is a variable whose value depends on the value the number plane, usually written in the form (x, y)
chosen for the independent variable
Ordinates: The vertical or y coordinates of a point are
Direct relationship: Occurs when one variable varies called ordinates
directly with another i.e. as one variable increases, so
Range: The set of real numbers that the dependent
does the other or as one variable decreases so does
variable y can take over the domain (sometimes called
the other
the image of the function)
Discrete: Separate values of a variable rather than a
Vertical line test: A vertical line will only cut the graph of
continuum. The values are distinct and unrelated
a function in at most one point. If the vertical line cuts
Domain: The set of possible values of x in a given domain the graph in more than one point, it is not a function
for which a function is defined
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 201

INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS are used in many areas, such as mathematics,
science and economics. In this chapter you will study functions, function
notation and how to sketch graphs. Some of these graphs will be studied in
more detail in later chapters.

DID YOU KNOW?

The number plane is called the Cartesian plane after Rene

Descartes (1596–1650). He was known as one of the first
modern mathematicians along with Pierre de Fermat
(1601–1665). Descartes used the number plane to develop
analytical geometry. He discovered that any equation
with two unknown variables can be represented by a line.
The points in the number plane can be called Cartesian
coordinates.
Descartes used letters at the beginning of the
alphabet to stand for numbers that are known, and letters
near the end of the alphabet for unknown numbers. This is
why we still use x and y so often!
Do a search on Descartes to find out more details of
his life and work.

Descartes

Functions
Definition of a function

Many examples of functions exist both in mathematics and in real life. These
occur when we compare two different quantities. These quantities are called
variables since they vary or take on different values according to some pattern.
We put these two variables into a grouping called an ordered pair.
202 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Eye colour

Name Anne Jacquie Donna Hien Marco Russell Trang

Colour Blue Brown Grey Brown Green Brown Brown

Ordered pairs are (Anne, Blue), (Jacquie, Brown), (Donna, Grey), (Hien,
Brown), (Marco, Green), (Russell, Brown) and (Trang, Brown).

2. y = x + 1

x 1 2 3 4
y 2 3 4 5
The ordered pairs are (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4) and (4, 5).

3.
A 1

B
2
C
3
D
4
E

The ordered pairs are (A, 1), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3) and (E, 2).

Notice that in all the examples, there was only one ordered pair for each
variable. For example, it would not make sense for Anne to have both blue
and brown eyes! (Although in rare cases some people have one eye that’s a
different colour from the other.)
A relation is a set of ordered points (x, y) where the variables x and y are
related according to some rule.
A function is a special type of relation. It is like a machine where for
every INPUT there is only one OUTPUT.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

The first variable (INPUT) is called the independent variable and the
second (OUTPUT) the dependent variable. The process is a rule or pattern.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 203

For example, in y = x + 1, we can use any number for x (the independent

variable), say x = 3.
When x = 3
y=3+1
=4
As this value of y depends on the number we choose for x, y is called the
dependent variable. While we often call the
independent variable
x and the dependent
variable y, there are other
A function is a relationship between two variables where for
pronumerals we could
every independent variable, there is only one dependent variable. use. You will meet some
of these in this course.
This means that for every x value, there is only one y value.

Investigation

When we graph functions in mathematics, the independent variable

(usually the x-value) is on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable (usually the y-value) is on the vertical axis.

In other areas, the dependent variable goes on the horizontal axis. Find
out in which subjects this happens at school by surveying teachers or
students in different subjects. Research different types of graphs on the
Internet to find some examples.

Here is an example of a relationship that is NOT a function. Can you see the
difference between this example and the previous ones?

A 1

B
2
C
3
D
4
E

In this example the ordered pairs are (A, 1), (A, 2), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3)
and (E, 2).
Notice that A has two dependent variables, 1 and 2. This means that it is
NOT a function.
204 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Here are two examples of graphs on a number plane.

1. y

2. y

There is a very simple test to see if these graphs are functions. Notice that
in the first example, there are two values of y when x = 0. The y-axis passes
through both these points.
y

x
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 205

There are also other x values that give two y values around the curve. If
we drew a vertical line anywhere along the curve, it would cross the curve in
two places everywhere except one point. Can you see where this is?
In the second graph, a vertical line would only ever cross the curve in one
place.
So when a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place, it shows that
it is not a function.

If a vertical line cuts a graph only once anywhere along the graph, the
graph is a function.
y

If a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place anywhere along the
graph, the graph is not a function.
y

x
206 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Is this graph a function?

Solution

You will learn how to sketch these

graphs later in this chapter.

A vertical line only cuts the graph once. So the graph is a function.

2. Is this circle a function?

Solution

A vertical line can cut the curve in more than one place. So the circle is
not a function.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 207

3. Does this set of ordered pairs represent a function?

^ - 2 , 3 h , ^ - 1, 4 h , ^ 0 , 5 h , ^ 1 , 3 h , ^ 2 , 4 h

Solution
For each x value there is only one y value, so this set of ordered pairs is a
function.

4. Is this a function?
y

x
3

Solution

x
3

Although it looks like this is not a function, the open circle at x = 3 on

the top line means that x = 3 is not included, while the closed circle on
the bottom line means that x = 3 is included on this line.
So a vertical line only touches the graph once at x = 3. The graph is
a function.
208 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

5.1 Exercises

Which of these curves are functions?

1. 6.

2. 7.

3. 8.

4. 9. ^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 3, 3 h, ^ 4, 0 h

10. ^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 2, 7 h, ^ 4, 0 h

11.
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5.
12.
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5

13.
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 209

14. Name Ben Paul Pierre Hamish Jacob Lee Pierre Lien
Sport Tennis Football Tennis Football Football Badminton Football Badminton

15. A 3
B 4
C 7
D 3
E 5
F 7
G 4

Function notation

If y depends on what value we give x in a function, then we can say that y is a

function of x. We can write this as y = f ] x g.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the value of y when x = 3 in the equation y = x + 1.

Solution

When x = 3:
y = x +1
= 3+1
=4

2. If f ] x g = x + 1, evaluate f (3).

Solution
f ]x g = x + 1
f ]3 g = 3 + 1
=4

Notice that these two examples are asking for the same value and f (3) is
the value of the function when x = 3.

If y = f ] x g then f (a) is the value of y at the point on the function where x = a

210 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. If f ] x g = x 2 + 3x + 1, find f ] - 2 g .

Solution
f ( - 2) = ] - 2 g 2 + 3 (- 2) + 1
This is the same as finding y
when x = - 2. =4-6+1
= -1

2. If f ] x g = x 3 - x 2, find the value of f ] - 1 g .

Solution
f (x) = x 3 - x 2
f (- 1) = ] - 1 g 3 - ] - 1 g 2
= -1 - 1
= -2

3. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0, given that f ] x g = x 2 + 3x - 10.

Solution
f (x) = 0
Putting f (x) = 0 is different i.e. 2
x + 3x - 10 = 0
from finding f (0) . Follow
this example carefully.
( x + 5 ) ( x - 2) = 0
x + 5 = 0, x-2=0
x = -5 x=2

4. Find f ] 3 g, f ] 2 g, f ] 0 g and f ] - 4 g if f ] x g is defined as

3x + 4 when x $ 2
f ]x g = )
- 2x when x 1 2.

Use f (x) = 3x + 4 when

Solution
x is 2 or more, and use
f (3 ) = 3 ( 3) + 4 since 3$2
f (x) = - 2x when x is less
than 2. = 13
f (2 ) = 3 ( 2) + 4 since 2$2
= 10
f (0) = - 2 (0) since 012
=0
f (- 4) = - 2 ( - 4) since -4 1 2
=8

5. Find the value of g ] 1 g + g ] - 2 g - g ] 3 g if

x2 when x 2 2
g ] x g = * 2x - 1 when - 1 # x # 2
5 when x 1 - 1
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 211

Solution

g (1 ) = 2 ( 1) - 1 since -1 # 1 # 2
=1
g (- 2) = 5 since - 2 1 - 1
g (3) = 3 2
since 3 2 2
=9
So g (1) + g (- 2) - g (3) = 1 + 5 - 9
= -3

DID YOU KNOW?

Leonhard Euler (1707–83), from Switzerland, studied functions and invented the term
f (x) for function notation. He studied theology, astronomy, medicine, physics and oriental
languages as well as mathematics, and wrote more than 500 books and articles on
mathematics. He found time between books to marry and have 13 children, and even when
he went blind he kept on having books published.

5.2 Exercises

1. Given f ] x g = x + 3, find f ] 1 g and 10. If f ] x g = 2x - 9, find f ^ p h and

f ]-3 g. f ]x + h g.

2. If h ] x g = x 2 - 2, find h ] 0 g, h ] 2 g 11. Find g ] x - 1 g when We can use pronumerals

and h ] - 4 g . g ] x g = x 2 + 2x + 3. other than f for functions.

3. If f ] x g = - x 2, find f ] 5 g, f ] - 1 g, f ] 3 g 12. If f ] x g = x 3 - 1, find f ] k g as a

and f ] - 2 g . product of factors.

4. Find the value of f ] 0 g + f ] - 2 g if 13. Given f ] t g = t 2 + 2t + 1, find

f ] x g = x 4 - x 2 + 1. t when f ] t g = 0. Also find any
values of t for which f ] t g = 9.
5. Find f ] - 3 g if f ] x g = 2x 3 - 5x + 4.
14. Given f ] t g = t 4 + t 2 - 5, find the
6. If f ] x g = 2x - 5, find x when
value of f ] b g - f ] - b g .
f ] x g = 13.
x3 for x 2 1
7. Given f ] x g = x + 3, find any
2 15. f ] x g = )
x for x # 1
values of x for which f ] x g = 28.
Find f ] 5 g, f ] 1 g and ] - 1 g .
8. If f ] x g = 3 x, find x when Z 2x - 4 if x $ 1
f ]x g =
1
. ]
27 16. f ] x g = [x + 3 if -1 1 x 1 1
] 2
9. Find values of z for which x if x # -1
\
f ] z g = 5 given f ] z g = 2z + 3 . Find the values of
f ] 2 g - f ] - 2 g + f ] -1 g .
212 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

17. Find g ] 3 g + g ] 0 g + g ] - 2 g if 21. If f ] x g = x 2 – 5x + 4, find

x+1 when x $ 0 f ] x + h g - f ] x g in its simplest
g ]x g = )
- 2x + 1 when x 1 0 form.
f ]x + h g - f ]x g
18. Find the value of 22. Simplify where
h
f ] 3 g - f ] 2 g + 2f ] - 3 g when f ] x g = 2x 2 + x
x for x 2 2 23. If f ] x g = 5x - 4, find f ] x g - f ] c g
f ]x g = * x 2
for -2 # x # 2 in its simplest form.
4 for x 1 -2
24. Find the value of f ^ k 2 h if
19. Find the value of f ] - 1 g - f ] 3 g 3x + 5 for x $ 0
f ]x g = * 2
x3 - 1 for x $ 2 x for x 1 0
if f (x) = *
2x 2 + 3x - 1 for x 1 2 Z 3
25. If ]x when x $ 3
x 2 - 2x - 3 f ] x g = [5 when 0 1 x 1 3
20. If f ] x g =
x-3 ] 2
x - x + 2 when x # 0
\
(a) evaluate f (2) evaluate
(b) explain why the function (a) f (0)
does not exist for x = 3 (b) f ] 2 g - f ] 1 g
(c) by taking several x values
(c) f ^ - n 2 h
close to 3, find the value of y that
the function is moving towards
as x moves towards 3.

Graphing Techniques
You may have previously learned how to draw graphs by completing a table
of values and then plotting points. In this course, you will learn some other
techniques that will allow you to sketch graphs by showing their important
features.

Intercepts

One of the most useful techniques is to find the x- and y-intercepts.

Everywhere on the x-axis, For x-intercept, y = 0

y = 0 and everywhere on For y-intercept, x = 0
the y-axis x = 0 .
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 213

EXAMPLE

Find the x- and y-intercepts of the function f ] x g = x 2 + 7x - 8.

Solution This is the same as

y = x 2 + 7x - 8.
For x-intercept: y = 0
0 = x 2 + 7x - 8
= ]x + 8 g]x - 1 g
x + 8 = 0, x-1=0
x = - 8, x=1
For y-intercept: x = 0 You will use the intercepts
to draw graphs in the next
y = ] 0 g2 + 7 ] 0 g - 8 section in this chapter.
= -8

Domain and range

You have already seen that the x-coordinate is called the independent variable
and the y-coordinate is the dependent variable.

The set of all real numbers x for which a function is defined is called the
domain.
The set of real values for y or f (x) as x varies is called the range (or
image) of f.

EXAMPLE

Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x 2 .

Solution
You can see the domain and range from the graph, which is the parabola y = x 2 .
y

CONTINUED
214 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Notice that the parabola curves outwards gradually, and will take on any
real value for x. However, it is always on or above the x-axis.
Domain: {all real x}
Range: {y: y $ 0}
You can also find the domain and range from the equation y = x 2. Notice
that you can substitute any value for x and you will find a value of y.
However, all the y-values are positive or zero since squaring any number
will give a positive answer (except zero).

Odd and even functions

When you draw a graph, it can help to know some of its properties, for
example, whether it is increasing or decreasing on an interval or arc of the
curve (part of the curve lying between two points).
If a curve is increasing, as x increases, so does y, and the curve is moving
upwards, looking from left to right.

If a curve is decreasing, then as x increases, y decreases and the curve

moves downwards from left to right.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 215

EXAMPLES

1. State the domain over which each curve is increasing and decreasing.
y

x
x1 x2 x3

The curve isn’t increasing or

decreasing at x2. We say that it is
stationary at that point. You will
Solution study stationary points and further
curve sketching in the HSC Course.
The left-hand side of the parabola is decreasing and the right side is
increasing.
So the curve is increasing for x 2 x2 and the curve is decreasing when
x 1 x2.

2.
y

x
x1 x2 x3

Solution Notice that the curve is

stationary at x = 0 and x = x 3 .
The left-hand side of the curve is increasing until it reaches the y-axis
(where x = 0). It then turns around and decreases until x3 and then
increases again.
So the curve is increasing for x 1 0, x 2 x 3 and the curve is
decreasing for 0 1 x 1 x 3 .
216 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

As well as looking at where the curve is increasing and decreasing, we can

see if the curve is symmetrical in some way. You have already seen that the
parabola is symmetrical in earlier stages of mathematics and you have learned
how to find the axis of symmetry. Other types of graphs can also be symmetrical.
Functions are even if they are symmetrical about the y-axis. They have
line symmetry (reflection) about the y-axis.
This is an even function:

For even functions, f ] x g = f ] - x g for all values of x.

Functions are odd if they have point symmetry about the origin. A graph
rotated 180° about the origin gives the original graph.
This is an odd function:

For odd functions, f ] - x g = - f ] x g for all values of x in the domain.

 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 217

EXAMPLES

1. Show that f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function.

Solution

f ] - x g = ] - x g2 + 3
= x2 + 3
= f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function

2. Show that f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function.

Solution

f ] - x g = ] - x g3 - ] - x g
= -x3 + x
= - ^ x3 - x h
= -f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function

Investigation

Explore the family of graphs of f ] x g = x n.

k is called a parameter.
For what values of n is the function even? Some graphics calculators
and computer programs use
For what values of n is the function odd? parameters to show how
changing values of k change the
shape of graphs.
Which families of functions are still even or odd given k? Let k take on
different values, both positive and negative.

1. f ] x g = kx n
2. f ] x g = x n + k
3. f ] x g = ] x + k gn

5.3 Exercises

1. Find the x- and y-intercept of (d) f ] x g = x 2 + 3x

each function. (e) f ] x g = x2 - 4
(a) y = 3x - 2 (f) p ] x g = x 2 + 5x + 6
(b) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0 (g) y = x 2 - 8x + 15
(c) x + 3y - 12 = 0 (h) p ] x g = x3 + 5
218 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

x+3 ]x ! 0 g
12. For the functions below, state
(i) y = x (i) the domain over which the
(j) g ] x g = 9 - x 2
graph is increasing
(ii) the domain over which
2. Show that f ] x g = f ] - x g where
the graph is decreasing
f ] x g = x 2 - 2. What type of
(iii) whether the graph is odd,
function is it?
even or neither.
y
3. If f ] x g = x 3 + 1, find (a)
(a) f ^ x 2 h
(b) 6 f (x) @ 2
(c) f ] - x g
(d) Is it an even or odd function?

4. Show that g ] x g = x 8 + 3x 4 - 2x 2 is x
an even function.

5. Show that f (x) is odd, where

f ] x g = x.

6. Show that f ] x g = x 2 - 1 is an even

function. (b) y

7. Show that f ] x g = 4x - x 3 is an
odd function.

8. Prove that f ] x g = x 4 + x 2 is an
even function and hence find
x
f ]x g - f ]-x g. 4

9. Are these functions even, odd or

neither?
x3
(a) y = 4
x - x2 y
1 (c)
(b) y = 3
x -1
3
(c) f ] x g = 2
x -4
x-3
(d) y =
x+3 x
-2 2
x3
(e) f ] x g = 5
x - x2

10. If n is a positive integer, for

what values of n is the function
f ] x g = xn
(a) even?
(b) odd?

11. Can the function f ] x g = x n + x

ever be
(a) even?
(b) odd?
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 219

(d) y (e) y

x x
-2 -1 1 2

-2

-4

Investigation

Use a graphics calculator or a computer with graphing software to sketch

graphs and explore what effect different constants have on each type of
graph.

If your calculator or computer does not have the ability to use parameters
(this may be called dynamic graphing), simply draw different graphs by
choosing several values for k. Make sure you include positive and negative
numbers and fractions for k.

Alternatively, you may sketch these by hand.

1. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

(a) y = kx
(b) y = kx 2
(c) y = kx 3
(d) y = kx 4
k
(e) y = x
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y = k f ] x g?

2. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

(a) y = ] x + k g 2
(b) y = x 2 + k
(c) y = x 3 + k
(d) y = x 4 + k
1
(e) y = x + k
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y = f ] x g + k?

CONTINUED
220 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

(a) y = x + k
(b) y = ] x + k g2
(c) y = ] x + k g3
(d) y = ] x + k g4
1
(e) y =
x+k
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y = f ] x + k g?

For the family of functions y = k f ] x g, as k varies, the function changes

its slope or steepness.
For the family of functions y = f ] x g + k, as k varies, the graph moves up
When k 2 0 , the graph or down (vertical translation).
moves to the left and when
k 1 0 , the graph moves to For the family of functions y = f ] x + k g, as k varies, the graph moves left
the right. or right (horizontal translation).

Notice that the shape of most graphs is generally the same regardless of the
parameter k. For example, the parabola still has the same shape even though it
may be narrower or wider or upside down.
This means that if you know the shape of a graph by looking at its
equation, you can sketch it easily by using some of the graphing techniques in
this chapter rather than a time-consuming table of values. It also helps you to
understand graphs more and makes it easier to find the domain and range.
You have already sketched some of these graphs in previous years.

Linear Function
A linear function is a function whose graph is a straight line.

Gradient form:
y = mx + b has gradient m and y-intercept b
General form:
ax + by + c = 0

Investigation

Are straight line graphs always functions? Can you find an example of a
straight line that is not a function?

Are there any odd or even straight lines? What are their equations?
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 221

Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability

to explore the effect of a parameter on a linear function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).

Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k

1. y = kx
2. y = x + k
3. y = mx + b where m and b are both parameters
What effect do the parameters m and b have on these graphs?

EXAMPLE

Sketch the function f ] x g = 3x - 5 and state its domain and range.

Solution
This is a linear function. It could be written as y = 3x - 5.
Find the intercepts y
For x-intercept: y = 0
0 = 3x - 5 6

5 = 3x 5

2 4
1 =x
3 3
For y-intercept: x = 0 2

y = 3 ]0 g - 5 1 1 23

= -5 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Notice too, that you can

Notice that the line extends over the whole of the number plane, so that substitute any real number
it covers all real numbers for both the domain and range. into the equation of the
function for x, and any real
Domain: {all real x} number is possible for y.
Range: {all real y}

The linear function ax + by + c = 0 has domain {all real x}

and range {all real y} where a and b are non-zero

Special lines

Horizontal and vertical lines have special equations.

222 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Sketch y = 2 on a number plane. What is its domain and range?

Solution
x can be any value and y is always 2.
Some of the points on the line will be (0, 2), (1, 2) and (2, 2).
This gives a horizontal line with y-intercept 2.
y

5
4

3
2

1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4

-2

-3

-4

-5

Domain: " all real x ,

Range: " y: y = 2 ,

2. Sketch x = - 1 on a number plane and state its domain and range.

Solution
y can be any value and x is always - 1.
Some of the points on the line will be ^ - 1, 0 h, ^ - 1, 1 h and ^ - 1, 2 h .
This gives a vertical line with x-intercept - 1.
y

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Domain: " x: x = - 1 ,
Range: " all real y ,
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 223

x = a is a vertical line with x-intercept a

Domain: ! x: x = a +
Range: {all real y}

y = b is a horizontal line with y-intercept b

Domain: {all real x}
Range: " y: y = b ,

5.4 Exercises

1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of 3. Find the domain and range of

each function. (a) 3x - 2y + 7 = 0
(a) y = x - 2 (b) y = 2
(b) f ] x g = 2x + 3 (c) x = - 4
(c) 2x + y - 1 = 0 (d) x - 2 = 0
(d) x - y + 3 = 0 (e) 3 - y = 0
(e) 3x - 6y - 2 = 0
4. Which of these linear functions
2. Draw the graph of each straight are even or odd?
line. (a) y = 2x
(a) x = 4 (b) y = 3
(b) x - 3 = 0 (c) x = 4
(c) y = 5 (d) y = - x
(d) y + 1 = 0 (e) y = x
(e) f ] x g = 2x - 1
5. By sketching x - y - 4 = 0 and
(f) y = x + 4
2x + 3y - 3 = 0 on the same set
(g) f ] x g = 3x + 2
of axes, find the point where they
(h) x + y = 3
meet.
(i) x - y - 1 = 0
(j) 2x + y - 3 = 0
224 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Quadratic Function
The quadratic function gives the graph of a parabola.

f ] x g = ax 2 + bx + c is the general equation of a parabola.

If a 2 0 the parabola is concave upwards

If a 1 0 the parabola is concave downwards

The pronumeral
a is called the
coefficient of x 2.

Applications

The parabola shape is used in many different applications as it has special

properties that are very useful. For example if a light is placed inside the parabola
at a special place (called the focus), then all light rays coming from this light and
bouncing off the parabola shape will radiate out parallel to each other, giving a
strong light. This is how car headlights work. Satellite dishes also use this property
of the parabola, as sound coming in to the dish will bounce back to the focus.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 225

The lens in a camera and glasses are also parabola shaped. Some bridges look
like they are shaped like a parabola, but they are often based on the catenary.
Research the parabola and catenary on the Internet for further information.

Investigation

Is the parabola always a function? Can you find an example of a parabola

that is not a function?

Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability

to explore the effect of a parameter on a quadratic function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).

Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

1. y = kx 2
2. y = x 2 + k
3. y = ] x + k g2
4. y = x 2 + kx
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?

Which of these families are even functions? Are there any odd quadratic
functions?
226 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. (a) Sketch the graph of y = x 2 - 1, showing intercepts.

(b) State the domain and range.

Solution
(a) This is the graph of a parabola. Since a 2 0, it is concave upward
For x-intercept: y = 0 y

0=x -1 2
5
1 = x2 4
!1 = x 3
For y-intercept: x = 0 2
y = 02 - 1 1
= -1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

(b) From the graph, the curve is moving outwards and will extend
to all real x values. The minimum y value is - 1.
Domain: " all real x ,
Range: " y: y $ -1 ,

2. Sketch f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2.

Solution
This is a quadratic function. We find the intercepts to see where the
parabola will lie.
Alternatively, you may know from your work on parameters that
f ] x g = ] x + a g 2 will move the function f ] x g = x 2 horizontally a units to the
left.
So f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2 moves the parabola f ] x g = x 2 1 unit to the left.
For x-intercept: y = 0
0 = ]x + 1 g2
x+1=0
x = -1
For y-intercept: x = 0
y = ]0 + 1 g2
=1
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 227

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

3. For the quadratic function f ] x g = x 2 + x - 6

(a) Find the x- and y-intercepts
(b) Find the minimum value of the function
(c) State the domain and range
(d) For what values of x is the curve decreasing?

Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
This means f ] x g = 0
0 = x2 + x - 6
= ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
x + 3 = 0, x - 2 = 0
x = - 3, x = 2
For y-intercept: x = 0
f ] 0 g = ] 0 g2 + ] 0 g - 6
= -6 You will learn more
about this in Chapter 9.
(b) Since a 2 0, the quadratic function has a minimum value.
Since the parabola is symmetrical, this will lie halfway between the
x-intercepts.
Halfway between x = - 3 and x = 2:
-3 + 2 1
=-
2 2
1
Minimum value is f c - m
2
1 1 2 1
f c- m = c- m + c- m - 6
2 2 2
1 1
= - -6
4 2
1
= -6
4
1
So the minimum value is - 6 .
4

CONTINUED
228 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(c) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave upward parabola.

y

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-1 , -6 14
2

From the graph, notice that the parabola is gradually going outwards and
will include all real x values.
Since the minimum value is - 6 1 , all y values are greater than this.
4
Domain: " all real x ,
1
Range: ' y: y $ -6 1
4
(d) The curve decreases down to the minimum point and then
1
increases. So the curve is decreasing for all x 1 - .
2

4. (a) Find the x- and y-intercepts and the maximum value of the
quadratic function f ] x g = - x 2 + 4x + 5.
(b) Sketch the function and state the domain and range.
(c) For what values of x is the curve increasing?

Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
So f ]x g = 0
0 = - x 2 + 4x + 5
x 2 - 4x - 5 = 0
]x - 5 g]x + 1 g = 0
x - 5 = 0, x + 1 = 0
x = 5, x = -1
For y-intercept: x = 0
f ] 0 g = - ] 0 g2 + 4 ] 0 g + 5
=5
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 229

Since a 1 0, the quadratic function is concave downwards and has a

maximum value halfway between the x-intercepts x = - 1 and x = 5.
-1 + 5
=2
2
f ]2 g = -]2 g 2+ 4 ]2 g + 5
=9
So the maximum value is 9.
(b) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave downward parabola.
y

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
-3
-4
-5

From the graph, the function can take on all real numbers for x, but the
maximum value for y is 9.
Domain: " all real x ,
Range: " y: y # 9 ,
(c) From the graph, the function is increasing on the left of the
maximum point and decreasing on the right.
So the function is increasing when x 1 2.

5.5 Exercises

1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of 2. Sketch

each function. (a) y = x 2 + 2
(a) y = x 2 + 2x (b) y = - x 2 + 1
(b) y = - x 2 + 3x (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 4
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1 (d) y = x + 2x
2

(d) y = x 2 - x - 2 (e) y = - x 2 - x
(e) y = x 2 - 9x + 8 (f) f ] x g = ] x - 3 g 2
230 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(g) f ] x g = ] x + 1 g2 6. Find the domain over which each

(h) y = x 2 + 3x - 4 function is
(i) y = 2x 2 - 5 x + 3 (i) increasing
(j) f ] x g = - x 2 + 3x - 2 (ii) decreasing
(a) y = x 2
3. For each parabola, find (b) y = - x 2
(i) the x- and y-intercepts (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 9
(ii) the domain and range (d) y = - x 2 + 4x
(a) y = x 2 – 7x + 12 (e) f ] x g = ] x + 5 g2
(b) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x
(c) y = x 2 - 2x - 8 7. Show that f ] x g = - x 2 is an even
(d) y = x 2 - 6x + 9 function.
(e) f ] t g = 4 - t 2
8. State whether these functions are
4. Find the domain and range of even or odd or neither.
(a) y = x 2 - 5 (a) y = x 2 + 1
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 6x (b) f ] x g = x 2 - 3
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - x - 2 (c) y = -2x 2
(d) y = - x 2 (d) f ] x g = x 2 - 3x
(e) f ] x g = ] x - 7 g 2 (e) f ] x g = x 2 + x
(f) y = x 2 - 4
5. Find the range of each function (g) y = x 2 - 2x - 3
over the given domain. (h) y = x 2 - 5x + 4
(a) y = x 2 for 0 # x # 3 (i) p ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2
(b) y = - x 2 + 4 for -1 # x # 2 (j) y = ] x - 2 g 2
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1 for -2 # x # 5
(d) y = x 2 + 2x - 3 for -2 # x # 4
(e) y = - x 2 - x + 2 for 0 # x # 4

Absolute Value Function

You may not have seen the graphs of absolute functions before. If you are not
sure about what they look like, you can use a table of values or look at the
definition of absolute value.

EXAMPLES

1. Sketch f ] x g = x - 1 and state its domain and range.

Solution
Method 1: Table of values
When sketching any new graph for the first time, you can use a table of
values. A good selection of values is -3 # x # 3 but if these don’t give
enough information, you can find other values.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 231

e.g. When x = -3:

y = | -3 | -1
=3-1
=2

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 2 1 0 -1 0 1 2

This gives a v-shaped graph.

y

1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

Method 2: Use the definition of absolute value

x-1
y = | x | - 1 = &- when x $ 0
x - 1 when x 1 0
This gives 2 straight line graphs:
y = x - 1 ]x $ 0 g
y

5
4 y=x-1

3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

CONTINUED
232 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

y = -x - 1 ] x 1 0 g
y

y=-x-1 5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted
lines to get the graph shown in method 1.

y = -x - 1 5
y=x-1
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Method 3: If you know the shape of the absolute value functions, find the
intercepts.
For x-intercept: y = 0
So f ] x g = 0
0 = | x |- 1
1 =| x |
` x = !1
For y-intercept: x = 0
f (0) = | 0 | - 1
= -1
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 233

The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
If you already know how
-2 to sketch the graph of
-3 y = | x | , translate the
graph of y = | x | - 1
-4
down 1 unit, giving it a
-5 y-intercept of -1.

From the graph, notice that x values can be any real number while the
minimum value of y is - 1.
Domain: {all real x}
Range: {y: y $ -1}

2. Sketch y = | x + 2 | .

Solution
Method 1: Use the definition of absolute value.
y = | x + 2 | = 'x +2 when x + 2 $ 0
- (x + 2) when x + 2 1 0
This gives 2 straight lines:
y = x + 2 when x + 2 $ 0
x $ -2
y

5
y=x+2
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

CONTINUED
234 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

y = - ] x + 2 g when x + 2 1 0
i.e. y = - x - 2 when x 1 -2
y

5
4
y = -x - 2
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted lines.
y

5
y=x+2
4
y = -x - 2
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Method 2: Find intercepts

For x-intercept: y = 0
So f ] x g = 0
There is only one 0 =| x + 2 |
solution for the
equation | x + 2 | = 0. 0=x+2
Can you see why? -2 = x
For y-intercept: x = 0
f (0) = | 0 + 2 |
=2
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 235

The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
If you know how to
-3 sketch the graph of
-4 y = | x | , translate it 2
places to the left for the
-5 graph of y = | x + 2 | .

Investigation

Are graphs that involve absolute value always functions? Can you find an
example of one that is not a function?

Can you find any odd or even functions involving absolute values? What
are their equations?

Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability

to explore the effect of a parameter on an absolute value function, or
choose different values of k (both positive and negative).

Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k

1. f ] x g = k | x |
2. f ] x g = | x | + k
3. f ] x g = | x + k |

What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?

The equations and inequations involving absolute values that you studied in
Chapter 3 can be solved graphically.
236 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Solve
1. | 2x - 1 | = 3

Solution
Sketch y = | 2x - 1 | and y = 3 on the same number plane.

The solution of | 2x - 1 | = 3 occurs at the intersection of the graphs, that

is, x = -1, 2.

2. | 2x + 1 | = 3x - 2

Solution
Sketch y = | 2x + 1 | and y = 3x - 2 on the same number plane.

The graph shows that

there is only one solution.
Algebraically, you need to
find the 2 possible solutions
and then check them.

The solution is x = 3.

3. | x + 1 | 1 2

Solution
Sketch y = | x + 1 | and y = 2 on the same number plane.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 237

The solution of | x + 1 | 1 2 is where the graph y = | x + 1 | is below the

graph y = 2, that is, - 3 1 x 1 1.

5.6 Exercises

1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of (c) f ] x g = | 2x + 5 |

each function. (d) y = 2 | x |- 3
(a) y = | x | (e) f ] x g = -| x - 3 |
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 7
(c) f ] x g = | x | - 2 4. Find the domain over which each
(d) y = 5 | x | function is
(e) f ] x g = - | x | + 3 (i) increasing
(f) y = | x + 6 | (ii) decreasing
(g) f ] x g = | 3x - 2 | (a) y = | x - 2 |
(h) y = | 5x + 4 | (b) f ] x g = | x | + 2
(i) y = | 7x - 1 | (c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |
(j) f ] x g = | 2x | + 9 (d) y = 4 | x | - 1
(e) f ] x g = - | x |
2. Sketch each graph on a number
plane. 5. For each domain, find the range
(a) y = | x | of each function.
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 1 (a) y = | x | for - 2 # x # 2
(c) f ] x g = | x | - 3 (b) f ] x g = - | x | - 4 for
(d) y = 2 | x | -4 # x # 3
(e) f ] x g = -| x | (c) f ] x g = | x + 4 | for -7 # x # 2
(f) y = | x + 1 | (d) y = | 2x - 5 | for -3 # x # 3
(g) f ] x g = -| x - 1 | (e) f ] x g = -| x | for - 1 # x # 1
(h) y = | 2x - 3 | 6. For what values of x is each
(i) y = | 4x + 2 | function increasing?
(j) f ] x g = | 3x | + 1 (a) y = | x + 3 |
3. Find the domain and range of (b) f ] x g = - | x | + 4
each function. (c) f ] x g = | x - 9 |
(a) y = | x - 1 | (d) y = | x - 2 | - 1
(b) f ] x g = | x | - 8 (e) f ] x g = - | x + 2 |
238 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

7. Solve graphically (k) | 2x + 3 | # 5

(a) | x | = 3 (l) | 2x - 1 | $ 1
(b) | x | 2 1 (m) | 3x - 1 | = x + 3
(c) | x | # 2 (n) | 3x - 2 | = x - 4
(d) | x + 2 | = 1 (o) | x - 1 | = x + 1
(e) | x - 3 | = 0 (p) | x + 3 | = 2x + 2
(f) | 2x - 3 | = 1 (q) | 2x + 1 | = 1 - x
(g) | x - 1 | 1 4 (r) | 2x - 5 | = x - 3
(h) | x + 1 | # 3 (s) | x - 1 | = 2x
(i) | x - 2 | 2 2 (t) | 2x - 3 | = x + 3
(j) | x - 3 | $ 1

The Hyperbola
a
A hyperbola is a function with its equation in the form xy = a or y = x .

EXAMPLE

1
Sketch y = x .

Solution
1
y = x is a discontinuous curve since the function is undefined at x = 0.

Drawing up a table of values gives:

1 1 1 1
x -3 -2 -1 - - 0 1 2 3
2 4 4 2

1 1 1 1
y - - -1 -2 -4 — 4 2 1
3 2 2 3

Class Discussion

What happens to the graph as x becomes closer to 0? What happens as x

becomes very large in both positive and negative directions? The value of
y is never 0. Why?
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 239

To sketch the graph of a more general hyperbola, we can use the domain and
range to help find the asymptotes (lines towards which the curve approaches
but never touches).
The hyperbola is an example of a discontinuous graph, since it has a gap
in it and is in two separate parts.

Investigation

Is the hyperbola always a function? Can you find an example of a

hyperbola that is not a function?

Are there any families of odd or even hyperbolas? What are their
equations?

Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability

to explore the effect of a parameter on a hyperbola, or choose different
values of k (both positive and negative).

Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k

k
1. y = x

1
2. y = x + k

1
3. y =
x+k
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?

EXAMPLES

3
1. (a) Find the domain and range of f ] x g = .
x-3
(b) Hence sketch the graph of the function.

Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola.
The denominator cannot
To find the domain, we notice that x - 3 ! 0. be zero.
So x ! 3
Also y cannot be zero (see example on page 238).
Domain: {all real x: x ! 3}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
The lines x = 3 and y = 0 (the x-axis) are called asymptotes.

CONTINUED
240 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

To make the graph more accurate we can find another point or two. The
easiest one to find is the y-intercept.
For y-intercept, x = 0
3
y=
0-3
= -1
y

1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 y=0
-1

-2
Asymptotes
Notice that this graph is -3 x=3
3
a translation of y = -4
x
three units to the right.
-5

1
2. Sketch y = - .
2x + 4

Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola. The negative sign turns the hyperbola
around so that it will be in the opposite quadrants. If you are not sure
where it will be, you can find two or three points on the curve.
To find the domain, we notice that 2x + 4 ! 0.
2x ! - 4
x ! -2
For the range, y can never be zero.
Domain: {all real x: x ! -2}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
So there are asymptotes at x = -2 and y = 0 (the x-axis).
To make the graph more accurate we can find the y-intercept.
For y-intercept, x = 0
1
y=-
2 ( 0) + 4
1
=-
4
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 241

x
-2

- 14

a
The function f ] x g = is a hyperbola with
bx + c
c
domain & all real x: x ! - 0 and
b
range {all real y: y ! 0}

5.7 Exercises

1. For each graph 2

(h) y = -
(i) State the domain and range. x+1
(ii) Find the y-intercept if it (i) f ] x g =
2
exists. 6x - 3
(iii) Sketch the graph. 6
(j) y = -
2 x+2
(a) y = x
1 2
(b) y = - x 2. Show that f ] x g = x is an odd
function.
1
(c) f ] x g =
x+1 3. Find the range of each function
3
(d) f ] x g = over the given domain.
x-2 1
1 (a) f ] x g = for -2 # x # 2
(e) y = 2x + 5
3x + 6 1
2 (b) y = for -2 # x # 0
(f) f ] x g = - x+3
x-3 5
(c) f ] x g = for - 3 # x # 1
(g) f ] x g =
4 2x - 4
x-1
242 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3 1 1
(d) f ] x g = - for - 3 # x # 3 (c) f ] x g = for -1 # y # -
x-4 x-1 7
2 3
(e) y = - for 0 # x # 5 (d) f ] x g = - for
3x + 1 2x + 1
1
4. Find the domain of each function -1 # y # -
3
over the given range. 6 1
(e) y = for 1 # y # 6
3 3x - 2 2
(a) y = x for 1 # y # 3
2 1
(b) y = - x for - 2 # y # -
2

Circles and Semi-circles

The circle is used in many applications, including building and design.

Circle gate

A graph whose equation is in the form x 2 + ax + y 2 + by + c = 0 has the

shape of a circle.
There is a special case of this formula:

The graph of x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius r

Proof

(x, y)

r y

x
x
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 243

Given the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r:

Let (x, y) be a general point on the circle, with distances from the origin x
on the x-axis and y on the y-axis as shown.
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
` r2 = x2 + y2

EXAMPLE

(a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 4. Is it a function?

(b) State its domain and range.

Solution
The radius is 4.
(a) This is a circle with radius 2 and centre (0, 0).

x
-2 2

-2

The circle is not a function since a vertical line will cut it in more than
one place.
y

x
-2 2

-2

CONTINUED
244 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(b) Notice that the x-values for this graph lie between - 2 and 2 and
the y-values also lie between - 2 and 2.
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 2}

The circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 has domain: ! x: -r # x # r + and

range: " y: -r # y # r ,

We can use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the equation of a more general circle.

The equation of a circle, centre (a, b) and radius r is ] x – a g2 + ^ y – b h2 = r 2

Proof
Take a general point on the circle, (x, y) and draw a right-angled triangle as
shown.

(x, y)
y
r y-b

b
(a, b) x-a
x
a x

Notice that the small sides of the triangle are x – a and y – b and the
hypotenuse is r, the radius.
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
r 2 = ] x – a g2 + ^ y – b h2
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 245

EXAMPLES

1. (a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 81.

(b) State its domain and range.

Solution
(a) The equation is in the form x 2 + y 2 = r 2.
This is a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 9.

x
-9 9

-9

(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -9 # x # 9}
Range: {y: -9 # y # 9}

2. (a) Sketch the circle ] x – 1 g2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4.

(b) State its domain and range.

Solution
(a) The equation is in the form ] x – a g2 + ^ y – b h2 = r 2.
] x – 1 g 2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4
] x – 1 g 2 + _ y – ] - 2 g i2 = 2 2
So a = 1, b = - 2 and r = 2

CONTINUED
246 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

This is a circle with centre ^ 1, - 2 h and radius 2.

To draw the circle, plot the centre point ^ 1, - 2 h and count 2 units up,
down, left and right to find points on the circle.

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
(1, -2)
-3
-4
-5

(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -1 # x # 3}
Range: {y: -4 # y # 0}

3. Find the equation of a circle with radius 3 and centre ^ -2, 1 h in

expanded form.

Solution
This is a general circle with equation ] x – a g2 + ^ y – b h2 = r 2 where
a = - 2, b = 1 and r = 3.
Substituting:
] x – a g2 + ^ y – b h2 = r 2
] x - ] - 2 g g2 + ^ y – 1 h2 = 3 2
You may need to revise this
] x + 2 g2 + ^ y – 1 h2 = 9
in Chapter 2. Remove the grouping symbols.
] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
So ] x + 2 g2 = x 2 + 2 ] x g ] 2 g + 2 2
= x 2 + 4x + 4
] a – b g = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
2

So ^ y – 1 h2 = y 2 - 2 ^ y h ] 1 g + 1 2
= y 2 - 2y + 1
The equation of the circle is:
x 2 + 4x + 4 + y - 2y + 1 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y - 2y + 5 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y – 2y + 5 - 9 = 9 - 9
x 2 + 4x + y - 2y - 4 = 0
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 247

Investigation

The circle is not a function. Could you break the circle up into
two functions?

Change the subject of this equation to y.

What do you notice when you change the subject to y? Do you get two
functions? What are their domains and ranges?

If you have a graphics calculator, how could you draw the graph of a
circle?

By rearranging the equation of a circle, we can also find the equations of

semi-circles.

The equation of the semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y = r 2 - x 2

The equation of the semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y = - r 2 - x 2

Proof
x2 + y2 = r2
y2 = r2 – x2
y = ! r2 - x2
This gives two functions:

y = r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is y $ 0

for all values.

x
-r r

The domain is {x: -r # x # r } and the range is {y: 0 # y # r }

248 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

y = - r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is

y # 0 for all values.

x
-r r

-r

The domain is {x: - r # x # r } and the range is {y: -r # y # 0}

EXAMPLES

Sketch each function and state the domain and range.

1. f ] x g = 9 - x2

Solution
This is in the form f ] x g = r 2 - x 2 where r = 3.
It is a semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 3.

x
-3 3

Domain: {x: -3 # x # 3}
Range: {y: 0 # y # 3}
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 249

2. y = - 4 - x 2

Solution
This is in the form y = - r 2 - x 2 where r = 2.
It is a semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.

x
-2 2

-2

Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 0}

5.8 Exercises

1. For each of the following (a) y = - 25 - x 2

(i) sketch each graph (b) y = 1 - x2
(ii) state the domain and (c) y = 36 - x 2
range. (d) y = - 64 - x 2
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 9 (e) y = - 7 - x2
(b) x 2 + y 2 - 16 = 0
(c) ] x – 2 g2 + ^ y – 1 h2 = 4 3. Find the length of the radius and
(d) ] x + 1 g2 + y 2 = 9 the coordinates of the centre of
(e) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y – 1 h2 = 1 each circle.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 100
2. For each semi-circle
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 5
(i) state whether it is above or
(c) ] x – 4 g2 + ^ y – 5 h2 = 16
below the x-axis
(ii) sketch the function (d) ] x – 5 g2 + ^ y + 6 h2 = 49
(iii) state the domain and (e) x 2 + ^ y – 3 h2 = 81
range.
250 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

4. Find the equation of each circle (e) Centre ^ -4, 2 h and radius 5
in expanded form (without (f) Centre ^ 0, -2 h and radius 1
grouping symbols). (g) Centre (4, 2) and radius 7
(a) Centre (0, 0) and radius 4 (h) Centre ^ -3, -4 h and radius 9
(b) Centre (3, 2) and radius 5 (i) Centre ^ -2, 0 h and radius 5
(c) Centre ^ -1, 5 h and radius 3 (j) Centre ^ -4, -7 h and radius 3
(d) Centre (2, 3) and radius 6

Other Graphs
There are many other different types of graphs. We will look at some of these
graphs and explore their domain and range.
You will meet these
graphs again in the
HSC Course.
Exponential and logarithmic functions

EXAMPLES

1. Sketch the graph of f ] x g = 3 x and state its domain and range.

Solution
If you do not know what this graph looks like, draw up a table of values.
You may need to revise the indices that you studied in Chapter 1.
e.g. When x = 0:
y = 3c
=1
When x = -1:
y = 3-1
1
= 1
3
1
=
3

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
y 1 3 9 27
27 9 3

If you already know what the shape of the graph is, you can draw it
just using 2 or 3 points to make it more accurate.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 251

You learned about

exponential graphs in earlier
This is an exponential function with y-intercept 1. We can find one
stages of maths.
other point.
When x = 1
y = 31
=3
y

x
1

From the graph, x can be any real value (the equation shows this as well
since any x value substituted into the equation will give a value for y).
From the graph, y is always positive, which can be confirmed by
substituting different values of x into the equation.
Domain: " all real x ,
Range: " y: y 2 0 ,

2. Sketch f ] x g = log x and state the domain and range.

Solution
Use the LOG key on your calculator to complete the table of values.
Notice that you can’t find the log of 0 or a negative number.

x −2 −1 0 0.5 1 2 3 4
y # # # −0.3 0 0.3 0.5 0.6

x
1 2 3 4
-1

From the graph and by trying different values on the calculator, y can be
any real number while x is always positive.
Domain: ! x: x 2 0 +
Range: " all real y ,
252 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The exponential function y = a x has domain {all real x} and

range {y: y 2 0}

The logarithmic function y = log a x has domain ! x: x 2 0 + and

range {all real y}

Cubic function

A cubic function has an equation where the highest power of x is x 3 .

EXAMPLE

1. Sketch the function f ] x g = x 3 + 2 and state its domain and range.

Solution
Draw up a table of values.

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y −25 −6 1 2 3 10 29

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1

-2

If you already -3
know the shape of
y = x 3, f (x) = x 3 + 2 has -4
the same shape as f (x) = x 3
-5
but it is translated 2 units up
(this gives a y-intercept of 2).

The function can have any real x or y value:

Domain: " all real x ,
Range: " all real y ,
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 253

Domain and range

Sometimes there is a restricted domain that affects the range of a function.

EXAMPLE

1. Find the range of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 over the given domain of -1 # x # 4.

Solution
The graph of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 is the cubic function in the previous example.
From the graph, the range is {all real y}. However, with a restricted
domain of -1 # x # 4 we need to see where the endpoints of this
function are.
f ] -1 g = ] -1 g3 + 2
= -1 + 2
=1
f ] 4 g = ] 4 g3 + 2
= 64 + 2
= 66
Sketching the graph, we can see that the values of y all lie between
these points.

y (4, 66)

(-1, 1)
x

Range: " y: 1 # y # 66 ,
254 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

You may not know what a function looks like on a graph, but you can still
find its domain and range by looking at its equation.
When finding the domain, we look for values of x that are impossible.
For example, with the hyperbola you have already seen that the denominator
of a fraction cannot be zero.
For the range, we look for the results when different values of x are
substituted into the equation. For example, x2 will always give zero or a
positive number.

EXAMPLE

Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x - 4.

Solution
We can only find the square root of a positive number or zero.
So x – 4 $ 0
x$4
When you take the square root of a number, the answer is always positive
(or zero). So y $ 0
Domain: ! x: x $ 4 +
Range: " y: y $ 0 ,

5.9 Exercises

1. Find the domain and range of (c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |

(a) y = 4x + 3 (d) y = | x | - 2
(b) f ] x g = -4
(e) f ] x g = - 2x + 5
(c) x = 3
(f) y = 5 - | x |
(d) f ] x g = 4x 2 – 1
You may like to (g) y = 2 x
(e) p ] x g = x 3 – 2
simplify the function
(h) y = -5 x
by dividing by x.
(f) f ] x g = 12 - x - x 2 x+1
(i) f ] x g = x
(g) x 2 + y 2 = 64
4x - 3
3 (j) y =
(h) f ] t g = 2x
t-4
3. Find the x-intercepts of
2
(i) g (z) = + 5 (a) y = x ] x - 5 g2
z
(j) f ] x g = | x | (b) f ] x g = ] x – 1 g ] x – 2 g ] x + 3 g
(c) y = x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x
2. Find the domain and range of
(d) g ] x g = x 4 - 16x 2
(a) y = x
(e) x 2 + y 2 = 49
(b) y = x-2
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 255

4. (a) Solve 1 - x 2 $ 0. x
8. Given the function f ] x g = x
(b) Find the domain of
f ] x g = 1 - x2 . (a) find the domain of the
function
5. Find the domain of (b) find its range.
(a) y = x 2 - x - 2
(b) g ] t g = t 2 + 6t 9. Draw each graph on a number
plane
6. Each of the graphs has a (a) f ] x g = x 4
restricted domain. Find the range (b) y = - x 3
in each case.
(c) y = x 4 - 3
(a) y = 2x - 3 in the domain
(d) p ] x g = 2x 3
-3 # x # 3
(e) g ] x g = x 3 + 1
(b) y = x 2 in the domain
-2 # x # 3 (f) x 2 + y 2 = 100

(c) f ] x g = x 3 in the domain (g) y = 2 x + 1

-2 # x # 1 10. (a) Find the domain and range of
1
(d) y = x in the domain y = x - 1.
1# x #5 (b) Sketch the graph of y = x - 1 .
(e) y = | x | in the domain
11. Sketch the graph of y = 5 x .
0#x#4
(f) y = x 2 - 2x in the domain 12. For each function, state
-3 # x # 3 (i) its domain and range
(g) y = - x 2 in the domain (ii) the domain over which the
-1 # x # 1 function is increasing
(iii) the domain over which the
(h) y = x 2 - 1 in the domain
function is decreasing.
-2 # x # 3
(a) y = 2x - 9
(i) y = x 2 - 2x - 3 in the domain
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 2
-4 # x # 4
1
(c) y = x
(j) y = - x 2 + 7x - 6 in the
domain 0 # x # 7 (d) f ] x g = x 3
(e) f ] x g = 3 x
7. (a) Find the domain for the
3 13. (a) Solve 4 - x 2 $ 0.
function y = .
x+1
(b) Find the domain and range of
(b) Explain why there is no
(i) y = 4 - x 2
x- intercept for the function.
(ii) y = - 4 - x 2 .
(c) State the range of the
function.
256 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

DID YOU KNOW?

A lampshade can produce a hyperbola

where the light meets the flat wall.

• Can you find any other shapes made by

a light?

Lamp casting its light

Limits and Continuity

Limits

The exponential function and the hyperbola are examples of functions that
approach a limit. The curve y = a x approaches the x-axis when x approaches
very large negative numbers, but never touches it.
That is, when x " - 3, a x " 0.
Putting a - 3 into index form gives
1
a-3 = 3
A line that a graph approaches
a
1
but never touches is called an
=3
asymptote.
Z0
We say that the limit of a x as x approaches -3 is 0. In symbols, we write
lim a x = 0.
x " -3

EXAMPLES

x 2 + 5x
1. Find lim x .
x "0

Solution
0
Substituting x = 0 into the function gives , which is undefined.
0
Factorising and cancelling help us find the limit.
x 2 + 5x x 1 ]x + 5 g
lim x = lim
x "0 x "0
x1
= lim (x + 5)
x "0
=5
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 257

x-2
2. Find lim .
x "2 x2 - 4
Solution
0
Substituting x = 2 into the function gives , which is undefined.
0
x-2 x-2 1

lim = lim
x "2 x -4
2 x " 2
^x + 2h _x - 2i
1

1
= lim
x "2 x + 2

1
=
4

2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h
3. Find lim .
h "0 h
Solution

2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h h ^ 2hx + x 2 - 7 h
lim = lim
h "0 h h "0 h
= lim 2hx + x 2 - 7
h "0

= x2 - 7

Continuity

Many functions are continuous. That is, they have a smooth, unbroken curve
(or line). However, there are some discontinuous functions that have gaps in
their graphs. The hyperbola is an example.
If a curve is discontinuous at a certain point, we can use limits to find the
value that the curve approaches at that point.

EXAMPLES

x2 - 1
1. Find lim and hence describe the domain and range of the curve
x "1 x-1
x -1
2
y= . Sketch the curve.
x-1

Solution

x2 - 1 0
Substituting x = 1 into gives
x-1 0

CONTINUED
258 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

x2 - 1 ]x + 1 g]x - 1 g
lim = lim
x "1 x-1 x-1 x-1
= lim (x + 1)
x "1
=2
x2 - 1
y= is discontinuous at x = 1 since y is undefined at that point.
x-1
This leaves a gap in the curve. The limit tells us that y " 2 as x " 1, so
the gap is at ^ 1, 2 h .
Domain: " x: all real x, x ! 1 ,
Range: " y: all real y, y ! 2 ,
x2 - 1
y=
x-1
^x + 1h ^x - 1h
=
Remember that x ! 1. x-1
=x+1
` the graph is y = x + 1 where x ! 1

x2 + x - 2 x2 + x - 2
2. Find lim and hence sketch the curve y = .
x " -2 x+2 x+2

Solution
x2 + x - 2 0
Substituting x = -2 into gives
x+2 0

x2 + x - 2 ^x - 1h ^x + 2h
lim = lim
x " -2 x+2 x " - 2
^x + 2h
= lim ^ x - 1 h
x " -2
= -3
x2 + x - 2
y= is discontinuous at x = - 2
x+2
^x + 2h ^x - 1h
y=
x+2
=x-1
So the function is y = x - 1 where x ! -2. It is discontinuous at ^ -2, -3 h .
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 259

5.10 Exercises

1. Find 2. Determine which of these

(a) lim x 2 + 5 functions are discontinuous and
x "4
find x values for which they are
(b) lim t - 7
t " -3 discontinuous.
(c) lim x 3 + 2x - 4 (a) y = x 2 - 3
x "2
1
x 2 + 3x (b) y =
(d) lim x+1
x "0 x
(c) f ] x g =
x-1
h2 - h - 2
(e) lim 1
h "2 h-2 (d) y = 2
x +4
y 3 - 125 1
(f) lim (e) y = 2
y "5 y-5 x -4
x 2 + 2x + 1
(g) lim 3. Sketch these functions, showing
x "-1 x+1
any points of discontinuity.
x 2 + 2x - 8
(h) lim x 2 + 3x
x " -4 x+4 (a) y = x
c-2
(i) lim x 2 + 3x
c "2 c2 - 4 (b) y =
x+3
x-1 x 2 + 5x + 4
(j) lim (c) y =
x "1 x2 - x x+1
h 3 + 2h 2 - 7h
(k) lim
h "0 h
hx 2 - 3hx + h 2
(l) lim
h "0 h
2hx 3 - h 2 x 2 + 3hx - 5h
(m) lim
h "0 h
x3 - c3
(n) lim
x "c x - c
260 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Regions

Class Investigation

How many solutions are there for y $ x + 2? How would you record
them all?

Inequalities can be shown as regions in the Cartesian plane.

You can shade regions on a number plane that involve either linear or
non-linear graphs. This means that we can have regions bounded by a circle or
a parabola, or any of the other graphs you have drawn in this chapter.
Regions can be bounded or unbounded.
A bounded region means that the line or curve is included in the region.

EXAMPLE

Sketch the region x # 3.

Solution
x # 3 includes both x = 3 and x 1 3 in the region.
Remember that x = 3 is a Sketch x = 3 as an unbroken or filled in line, as it will be included in the
vertical line with x-intercept 3. region. Shade in all points where x 1 3 as shown.
y

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
x=3
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 261

An unbounded region means that the line or curve is not included in the
region.

EXAMPLE

Sketch the region y 2 -1.

Solution
y 2 -1 doesn’t include y = -1. When this happens, it is an unbounded
region and we draw the line y = -1 as a broken line to show it is not
included. Remember that y = -1 is a
horizontal line with
Sketch y = -1 as a broken line and shade in all points where y 2 -1 as y-intercept -1.
shown.
y

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
y = -1 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5

For lines that are not horizontal or vertical, or for curves, we need to
check a point to see if it lies in the region.
262 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Find the region defined by

1. y $ x + 2

Solution
First sketch y = x + 2 as an unbroken line.
On one side of the line, y 2 x + 2 and on the other side, y 1 x + 2.
To find which side gives y 2 x + 2, test a point on one side of the
line (not on the line).
For example, choose ^ 0, 0 h and substitute into
y$x+2
0$0+2
0$2 (false)
This means that ^ 0, 0 h does not lie in the region y $ x + 2. The
region is on the other side of the line.

Any point in the region will

make the inequality true.
Test one to see this.

2. 2x - 3y 1 6

Solution
First sketch 2x - 3y = 6 as a broken line, as it is not included in the
region.
To find which side of the line gives 2x - 3y 1 6, test a point on one
side of the line.
For example, choose ^ 0, 1 h and substitute into
2x - 3y 1 6
2 ] 0 g - 3 (1 ) 1 6
-3 1 6 (true)
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 263

This means that ^ 0, 1 h lies in the region 2x - 3y 1 6.

2x - 3y = 6

3. x 2 + y 2 2 1

Solution
The equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 is a circle, radius 1 and centre ^ 0, 0 h .
Draw x 2 + y 2 = 1 as a broken line, since the region does not include
the curve.
Choose a point inside the circle, say ^ 0, 0 h
x2 + y2 2 1
02 + 02 2 1
0 2 1 (false)
So the region lies outside the circle.

4. y $ x 2

Solution
The equation y = x 2 is a parabola. Sketch this as an unbroken line, as it is
included in the region.

CONTINUED
264 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Choose a point inside the parabola, say ^ 1, 3 h.

y $ x2
3 2 12
3 2 1 (true)
So ^ 1, 3 h lies in the region.

y = x2

Sometimes a region includes two or more inequalities. When this

happens, sketch each region on the number plane, and the final region is
where they overlap (intersect).

EXAMPLE

Sketch the region x # 4, y 2 -2 and y # x 2 .

Solution
Draw the three regions, either separately or on the same set of axes, and
see where they overlap.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 265

Put the three regions together.

If you are given a region, you should also be able to describe it

algebraically.

EXAMPLES

Describe each region.

1. y

6
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4

Solution
The shaded area is below and including y = 6 so can be described as
y # 6.
It is also to the left of, but not including the line x = 4, which can be
described as x 1 4.
The region is the intersection of these two regions:
y # 6 and x 1 4

CONTINUED
266 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

y
2.

x
-2 2

-2

Solution
The shaded area is the interior of the circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 2 but
it does not include the circle.
The equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 = 2 2 or x 2 + y 2 = 4.
You may know (or guess) the inequality for the inside of the circle.
If you are unsure, choose a point inside the circle and substitute into the
equation e.g. (0, 0).
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= 02 + 02
=0
1 4 ] RHS g
So the region is x 2 + y 2 1 4.

5.11 Exercises
1. Shade the region defined by (f) y $ 2x - 3
(a) x # 2 (g) x+y21
(b) x 2 1 (h) 3x - y - 6 1 0
(c) y $ 0 (i) x + 2y - 2 $ 0
(d) y 1 5 (j) 2x - 1 1 0
(e) y # x + 1
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 267

2. Write an inequation to describe (d)

y
each region.
(a) 5 y = x2 - 4
y
4
3
6 2
5 1
4
3 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
2
-2
1
-3
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -4
-1
-5
-2
-3 (e)
-4 y

y = 2x
(b)
y
3

6 2

5 1
4
x
3 1
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
3. Shade each region described.
-3
(a) y 2 x 2 – 1
-4
(b) x 2 + y 2 # 9
(c) (c) x 2 + y 2 $ 1
y (d) y # x 2
(e) y 1 x 3
6
4. Describe as an inequality
5
y=x+1 (a) the set of points that lie
4
below the line y = 3x - 2
3
(b) the set of points that lie
2
inside the parabola y = x 2 + 2
1
(c) the interior of a circle with
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
radius 7 and centre (0, 0)
-1 (d) the exterior of a circle with
-2 radius 9 and centre (0, 0)
-3 (e) the set of points that lie to
-4 the left of the line x = 5 and
above the line y = 2
268 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

5. Shade the region (c) the curve x 2 + y 2 = 4, the

(a) ] x - 2 g2 + y 2 # 4 x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
The first quadrant is
(b) ] x - 1 g2 + ^ y - 2 h2 # 1 x = 1 in the first quadrant
where x and y values (c) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y - 1 h2 2 9 2
(d) the curve y = x , the x-axis
are both positive.
6. Shade the intersection of these and the lines x = 1 and x = 4
regions. 1
(e) the curve y = , the
(a) x # 3, y $ -1 x+2
(b) x $ -3, y 2 x -3 x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
(c) y # 1, y $ 3x - 5 x=2
(d) y 2 x + 1, y # 3 - x
(e) y # 1, x 2 + y 2 # 9 8. Shade the regions bounded by
(f) x 2 -1, x 2 + y 2 1 4 the intersection of
(g) y # 4, y $ x 2 (a) x 1 2, y 1 5 and y # x 2
(h) x 1 -2, y # 3, y 2 x 3 (b) x 1 3, y $ -1, y # x - 2
(i) y # 0, x 2 + y 2 $ 1 (c) y # 1 - x, y # 2x + 1, 2x - 3y # 6
(j) -1 1 x - y # 2 (d) x $ -3, y # 2, x 2 + y 2 $ 9
(e) x 1 2, y # 3, y $ | x |
7. Shade the region bounded by
(a) the curve y = x 2, the x-axis
and the lines x = 1 and x = 3
(b) the curve y = x 3, the y-axis
and the lines y = 0 and y = 1

Application

Regions are used in business applications to find optimum profit. Two (or more)
equations are graphed together, and the region where a profit is made is shaded.

The optimum profit occurs at the endpoints (or vertices) of the region.

EXAMPLE
A company makes both roller skates (X ) and ice skates (Y ). Roller skates make a
$25 profit, while ice skates make a profit of $21. Each pair of roller skates spends
2 hours on machine A (available 12 hours per day) and 2 hours on machine B
(available 8 hours per day). Each pair of ice skates spends 3 hours on machine A
and 1 hour on machine B.

How many skates of each type should be made each day to give the greatest
profit while making the most efficient use of the machines?
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 269

SOLUTION
Profit P = $25 X + $21Y
Machine A: 2X + 3Y # 12
Machine B: 2X + Y # 8
Sketch the regions and find the
point of intersection of the lines.

The shaded area shows all possible ways of making a profit. Optimum profit
occurs at one of the endpoints of the regions.
(0, 4): P = $25 ] 0 g + $21 ] 4 g = $84
(4, 0): P = $25 ] 4 g + $21 ] 0 g = $100
(3, 2): P = $25 ] 3 g + $21 ] 2 g = $117

^ 3, 2 h gives the greatest profit, so 3 pairs of roller skates and 2 pairs of ice
skates each day gives optimum profit.
270 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Test Yourself 5
1. If f ] x g = x 2 - 3x - 4, find 11. Describe each region
(a) f ] -2 g (a)
(b) f ] a g
(c) x when f ] x g = 0

2. Sketch each graph

(a) y = x 2 - 3x - 4
(b) f ] x g = x 3
(c) x 2 + y 2 = 1
(d) y = 1 - x 2
(e) y = - 1 - x 2 (b)
2
(f) y = x
(g) 2x - 5y + 10 = 0
(h) y = | x + 2 |

3. Find the domain and range of each graph

in question 2.
2x if x $ 1
4. If f ] x g = *
x -3
2
if x 1 1
find f ] 5 g - f ] 0 g + f ] 1 g

3 if x 2 3
(c)
5. Given f ] x g = * x 2
if 1 # x # 3
2 - x if x 1 1
find
(a) f ] 2 g
(b) f ] -3 g
(c) f ] 3 g
(d) f ] 5 g
(e) f ] 0 g

6. Shade the region y $ 2x + 1.

7. Shade the region where x 1 3 and y $ -1.

12. (a) Write down the domain and range of
8. Shade the region given by x 2 + y 2 $ 1. 2
the curve y = .
x-3
9. Shade the region given by 2
(b) Sketch the graph of y = .
2x + 3y - 6 # 0 and x $ -2. x-3

10. Shade the region y 2 x + 1 and

x + y # 2.
 Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 271

13. (a) Sketch the graph y = | x + 1 |. 17. Find

(b) From the graph, solve x 2 - 2x - 3
(a) lim
(i) | x + 1 | = 3
x "3 x-3
(ii) | x + 1 | 1 3 2x
(b) lim
(iii) | x + 1 | 2 3
x "0
x + 5x
2

x3 + 1
14. If f ] x g = 3x - 4, find (c) lim
x " -1
x2 - 1
(a) f ] 2 g
2xh 2 + 3h
(b) x when f ] x g = 7 (d) lim
h "0 h
(c) x when f ] x g = 0
18. Sketch y = 10 x, y = log x and y = x on the
15. Find the x- and y-intercepts of
same number plane.
(a) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0
(b) y = x 2 - 5x - 14 19. (a) State the domain and range of
y = 2x - 4 .
16. State which functions are (i) even
(b) Sketch the graph of y = 2x - 4 .
(ii) odd (iii) neither even nor odd.
(a) y = x 2 - 1 20. Show that
(b) y = x + 1 (a) f ] x g = x 4 + 3x 2 - 1 is even
(c) y = x 3 (b) f ] x g = x 3 - x is odd.
(d) y = x 4
(e) y = 2 x

Challenge Exercise 5
1. Find the values of b if f ] x g = 3x 2 - 7x + 1 6. Find the domain and range of
and f ] b g = 7. 1
y= 2 .
x -1
2. Sketch y = ] x + 2 g2 - 1 in the domain
7. Sketch the region x 1 y, x + 2y 1 6,
-3 # x # 0.
x + 2y - 4 $ 0.
3. Sketch the region y 2 4 - x 2 in the first 8. Find the domain and range of x 2 = y in
quadrant. the first quadrant.
4. Draw the graph of y = | x | + 3x - 4. 9. If f ] x g = 2x 3 - 2x 2 - 12x, find x when
Z 2x + 3 when x 2 2 f ] x g = 0.
]
5. f ] x g = [1 when -2 # x # 2 1
] 2 10. Sketch the region defined by y 2
x when x 1 -2 x+2
\ in the first quadrant.
Find f ] 3 g, f ] -4 g, f ] 0 g and sketch the
curve.
272 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1 - t2 if t 2 1 (b) Find the domain and range of

11. If h ] t g = )
t2 - 1 if t # 1 2x + 7
y= .
x+3
find the value of h ] 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g and (c) Hence sketch the graph of
sketch the curve. 2x + 7
y= .
x+3
12. Sketch y = 1 - x in the first quadrant.
2

17. Sketch y = 2 x - 1 .
13. Sketch the region y $ x - 5, y 1 x + x. 2
|x |
18. Sketch y = .
14. If f ] x g = 2x - 1, show that x2
f ^ a 2 h = f _ (-a)2 i for all real a. 19. Find the domain and range of
f ] x g = 2x - 6 .
15. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0
1
when f ] x g = 2x 2 - x - 5 (give exact 20. What is the domain of y = ?
4 - x2
answers).
2x + 7 1 1
16. (a) Show that =2+ . 21. Sketch f ] x g = 1 - .
x+3 x+3 x2
6
Trigonometry

TERMINOLOGY

Angle of depression: The angle between the horizontal Complementary angles: Two or more angles that add up
and the line of sight when looking down to an object to 90c
below
Cosecant: The reciprocal ratio of sine (sin). It is the
Angle of elevation: The angle between the horizontal and hypotenuse over the opposite side in a right triangle
the line of sight when looking up to an object above
Cotangent: The reciprocal ratio of tangent (tan). It is the
Angles of any magnitude: Angles can be measured around adjacent over the opposite side in a right triangle
a circle at the centre to find the trigonometric ratios of
Secant: The reciprocal ratio of cosine (cos). It is the
angles of any size from 0c to 360c and beyond
hypotenuse over the adjacent side in a right triangle
Bearing: The direction relative to north. Bearings may
Trigonometric identities: A statement that is true for
be written as true bearings (clockwise from North) or as
all trigonometric values in the domain. Relationships
compass bearings (using N, S, E and W)
between trigonometric ratios
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 275

INTRODUCTION
TRIGONOMETRY IS USED IN many fields, such as building, surveying and
navigating. Wave theory also uses trigonometry.
This chapter revises basic right-angled triangle problems and applies them
to real-life situations. Some properties of trigonometric ratios, angles greater
than 90c and trigonometric equations are introduced. You will also study
trigonometry in non-right-angled triangles.

DID YOU KNOW?

Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), in the second century, wrote Hē mathēmatikē syntaxis (or
Almagest as it is now known) on astronomy. This is considered to be the first treatise on
trigonometry, but was based on circles and spheres rather than on triangles. The notation ‘chord
of an angle’ was used rather than sin, cos or tan.
Ptolemy constructed a table of sines from 0c to 90c in steps of a quarter of a degree. He also
calculated a value of r to 5 decimal places, and established the relationship for sin (X ! Y ) and
cos (X ! Y ) .

Trigonometric Ratios
In similar triangles, pairs of corresponding angles are equal and sides are in
proportion. For example:

You studied similar triangles in

Geometry 1 in Chapter 4.

In any triangle containing an angle of 30c, the ratio of AB:AC = 1:2.

Similarly, the ratios of other corresponding sides will be equal. These ratios of
sides form the basis of the trigonometric ratios.
In order to refer to these ratios, we name the sides in relation to the angle
being studied:

• the hypotenuse is the longest side, and is always opposite

the right angle
• the opposite side is opposite the angle marked in the
triangle
• the adjacent side is next to the angle marked
276 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The opposite and adjacent sides vary according to where the angle is
marked. For example:

The trigonometric ratios are

opposite
You can learn these by their Sine sin i =
hypotenuse
initials SOH, CAH, TOA.
adjacent
Cosine cos i =
hypotenuse
What about Some Old Hags opposite
Can’t Always Hide Their Old Tangent tan i =
Age?
adjacent

As well as these ratios, there are three inverse ratios,

1 hypotenuse
Cosecant cosec i = f= p
sin i opposite
1 hypotenuse
Secant sec i = f= p
cos i adjacent
1 adjacent
Cotangent cot i = f= p
tan i opposite

DID YOU KNOW?

Trigonometry, or triangle measurement, progressed from the study of geometry in ancient
Greece. Trigonometry was seen as applied mathematics. It gave a tool for the measurement of
planets and their motion. It was also used extensively in navigation, surveying and mapping,
and it is still used in these fields today.
Trigonometry was crucial in the setting up of an accurate calendar, since this involved
measuring the distances between the Earth, sun and moon.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 277

EXAMPLES

1. Find sin a, tan a and sec a.

Solution

AB = hypotenuse = 5
BC = opposite side = 3
AC = adjacent side = 4
opposite
sin a =
hypotenuse
3
=
5
opposite
tan a =
adjacent
3
=
4
1
sec a =
cos a
hypotenuse
=
adjacent
5
=
4

2
2. If sin i = , find the exact ratios of cos i, tan i and cot i.
7
Solution

To find the other ratios

you need to find the
adjacent side.

By Pythagoras’ theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
72 = a2 + 22
49 = a 2 + 4
45 = a 2
`a= 45

CONTINUED
278 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

adjacent
cos i =
hypotenuse
45
=
7
opposite
tan i =
adjacent
2
=
45
1
cot i =
tan i
45
=
2

Complementary angles

In D ABC, if+B = i, then +A = 90c - i (angle sum of a Δ)

b a
sin i= c sin (90c - i) = c
a b
cos i = c cos (90c - i) = c
b a
tan i = a tan (90c - i) =
b
c c
sec i = a sec (90c - i) =
b
c c
cosec i = cosec (90c - i) = a
b
a b
cot i = cot (90c - i) = a
b

From these ratios come the results.

sin i = cos (90° - i)

cos i = sin (90° - i)
sec i = cosec (90° - i)
cosec i = sec (90° - i)
tan i = cot (90° - i)
cot i = tan (90° - i)
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 279

EXAMPLES

1. Simplify tan 50c - cot 40c.

Solution
tan 50c = cot ] 90c - 50c g
= cot 40c
` tan 50c - cot 40c = tan 50c - tan 50c Check this answer on
your calculator.
=0

2. Find the value of m if sec 55c = cosec ] 2m - 15 g c.

Solution
sec 55c = cosec ] 90c - 55c g
= cosec 35c
` 2m - 15 = 35
2m = 50 Check this by substituting
m into the equation.
m = 25

6.1 Exercises
1. Write down the ratios of 3. Find the exact ratios of
cos i, sin i and tan i. sin b, tan b and cos b.

2. Find sin b, cot b and sec b.

4. Find exact values for cos x, tan x

and cosec x.
280 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

4 (c) Write down the exact ratios of

5. If tan i = , find cos i and sin i.
3 sin 60c, cos 60c and tan 60c.
2
6. If cos i = , find exact values for 11. Show sin 67c = cos 23c.
3
tan i, sec i and sin i.
12. Show sec 82c = cosec 8c.
1
7. If sin i = , find the exact ratios
6 13. Show tan 48c = cot 42c.
of cos i and tan i.
14. Simplify
Hint: Change 0.7 to a fraction. 8. If cos i = 0.7, find exact values (a) cos 61c + sin 29c
for tan i and sin i. (b) sec i - cosec ] 90c - i g
9. D ABC is a right-angled isosceles (c) tan 70c + cot 20c - 2 tan 70c
triangle with +ABC = 90c and sin 55c
(d)
AB = BC = 1. cos 35c
(a) Find the exact length of AC. cot 25c + tan 65c
(b) Find +BAC. (e)
cot 25c
(c) From the triangle, write down 15. Find the value of x if
the exact ratios of sin 45c, cos 45c sin 80c = cos ] 90 - x g c.
and tan 45c.
16. Find the value of y if
10. tan 22c = cot ^ 90 - y h c.

17. Find the value of p if

cos 49c = sin ^ p + 10 h c.

18. Find the value of b if

sin 35c = cos ] b + 30 g c.

19. Find the value of t if

cot ] 2t + 5 g c = tan ] 3t - 15 g c.
(a) Using Pythagoras’ theorem,
find the exact length of AC. 20. Find the value of k if
(b) Write down the exact ratios of tan ] 15 - k g c = cot ] 2k + 60 g c.
sin 30c, cos 30c and tan 30c.

Trigonometric ratios and the calculator

Angles are usually given in degrees and minutes. In this section you will
practise rounding off angles and finding trigonometric ratios on the calculator.
Angles are usually given in degrees and minutes in this course. The
calculator uses degrees, minutes and seconds, so you need to round off.

60 minutes = 1 deg ree (60l = 1c)

60 sec onds = 1 min ute (60m = 1l)

In normal rounding off, you round up to the next number if the number
to the right is 5 or more. Angles are rounded off to the nearest degree by
rounding up if there are 30 minutes or more. Similarly, angles are rounded off
to the nearest minute by rounding up if there are 30 seconds or more.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 281

EXAMPLES

Round off to the nearest minute.

1. 23c 12l 22m

Solution
23c 12l 22m = 23c 12l

2. 59c 34l 41m

Solution
59c 34l 41m = 59c 35l

3. 16c 54l 30m

Because 30 seconds is
Solution half a minute, we round
up to the next minute.
16c 54l 30m = 16c 55l

% , ,, KEY
Some calculators have
This key changes decimal angles into degrees, minutes and seconds deg or dms keys.
and vice versa.

EXAMPLES

1. Change 58c 19l into a decimal.

Solution If your calculator does not

give these answers, check
Press 58 % , ,, 19 % , ,, = % , ,, the instructions for its use.
So 58c 19l = 58.31666667

2. Change 45.236c into degrees and minutes.

Solution
Press 45.236 = SHIFT % , ,,
So 45.236c = 45c14l
282 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

In order to use trigonometry in right-angled triangle problems, you need

to find the ratios of angles on your calculator.

EXAMPLES

1. Find cos 58c 19l, correct to 3 decimal places.

Solution
If your calculator
doesn't give this
answer, check that it
Press COS 58 % , ,, 19 % , ,, =
is in degree mode. So cos 58c19l = 0.525

2. Find sin 38c14l, correct to 3 decimal places.

Solution
Press SIN 38 % , ,, 14 % , ,, =
So sin 38c 14l = 0.619

3. If tani = 0.348, find i in degrees and minutes.

Solution
This is the reverse of finding trigonometric ratios.
To find the angle, given the ratio, use the inverse key ^ tan - 1 h .
Press SHIFT TAN - 1 0.348 = SHIFT % , ,,
tan i = 0.348
i = tan - 1 (0.348)
= 19c11l

4. Find i in degrees and minutes if cos i = 0.675.

Solution
Press SHIFT COS - 1 0.675 = SHIFT % , ,,

cos i = 0.675
i = cos - 1 (0.675)
= 47c 33l

6.2 Exercises
1. Round off to the nearest degree. 2. Round off to the nearest minute.
(a) 47° 13l 12m (a) 47° 13l 12m
(b) 81° 45l 43m (b) 81° 45l 43m
(c) 19° 25l 34m (c) 19° 25l 34m
(d) 76° 37l 19m (d) 76° 37l 19m
(e) 52° 29l 54m (e) 52° 29l 54m
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 283

3. Change to a decimal. 5. Find correct to 3 decimal places.

(a) 77c45l (a) sin 39c25l
(b) 65c30l (b) cos 45c 51l
(c) 24c51l (c) tan18c43l
(d) 68c21l (d) sin 68c06l
(e) 82c31l (e) tan 54c20l

4. Change into degrees and minutes. 6. Find i in degrees and minutes if

(a) 59.53c (a) sin i = 0.298
(b) 72.231c (b) tan i = 0.683
(c) 85.887c (c) cos i = 0.827
(d) 46.9c (d) tan i = 1.056
(e) 73.213c (e) cos i = 0.188

Right-angled Triangle Problems

Trigonometry is used to find an unknown side or angle of a triangle.

Finding a side

We can use trigonometry to find a side of a right-angled triangle.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.

Solution

adjacent
cos i =
hypotenuse
x
cos 23° 49l =
11.8
x
11.8 # cos 23° 49l = 11.8 #
11.8
11.8 cos 23° 49l = x
` 10.8 cm = x ^ to 1 decimal point h

CONTINUED
284 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Find the value of y, correct to 3 significant figures.

Solution
opposite
sin i =
hypotenuse
9.7
sin 41c 15l = y
9.7
y # sin 41c 15l = y # y
y sin 41c 15l = 9.7
y sin 41c 15l 9.7
=
sin 41c 15l sin 41c 15l
9.7
y=
sin 41c 15l
= 14.7 m ^ to 3 significant figures h

6.3 Exercises

1. Find the values of all pronumerals, (c)

correct to 1 decimal place.
(a)

(b)

(d)
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 285

(e)
(l)
4.7 cm
x

(f)
37c22l

(m) 72c18l
x
6.3 cm

(g)
(n)
63c14l
23 mm

x
y
(o)
39c47l
(h)

3.7 m

(i)
(p)

(j)
46c5l
14.3 cm

(q)

5.4 cm h
(k) 31c12l

74c29l
4.8 m
286 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(r) 68c41l
0.45 m d
6.2 cm

73c

4. Hamish is standing at an angle of

(s) x
5.75 cm 67c from a goalpost and 12.8 m
away as shown. How far does he
19c17l need to kick a football for it to
reach the goal?
(t) 17.3 m

x
12.8 m

67c

b 5. Square ABCD with side 6 cm has

line CD produced to E as shown
so that +EAD = 64c 12l. Evaluate
the length, correct to 1 decimal
6c3l place, of
(a) CE
(b) AE
E

2. A roof is pitched at 60c. A room

built inside the roof space is to
have a 2.7 m high ceiling. How
far in from the side of the roof
will the wall for the room go?
64c12l
D A

2.7 m

60c
x C B
6 cm
3. A diagonal in a rectangle with
6. A right-angled triangle with
breadth 6.2 cm makes an angle
hypotenuse 14.5 cm long has one
of 73c with the vertex as shown.
interior angle of 43c 36l. Find the
Find the length of the rectangle
lengths of the other two sides of
correct to 1 decimal place.
the triangle.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 287

7. A right-angled triangle ABC (a) Find the length of the side of

with the right angle at A has the rhombus.
+B = 56c44l and AB = 26 mm. (b) Find the length of the other
Find the length of the diagonal.
hypotenuse.
11. Kite ABCD has diagonal
8. A triangular fence is made for a BD = 15.8 cm as shown.
garden inside a park. Three holes If +ABD =57c29l and
A, B and C for fence posts are +DBC = 72c51l, find the length
made at the corners so that A and of the other diagonal AC.
B are 10.2 m apart, AB and CB are A
perpendicular, and angle CAB is
59c 54l. How far apart are A and C?
57c29l D
9. Triangle ABC has +BAC = 46c B
72c51l
and +ABC = 54c. An altitude 15.8 cm
is drawn from C to meet AB at
point D. If the altitude is 5.3 cm
long, find, correct to 1 decimal
place, the length of sides
(a) AC
(b) BC
(c) AB C

10. A rhombus has one diagonal

12 cm long and the diagonal
makes an angle of 28c 23l with
the side of the rhombus.

Finding an angle

Trigonometry can also be used to find one of the angles in a right-angled

triangle.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.

CONTINUED
288 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution
adjacent
cos i =
hypotenuse
5.8
=
7.3
5.8
` i = cos - 1 c m
7.3
= 37c 23l

2. Find the value of a, in degrees and minutes.

Solution
opposite
tan a =
adjacent
= .9
4
2 .1
4 .9
` a = tan - 1 c m
2 .1
= 66c 48l

6.4 Exercises

1. Find the value of each pronumeral, (b)

in degrees and minutes.
(a)
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 289

(c) (i)

(j)
(d)

(e)
3.8 cm
(k)

2.4 cm

(l)
i
(f)
8.3 cm

5.7 cm

(m) i

(g) 6.9 mm
11.3 mm

(n)
i
3m

(h) 7m
290 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(o) b

5.1 cm 20 m 12.3 m

i
11.6 cm

(p) 3. A field is 13.7 m wide and Andre is

on one side. There is a gate on the
15 m opposite side and 5.6 m along from
where Andre is. At what angle will
he walk to get to the gate?
a
Andre
13 m

(q) 4.4 cm i
i

7.6 cm
13.7 m

(r) a

5.6 m Gate
14.3 cm
8.4 cm 4. A 60 m long bridge has an opening
in the middle and both sides open
up to let boats pass underneath.
The two parts of the bridge floor
(s) i rise up to a height of 18 m.
Through what angle do they move?
3m

18 m
5m
i
(t) c 18.9 cm 60 m

10.3 cm 5. An equilateral triangle ABC with

side 7 cm has an altitude AD that
is 4.5 cm long. Evaluate the angle
2. A kite is flying at an angle of i the altitude makes with vertex A
]+DAB g.
above the ground as shown. If the
kite is 12.3 m above the ground and
has 20 m of string, find angle i.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 291

6. Rectangle ABCD has dimensions A B

18 cm # 7 cm. A line AE is drawn
so that E bisects DC.
(a) How long is line AE? (Answer 5 cm

to 1 decimal place).
(b) Evaluate +DEA.
D C
E
1 cm
7. A 52 m tall tower has wire stays
on either side to minimise wind (a) Find +BEC.
movement. One stay is 61.3 m (b) Find the length of the
long and the other is 74.5 m long rectangle.
as shown. Find the angles that
the tower makes with each stay. 10. A diagonal of a rhombus with
side 9 cm makes an angle of 16c
with the side as shown. Find the
a b
lengths of the diagonals.
61.3 m 74.5 m
16c
52 m

9 cm

8. (a) The angle from the ground up

to the top of a pole is 41c when
standing 15 m on one side of it.
11. (a) Kate is standing at the side of
Find the height h of the pole, to
a road at point A, 15.9 m away
the nearest metre.
from an intersection. She is at an
(b) If Seb stands 6 m away on the
angle of 39c from point B on the
other side, find angle i.
other side of the road. What is
the width w of the road?
(b) Kate walks 7.4 m to point
C. At what angle is she from
h point B?
B
i 41c
6m 15 m w

9. Rectangle ABCD has a line BE A 39c C i

drawn so that +AEB = 90c and 7.4 m
15.9 m
DE = 1 cm. The width of the
rectangle is 5 cm.
292 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Applications

DID YOU KNOW?

The Leaning Tower of Pisa was built as a belfry for the cathedral nearby. Work started on the
tower in 1174, but when it was only half completed the soil underneath one side of it subsided.
This made the tower lean to one side. Work stopped, and it wasn’t until 100 years later that
architects found a way of completing the tower. The third and fifth storeys were built close to
the vertical to compensate for the lean. Later a vertical top storey was added.

The tower is about 55 m tall and 16 m in diameter. It is tilted about 5 m from the vertical, and
tilts by an extra 0.6 cm each year.

Class Investigation

Discuss some of the problems with the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

• Find the angle at which it is tilted from the vertical.

• Work out how far it will be tilted in 10 years.
• Use research to find out if the tower will fall over, and if so, when.

Angle of elevation

The angle of elevation is used to measure the

height of tall objects that cannot be measured
directly, for example a tree, cliff, tower or
building.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 293

Class Exercise

Stand outside the school building and look up to the top of the building.
Think about which angle your eyes pass through to look up to the top of
the building.

The angle of elevation, i, is the angle measured when

looking from the ground up to the top of the object. We
assume that the ground is horizontal.

EXAMPLE

The angle of elevation of a tree from a point 50 m out from its base is
38c 14l. Find the height of the tree, to the nearest metre.

Solution
We assume that the tree is vertical!

A clinometer is used to
measure the angle of
elevation or depression.

h
tan 38c 14l =
50
h
50 # tan 38c 14l = 50 #
50
50 tan 38c 14l = h
39 Z h
So the tree is 39 m tall, to the nearest metre.
294 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Angle of depression

The angle of depression is the angle

formed when looking down from a high
place to an object below.

Class Exercise

If your classroom is high enough, stand at the window and look down to
something below the window. If the classroom is not high enough, find
a hill or other high place. Through which angle do your eyes pass as you
look down?

The angle of depression, i, is the angle measured when

looking down from the horizontal to an object below.

EXAMPLES

1. The angle of depression from the top of a 20 m building to a boy

below is 61c 39l. How far is the boy from the building, to 1 decimal place?

Solution
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 295

+DAC = +ACB
= 61c 39l (alternate angles, AD < BC)
20
tan 61c 39l = x
20
x # tan 61c 39l = x # x
x tan 61c 39l = 20
x tan 61c 39l 20
=
tan 61c 39l tan 61c 39l
20
x=
tan 61c 39l
Z 10.8
So the boy is 10.8 m from the building.

2. A bird sitting on top of an 8 m tall tree looks down at a possum 3.5 m

out from the base of the tree. Find the angle of elevation to the nearest
minute.

Solution
B A
i

8m

C 3.5 m D

The angle of depression is i

Since AB < DC ] horizontal lines g

+BDC = i ^ alternate angles h
8
tan i =
3.5
8
` i = tan - 1 c m
3 .5
= 66c 22l
296 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Bearings

Bearings can be described in different ways:

For example, N70c W:

Start at north and

measure 70o around
towards the west.

True bearings measure angles clockwise from north

EXAMPLES
We could write
315o T for true bearings. 1. Sketch the diagram when M is on a bearing of 315c from P.

Solution

Measure clockwise,
starting at north.

2. X is on a bearing of 030c from Y. Sketch this diagram.

Solution

All bearings have 3 digits

so 30° becomes 030° for
a bearing.

3. A house is on a bearing of 305c from a school. What is the bearing of

the school from the house?
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 297

Solution
The diagram below shows the bearing of the house from the school.
North

House

School
305c

To find the bearing of the school from the house, draw in North from the
house and use geometry to find the bearing as follows:
N2

N1

S
305c

The bearing of the school from the house is +N 2 HS.

+N 1 SH = 360c - 305c ^ angle of revolution h
= 55c
+N 2 HS = 180c - 55c (cointerior angles, N 2 H < N 1 S)
= 125c
So the bearing of the school from the house is 125c.

4. A plane leaves Sydney and flies

100 km due east, then
125 km due north. Find the
bearing of the plane from Sydney,
to the nearest degree.

CONTINUED
298 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution

125
tan x =
100
= 1.25
x = tan - 1 (1.25)
= 51c (to the nearest degree)
i = 90c - xc
= 90c - 51c
= 39c
So the bearing of the plane from Sydney is 039°.

5. A ship sails on a bearing of 140° from Sydney for 250 km. How far
east of Sydney is the ship now, to the nearest km?

Solution

A navigator on a ship
uses a sextant to
measure angles.

i = 140c - 90c
Could you use a
different triangle for = 50c
this question?
x
cos 50c =
250
x
250 # cos 50c = 250 #
250
250 cos 50c = x
161 Z x
So the ship is 161 km east of Sydney, to the nearest kilometre.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 299

6.5 Exercises

1. Draw a diagram to show the (b) North

bearing in each question.
(a) A boat is on a bearing of 100c
from a beach house.
(b) Jamie is on a bearing of 320c Y
West East
from a campsite. 35c
(c) A seagull is on a bearing of
200c from a jetty. X
(d) Alistair is on a bearing of South
050c from the bus stop.
(e) A plane is on a bearing of (c)
North
285c from Broken Hill.
(f) A farmhouse is on a bearing
of 012c from a dam. X
(g) Mohammed is on a bearing of
West
Y 10c East
160c from his house.
(h) A mine shaft is on a bearing
of 080c from a town.
(i) Yvonne is on a bearing of
349c from her school. South

(j) A boat ramp is on a bearing of

(d) North
280c from an island.
X

2. Find the bearing of X from Y in

each question in 3 figure (true) 23c
bearings. West East
North Y
(a)

South

(e)
North

112c
Y

West Y East

X
X

South
300 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Jack is on a bearing of 260c from 10. A plane leaves Melbourne and

Jill. What is Jill’s bearing from flies on a bearing of 065c for
Jack? 2500 km.
(a) How far north of Melbourne
4. A tower is on a bearing of 030c is the plane?
from a house. What is the bearing (b) How far east of Melbourne
of the house from the tower? is it?
5. Tamworth is on a bearing of (c) What is the bearing of
340c from Newcastle. What is Melbourne from the plane?
the bearing of Newcastle from 11. The angle of elevation of a tower
Tamworth? is 39c 44l when measured at a
6. The angle of elevation from a point 100 m from its base. Find
point 11.5 m away from the base the height of the tower, to
of a tree up to the top of the tree 1 decimal place.
is 42c 12l. Find the height of the 12. Kim leaves his house and walks
tree to one decimal point. for 2 km on a bearing of 155c .
7. Geoff stands 25.8 m away from How far south is Kim from his
the base of a tower and measures house now, to 1 decimal place?
the angle of elevation as 39c 20l. 13. The angle of depression from
Find the height of the tower to the top of an 8 m tree down to
the nearest metre. a rabbit is 43c 52l. If an eagle is
8. A wire is suspended from the perched in the top of the tree,
top of a 100 m tall bridge tower how far does it need to fly to
down to the bridge at an angle of reach the rabbit, to the nearest
elevation of 52c. How long is the metre?
wire, to 1 decimal place? 14. A girl rides a motorbike through
her property, starting at her
house. If she rides south for
1.3 km, then rides west for
2.4 km, what is her bearing from
the house, to the nearest degree?

15. A plane flies north from Sydney

for 560 km, then turns and
flies east for 390 km. What is
its bearing from Sydney, to the
nearest degree?
9. A cat crouches at the top of a
4.2 m high cliff and looks down 16. Find the height of a pole, correct
at a mouse 1.3 m out from the to 1 decimal place, if a 10 m rope
foot (base) of the cliff. What is tied to it at the top and stretched
the angle of depression, to the out straight to reach the ground
nearest minute? makes an angle of elevation of
67c13l.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 301

17. The angle of depression from the 21. Find the angle of elevation of a
top of a cliff down to a boat 15.9 m cliff from a point 100 m
100 m out from the foot of the out from its base.
cliff is 59c42l. How high is the
22. A plane leaves Sydney and flies
cliff, to the nearest metre?
for 2000 km on a bearing of 195c.
18. A group of students are How far due south of Sydney
bushwalking. They walk north is it?
from their camp for 7.5 km, then
23. The angle of depression from the
walk west until their bearing
top of a 15 m tree down to a pond
from camp is 320c. How far are
is 25c41l. If a bird is perched in
they from camp, to 1 decimal
the top of the tree, how far does it
place?
need to fly to reach the pond, to
19. A 20 m tall tower casts a shadow the nearest metre?
15.8 m long at a certain time
24. A girl starting at her house, walks
of day. What is the angle of
south for 2.7 km then walks east
elevation from the edge of the
for 1.6 km. What is her bearing
shadow up to the top of the
from the house, to the nearest
tower at this time?
degree?

25. The angle of depression from the

top of a tower down to a car
20 m
250 m out from the foot of the
tower is 38c19l. How high is the
tower, to the nearest metre?
15.8 m
26. A hot air balloon flies south for
20. A flat verandah roof 1.8 m deep 3.6 km then turns and flies east
is 2.6 m up from the ground. At a until it is on a bearing of 127c
certain time of day, the sun makes from where it started. How far
an angle of elevation of 72c 25l. east does it fly?
How much shade is provided on
the ground by the verandah roof 27. A 24 m wire is attached to the
at that time, to 1 decimal place? top of a pole and runs down to
the ground where the angle of
elevation is 22c 32l. Find the
height of the pole.
302 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

28. A train depot has train tracks 30. Builder Jo stands 4.5 m out from
running north for 7.8 km where the foot of a building and looks
they meet another set of tracks up at to the top of the building
going east for 5.8 km into a where the angle of elevation is
station. What is the bearing of 71c. Builder Ben stands at the top
the depot from the station, to the of the building looking down at
nearest degree? his wheelbarrow that is 10.8 m
out from the foot of the building
29. Jessica leaves home and walks for
on the opposite side from where
4.7 km on a bearing of 075c. She
Jo is standing.
then turns and walks for 2.9 km
(a) Find the height of the
on a bearing of 115c and she is
building.
then due east of her home.
(b) Find the angle of depression
(a) How far north does Jessica
from Ben down to his
walk?
wheelbarrow.
(b) How far is she from home?

Exact Ratios
A right-angled triangle with one angle of 45° is isosceles. The exact length of
its hypotenuse can be found.

Pythagoras’ theorem is used

to find the length of the
hypotenuse.
c2 = a2 + b2
AC 2 = 1 2 + 1 2
=2
AC = 2
This means that the trigonometric ratios of 45c can be written as exact ratios.

1
sin 45c =
2
1
cos 45c =
2
tan 45c = 1
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 303

This angle is commonly used; for example, 45° is often used for the pitch of
a roof. The triangle with angles of 60° and 30° can also be written with exact
sides.

Halve the equilateral

triangle to get TABD.

AD 2 = 2 2 - 1 2
=3
AD = 3

3 1
sin 60° = sin 30c =
2 2
1 3 It may be easier to
cos 60° = cos 30c = remember the triangle
2 2
rather than all these ratios.
tan 60° = 3 tan 30c =
1
3

DID YOU KNOW?

The ratios of all multiples of these angles follow a pattern:

A 0c 30c 45c 60c 90c 120c 135c 150c

0 1 2 3 4 3 2 1
sin A
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

4 3 2 1 0 - 1 - 2 - 3
cos A
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

The rules of the pattern are:

• for sin A, when you reach 4, reverse the numbers
• for cos A, when you reach 0, change signs and reverse
304 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Find the exact value of sec 45°.

Solution
1
sec 45° =
cos 45°
1
=
1
2
= 2

2. A boat ramp is to be made with an angle of 30c and base length 5 m.

What is the exact length of the surface of the ramp?

Solution

5
cos 30c = x
x cos 30c = 5
5
x=
cos 30c
5
=
3
2
2
=5#
3
10
=
3
10 3
=
3
10 3
So the exact length of the ramp is m.
3
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 305

6.6 Exercises

Find the exact value in all questions, (b)

with rational denominator where
relevant.

1. Evaluate
(a) sin 60c + cos 60c
cos 2 45c = (cos 45c) 2
(b) cos 2 45c + sin 2 45c
(c) cosec 45c (c)
(d) 2 sec 60c
(e) cot 30c + cot 60c
(f) tan 60c - tan 30c
(g) sin 2 60c + sin 2 45c
(h) sin 45c cos 30c + cos 45c sin 30c
3. A 2.4 m ladder reaches 1.2 m up
(i) 3 tan 30c
a wall. At what angle is it resting
tan 45c + tan 60c
(j) against the wall?
1 - tan 45c tan 60c
(k) cos 30c cos 60c - sin 30c sin 60c 4. A 2-person tent is pitched at an
(l) cos 2 30c + sin 2 30c angle of 45c. Each side of the
(m) 2 sec 45c - cosec 30c tent is 2 m long. A pole of what
2 sin 60c height is needed for the centre of
(n)
sin 45c the tent?
(o) 1 + tan 2 30c
1 - cos 45c
(p)
1 + cos 45c
cot 30c
(q)
sec 60c
(r) sin 2 45c - 1 5. If the tent in the previous
(s) 5 cosec 2 60c question was pitched at an angle
2 - tan 60c of 60c, how high would the pole
(t)
sec 2 45c need to be?

2. Find the exact value of all 6. The angle of elevation from a

pronumerals point 10 m out from the base of
(a) a tower to the top of the tower
is 30c. Find the exact height
of the tower, with rational
denominator.
306 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

7. The pitch of a roof is 45c and the floor. How far out from the
spans a length of 12 m. wall is it?

9. Find the exact length of AC.

(a) What is the length l of the

roof?
(b) If a wall is placed inside the
10. The angle of depression from the
roof one third of the way along
top of a 100 m cliff down to a
from the corner, what height will
boat at the foot of the cliff is 30c.
the wall be?
How far out from the cliff is the
8. A 1.8 m ladder is placed so that it boat?
makes a 60c angle where it meets

Angles of Any Magnitude

The angles in a right-angled triangle are always acute. However, angles greater
than 90c are used in many situations, such as in bearings. Negative angles are
also used in areas such as engineering and science.
We can use a circle to find trigonometric ratios of angles of any magnitude
(size) up to and beyond 360c.

Investigation

1. (a) Copy and complete the table for these acute angles
(between 0c and 90c).

x 0c 10c 20c 30c 40c 50c 60c 70c 80c 90c

sin x
cos x
tan x

(b) Copy and complete the table for these obtuse angles
(between 90c and 180c).

x 100c 110c 120c 130c 140c 150c 160c 170c 180c

sin x
cos x
tan x
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 307

(c) Copy and complete the table for these reflex angles
(between 180c and 270c).

x 190c 200c 210c 220c 230c 240c 250c 260c 270c

sin x
cos x
tan x

(d) Copy and complete the table for these reflex angles
(between 270c and 360c).

x 280c 290c 300c 310c 320c 330c 340c 350c 360c

sin x
cos x
tan x

2. What do you notice about their signs? Can you see any patterns?
Could you write down any rules for the sign of sin, cos and tan for
different angle sizes?
3. Draw the graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x for
0c # x # 360c. For y = tan x, you may need to find the ratios of
angle close to and either side of 90c and 270c.

Drawing the graphs of the trigonometric ratios can help us to see the
change in signs as angles increase.
We divide the domain 0c to 360c into 4 quadrants:

1st quadrant: 0c to 90c

2nd quadrant: 90c to 180c
3rd quadrant: 180c to 270c
4th quadrant: 270c to 360c

EXAMPLES

1. Describe the sign of sin x in each section (quadrant) of the graph y = sin x.

Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from
the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy.

x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c

y 0 1 0 -1 0

CONTINUED
308 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1
y = sin x

x
90c 180c 270c 360c

-1

The graph is above the x-axis for the first 2 quadrants, then below for the
3rd and 4th quadrants.
This means that sin x is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants and
negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrants.

2. Describe the sign of cos x in each section (quadrant) of the graph of

y = cos x.

Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from
the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy.

x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c

y 1 0 -1 0 1

y = cos x
1

x
90c 180c 270c 360c

-1

The graph is above the x-axis in the 1st quadrant, then below for the 2nd
and 3rd quadrants and above again for the 4th quadrant.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 309

This means that cos x is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants and
negative in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.

3. Describe the sign of tan x in each section (quadrant) of the

graph y = tan x.

Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from
the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy.

x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c

y 0 No result 0 No result 0

Neither tan 90c nor tan 270c exists (we say that they are undefined).
Find the tan of angles close to these angles, for example tan 89c 59l and
You will see why these
tan 90c 01l, tan 279c 59l and tan 270c 01l. ratios are undefined later
There are asymptotes at 90c and 270c. On the left of 90c and 270c, on in this chapter.

tan x is positive and on the right, the ratio is negative.

y

x
90c 180c 270c 360c

y = tan x

The graph is above the x-axis in the 1st quadrant, below for the 2nd,
above for the 3rd and below for the 4th quadrant.
This means that tan x is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants and
negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrants.

To show why these ratios have different signs in different quadrants, we

look at angles around a unit circle (a circle with radius 1 unit).
We use congruent triangles when finding angles of any magnitude.
Page 310 shows an example of congruent triangles all with angles of 20c inside
a circle with radius 1 unit.
310 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1 unit 1 unit

20c 20c
x
20c 20c

1 unit 1 unit

If we divide the circle into 4 quadrants, we notice that the x- and y-values
have different signs in different quadrants. This is crucial to notice when
looking at angles of any magnitude and explains the different signs you get
when finding sin, cos and tan for angles greater than 90c.

Quadrant 1

Looking at the first quadrant (see diagram below), notice that x and y are both
positive and that angle i is turning anticlockwise from the x-axis.

First quadrant

The angle at the x-axis is 0 and

the angle at the y-axis is 90c, (x, y)
with all other angles in this
quadrant between these two
1 unit
angles. y

i x
x

Point (x, y) forms a triangle with sides 1, x and y, so we can find the
trigonometric ratios for angle i.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 311

y
sin i =
1
=y
x
cos i =
1
=x
y
tan i = x

Investigation
These are called polar
Since cos i = x and sin i = y, we can write the point (x, y) as (cos i, sin i). coordinates.

The polar coordinates (cos i, sin i) give a circle.

The polar coordinates 6 A sin ] ai + c g, B sin ] bi g @ form a shape called a

Lissajous figure. These are sometimes called a Bowditch curve and they
are often used as logos, for example the ABC logo.

Use the Internet to research these and other similar shapes.

Use a graphics calculator or a computer program such as Autograph to draw

other graphs with polar coordinates using variations of sin i and cos i.

Quadrant 2

In the second quadrant, angles are between 90c and 180c.

If we take the 1st quadrant coordinates (x, y), where x 2 0 and y 2 0 and
put them in the 2nd quadrant, we notice that all x values are negative in the
second quadrant and y values are positive.
So the point in the 2nd quadrant will be (-x, y)
y
90c

Second quadrant

(-x, y)

1 unit
y
180c- i
180c i 0c
x
x
312 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Since cos i = x, cos i will negative in the 2nd quadrant.

Since sin i = y , sin i will be positive in the 2nd quadrant.
y
tan i = x so it will be negative (a positive number divided by a negative
number).
To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c - i.

Quadrant 3

In the third quadrant, angles are between 180c and 270c.

y

90c

180c 180c + i 0c
x
x i

y
1 unit

(-x, -y)

Third quadrant
270c

Notice that x and y are both negative in the third quadrant, so cos i and
sin i will be both negative.
y
tan i = x so will be positive (a negative divided by a negative number).

To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c + i.

Quadrant 4

In the fourth quadrant, angles are between 270c and 360c.

y

90c

180c 0c
x x
i 360c
360c - i
y
1 unit

(x, -y)

Fourth quadrant
270c
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 313

While y remains negative in the fourth quadrant, x is positive again, so

sin i is negative and cos i is positive.
y
tan i = x so will be negative (a negative divided by a positive number)
For an angle i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 360c - i.

ASTC rule

Putting all of these results together gives a rule for all four quadrants that we
usually call the ASTC rule.
y

90c
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant
You could remember
180c - i i this rule as All Stations
To Central or A Silly
S A Trigonometry Concept, or
you could make up your
180c 0c own!
x
360c

T C
180c + i 360c - i

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

270c

A: ALL ratios are positive in the 1st quadrant

S: Sin is positive in the 2nd quadrant (cos and tan are negative)
T: Tan is positive in the 3rd quadrant (sin and cos are negative)
C: Cos is positive in the 4th quadrant (sin and tan are negative)

This rule also works for the reciprocal trigonometric ratios. For example,
where cos is positive, sec is also positive, where sin is positive, so is cosec and
where tan is positive, so is cot.
We can summarise the ASTC rules for all 4 quadrants:

First quadrant:
Angle i:
sin i is positive
cos i is positive
tan i is positive
314 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Second quadrant:
Angle 180c - i:
sin ] 180c - i g = sin i
cos ] 180c - i g = - cos i
tan ] 180c - i g = - tan i

Third quadrant:
Angle 180c + i:
sin ] 180c + i g = - sin i
cos ] 180c + i g = - cos i
tan ] 180c + i g = tan i

Fourth quadrant:
Angle 360c - i:
sin ] 360c - i g = - sin i
cos ] 360c - i g = cos i
tan ] 360c - i g = - tan i

EXAMPLES

1. Find all quadrants where

(a) sin i 2 0
(b) cos i 1 0
(c) tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0

Solution
(a) sin i 2 0 means sin i is positive.
Using the ASTC rule, sin i is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.
(b) cos i is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants, so cos i is negative in
the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
(c) tan i is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants so tan i is negative
in the 2nd and 4th quadrants. Also cos i is positive in the 1st and 4th
quadrants.
So tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0 in the 4th quadrant.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 315

2. Find the exact ratio of tan 330c.

Solution
First we find the quadrant that 330c is in. It is in the 4th quadrant.
y

x
330c 30c

Notice that
The angle inside the triangle in the 4th quadrant is 30c and tan is 360c - 30c = 330c.
negative in the 4th quadrant.
tan 330c = - tan 30c
1
=-
3

30c

:3
2

60c
1

3. Find the exact value of sin 225c.

Solution
Notice that
The angle in the triangle in the 3rd quadrant is 45c and sin is negative in 180c + 45c = 225c.
the 3rd quadrant.

CONTINUED
316 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

225c
x
45c

sin 225c = - sin 45c

1 45c
=-
2 :2
1

45c
1

4. Find the exact value of cos 510c.

Solution
To find cos 510c, we move around the circle more than once.
y

30c 150c
x
510c

510c - 360c = 150c

So 510c = 360c + 150c
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 317

The angle is in the 2nd quadrant where cos is

negative. The triangle has 30c in it.
30c
cos 510c = - cos 30c
3 :3
=- 2 Notice that
2
180c - 30c = 150c.

60c
1

5. Simplify cos (180c + x).

Solution
180c + x is an angle in the 3rd quadrant where cos is negative.
So cos ] 180c + x g = - cos x

3
6. If sin x = - and cos x 2 0, find the value of tan x and sec x.
5
Solution
sin x 1 0 in the 3rd and 4th quadrants and cos x 2 0 in the 1st and 4th
quadrants. sec x is the reciprocal of
cos x so is positive in the
So sin x 1 0 and cos x 2 0 in the 4th quadrant.
4th quadrant.
This means that tan x 1 0 and sec x 2 0.
opposite
sin x =
hypotenuse
So the opposite side is 3 and the hypotenuse is 5.
y

x x

3
5

This is a 3-4-5 triangle.

By Pythagoras’ theorem, the adjacent side is 4.

CONTINUED
318 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3
So tan x = -
4
1
sec x = cos x
5
=
4

The ASTC rule also works for negative angles. These are measured in the
opposite way (clockwise) from positive angles as shown.
y

-270c
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant

-(180c+ i ) -(360c- i )
S A

-180c -360c
x
0

T C
-(180c- i ) -i

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

-90c

The only difference with this rule is that the angles are labelled differently.

EXAMPLE

Find the exact value of tan (-120c).

Solution

Notice that Moving around the circle the opposite way, the angle is in the 3rd
- (180c - 60c) = -120c. quadrant, with 60c in the triangle.
y

x
60c 120c
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 319

Tan is positive in the 3rd quadrant.

tan ] -120c g = tan 60c
= 3

30c

:3
2

60c
1

6.7 Exercises
1. Find all quadrants where 6. (a) Which quadrant is the angle
(a) cos i 2 0 -330c in?
(b) tan i 2 0 (b) Find the exact value of
(c) sin i 2 0 cos (-330c).
(d) tan i 1 0
7. Find the exact value of each ratio.
(e) sin i 1 0 (a) tan 225c
(f) cos i 1 0 (b) cos 315c
(g) sin i 1 0 and tan i 2 0 (c) tan 300c
(h) cos i 1 0 and tan i 2 0 (d) sin 150c
(i) sin i 2 0 and tan i 1 0 (e) cos 120c
(j) sin i 1 0 and tan i 1 0 (f) sin 210c
(g) cos 330c
2. (a) Which quadrant is the angle (h) tan 150c
240c in? (i) sin 300c
(b) Find the exact value of cos 240c. (j) cos 135c
3. (a) Which quadrant is the angle 8. Find the exact value of each ratio.
315c in? (a) cos (-225c)
(b) Find the exact value of sin 315c. (b) cos (-210c)
4. (a) Which quadrant is the angle (c) tan (-300c)
120c in? (d) cos (-150c)
(b) Find the exact value of (e) sin (-60c)
tan 120c . (f) tan (-240c)
(g) cos (-300c)
5. (a) Which quadrant is the angle (h) tan (-30c)
-225c in? (i) cos (-45c)
(b) Find the exact value of (j) sin (-135c)
sin (-225c).
320 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

9. Find the exact value of 4

15. If sin i = -and
(a) cos 570c 9
(b) tan 420c 270c 1 i 1 360c, find the exact
(c) sin 480c value of tan i and sec i.
(d) cos 660c 3
(e) sin 690c 16. If cos i = - and
8
(f) tan 600c 180° 1 i 1 270°, find the exact
(g) sin 495c value of tan x, sec x and cosec x.
(h) cos 405c
(i) tan 675c 17. Given sin x = 0.3 and tan x 1 0,
(j) sin 390c (a) express sin x as a fraction
(b) find the exact value of cos x
3
10. If tan i = and cos i 1 0, find and tan x.
4
sin i and cos i as fractions.
18. If tan a = - 1.2 and
4 270° 1 i 1 360°, find the exact
11. Given sin i = and tan i 1 0,
7 values of cot a, sec a and cosec a.
Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the exact value of cos i and
find the third side. tan i. 19. Given that cos i = - 0.7 and
5
12. If sin x 1 0 and tan x = - , find 90c 1 i 1 180c , find the exact
8 value of sin i and cot i.
the exact value of cos x and cosec x.
2 20. Simplify
13. Given cos x = and tan x 1 0,
5 (a) sin ] 180c - i g
find the exact value of cosec x, (b) cos ] 360c - x g
cot x and tan x.
(c) tan ^ 180c + b h
14. If cos x 1 0 and sin x 1 0, find (d) sin ] 180c + a g
cos x and sin x in surd form with (e) tan ] 360c - i g
rational denominator if tan x = .
5 (f) sin ] - i g
7 (g) cos ] - a g
(h) tan ] - x g

Trigonometric Equations
This is called the principle Whenever you find an unknown angle in a triangle, you solve a trigonometric
solution.
equation e.g. cos x = 0.34. You can find this on your calculator.
Now that we know how to find the trigonometric ratios of angles of any
magnitude, there can be more than one solution to a trigonometric equation if
we look at a larger domain.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 321

EXAMPLES

3
1. Solve cos x = in the domain 0° # x # 360°.
2
Solution
3
is a positive ratio and cos is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants.
2
So there are two possible answers.
In the 1st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 4th quadrant
angles are in the form of 360c - i.
3 This is called the principle
cos 30c =
2 30c
solution.

But there is also a solution in the 4th quadrant where

the angle is 360c - i. :3
2
3
For cos x =
2
x = 30c , 360c - 30c
= 30c , 330c 60c
1

2. Solve 2 sin 2 x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.

Solution

2 sin 2 x - 1 = 0
2 sin 2 x = 1
1
sin 2 x =
2
1
sin x = !
2
1
=!
2
Since the ratio could be positive or negative, there are solutions in all
4 quadrants.
1st quadrant: angle i
2nd quadrant: angle 180c - i
3rd quadrant: angle 180c + i
4th quadrant: angle 360c - i

CONTINUED
322 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1
sin 45c =
2 45c
x = 45c , 180c - 45c , 180c + 45c , 360c - 45c
:2
= 45c , 135c , 225c , 315c 1

45c
1

3. Solve tan x = 3 for - 180c # x # 180c.

Solution
3 is a positive ratio and tan is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants.
So there are two possible answers.
In the domain - 180c # x # 180c, we use positive angles for
0c # x # 180c and negative angles for - 180c # x # 0c.

90c
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant

180c - i i
S A

180c 0c
x
-180c 0c

T C
-(180c - i) -i

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

-90c

In the 1st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 3rd quadrant
angles are in the form of - ^ 180c - i h .
tan 60c = 3
But there is also a solution in the 3rd quadrant where the angle is
- ^ 180c - i h .

For tan x = 3 30c

x = 60c , - ] 180c - 60c g
= 30c , -120c :3
2

60c
1
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 323

4. Solve 2 sin 2x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.

Solution
Notice that the angle is 2x but the domain is for x.
If 0c # x # 360c then we multiply each part by 2 to get the domain for 2x.
0c # 2x # 720c
This means that we can find the solutions by going
around the circle twice! 30c
2 sin 2x - 1 = 0
2 sin 2x = 1 2
:3
1
sin 2x =
2
1
sin 30c =
2 60c
1

Sin is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.

First time around the circle, 1st quadrant is i and the 2nd quadrant is 180c - i.
Second time around the circle, we add 360c to the angles.
So 1st quadrant answer is 360c + i and the 2nd quadrant answer is
360c + ] 180c - i g or 540c - i.
So 2x = 30c , 180c - 30c, 360c + 30c , 540c - 30c
Notice that these solutions lie
= 30c , 150c , 390c , 510c inside the original domain of
` x = 15c , 75c , 195c , 255c 0c # x # 360c.

The trigonometric graphs can also help solve some trigonometric equations.

EXAMPLE

Solve cos x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.

cos 90c = 0
However, looking at the graph of y = cos x shows that there is another
solution in the domain 0c # x # 360c.
y

x
90c 180c 270c 360c

-1

For cos x = 0
x = 90c, 270c
324 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Investigation

Here are the 3 trigonometric graphs that you explored earlier in the chapter.

y = sin x

y = cos x

y = tan x

Use the values in the sin, cos and tan graphs to find values for the inverse
trigonometric functions in the tables below and then sketch the inverse
trigonometric functions.

For example sin 270° = -1

1
So cosec 270c =
-1
= -1
Some values will be undefined, so you will need to find values near them
in order to see where the graph goes.

y = cosec x

x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c

sin x
cosec x
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 325

y = sec x

x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c

cos x
sec x

y = cot x

x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c

tan x
cot x

Here are the graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions.

y = cosec x

y = sec x

y = cot x y

y = cotx
1

x
0 90c 180c 270c 360c
360c
-1
326 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

6.8 Exercises
1. Solve for 0c # i # 360c. 5. Sketch y = tan x for
(a) sin i = 0.35 0c # x # 360c .
1
(b) cos i = -
2 6. Solve tan x = 0 for
(c) tan i = - 1 0c # x # 360c .
3
(d) sin i = 7. Evaluate cos 180c .
2
1
(e) tan i = - 8. Find the value of sin 90c .
3
(f) 2 cos i = 3 9. Solve cos x = 1 for
(g) tan 2i = 3 0c # x # 360c .
(h) 2 sin 3i = - 1
10. Sketch y = sin x for
(i) 2 cos 2i - 1 = 0 -180c # x # 180c .
(j) tan 2 3i = 1
11. Evaluate cos 270c.
2. Solve for -180c # i # 180c.
(a) cos i = 0.187 12. Solve sin x + 1 = 0 for
1 0c # x # 360c .
(b) sin i =
2
(c) tan i = 1 13. Solve cos 2 x = 1 for
3 0c # x # 360c .
(d) sin i = -
2
14. Solve sin x = 0 for
1
(e) tan i = - 0c # x # 360c .
3
(f) 3 tan 2 i = 1 15. Solve sin x = 1 for
(g) tan 2i = 1 - 360c # x # 360c .
(h) 2 sin 2 3i = 1
16. Sketch y = sec x for
(i) tan i + 1 = 0 0c # x # 360c .
(j) tan 2 2i = 3
17. Sketch y = cot x for
3. Sketch y = cos x for
0c # x # 360c .
0c # x # 360c .

4. Evaluate sin 270c .

Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric identities are statements about the relationships of
trigonometric ratios. You have already met some of these—the reciprocal
ratios, complementary angles and the rules for the angle of any magnitude.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 327

Reciprocal ratios

1
cosec i =
sin i
1
sec i =
cos i
1
cot i =
tan i

Complementary angles

sin i = cos ] 90c - i g

cosec i = sec ] 90c - i g
tan i = cot ] 90c - i g

Angles of any magnitude

sin ] 180c - i g = sin i

cos ] 180c - i g = - cos i
tan ] 180c - i g = - tan i

sin (180c + i) = - sin i

cos (180c + i) = - cos i
tan (180c + i) = tan i

sin (360c - i) = - sin i

cos (360c - i) = cos i
tan (360c - i) = - tan i

sin (- i) = - sin i
cos (- i) = cos i
tan (- i) = - tan i

In this section you will learn some other identities, based on the unit circle.
In the work on angles of any magnitude, we defined
sin i as the y-coordinate of P and cos i as the x-coordinate of P.
328 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

y
tan i = x
sin i
=
cos i

sin i
tan i =
cos i

1
cot i =
tan i
cos i
=
sin i

cos i
cot i =
sin i

Pythagorean identities

The circle has equation x 2 + y 2 = 1.

Substituting x = cos i and y = sin i into x 2 + y 2 = 1 gives

Remeber that cos 2 i

means (cos i) 2.
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1

This is an equation so can be rearranged to give

sin 2 i = 1 - cos 2 i
cos 2 i = 1 - sin 2 i
There are two other identities that can be derived from this identity.

1 + tan 2 i = sec 2 i
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 329

Proof
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
cos 2 i sin 2 i 1
+ =
cos 2 i cos 2 i cos 2 i
1 + tan 2 i = sec 2 i

This identity can be rearranged to give

tan 2 i = sec 2 i - 1
1 = sec 2 i - tan 2 i

cot 2 i + 1 = cosec 2 i

Proof
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
cos 2 i sin 2 i 1
+ =
sin i sin i
2 2
sin 2 i
cot i + 1 = cosec 2 i
2

This identity can be rearranged to give These are called Pythagorean

identities since the equation
cot 2 i = cosec 2 i - 1 of the circle comes from
Pythagoras’ rule (see Chapter 5).
1 = cosec 2 i - cot 2 i

EXAMPLES

1. Simplify sin i cot i.

Solution
cos i
sin i cot i = sin i #
sin i
= cos i

2. Simplify sin ^ 90c - b h sec b where b is an acute angle.

Solution
1
sin ^ 90c - b h sec b = cos b #
cos b
=1

CONTINUED
330 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Simplify sin 4 i + sin 2 i cos 2 i .

Solution

sin 4 i + sin 2 i cos 2 i = sin 2 i ^ sin 2 i + cos 2 i h

= sin 2 i ] 1 g
= sin 2 i
= sin i

4. Prove cot x + tan x = cosec x sec x.

Solution
LHS = cot x + tan x
cos x sin x
= +
sin x cos x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
sin x cos x
1
=
sin x cos x
1 1
= # cos x
sin x
= cosec x sec x
= RHS
` cot x + tan x = cosec x sec x

1 - cos x 1
5. Prove that = .
sin 2 x 1 + cos x

Solution
1 - cos x
LHS =
sin 2 x
1 - cos x
=
1 - cos 2 x
1 - cos x
=
] 1 + cos x g ] 1 - cos x g
1
=
1 + cos x
= RHS
1 - cos x 1
` =
sin x
2
1 + cos x
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 331

6.9 Exercises
1. Simplify (d) sec 2 x - tan 2 x
(a) sin ] 90c - i g = cosec 2 x - cot 2 x
(b) tan ] 360c - i g
(e) ] sin x - cos x g3
(c) cos ] - i g = sin x - cos x - 2 sin 2 x cos x
(d) cot ] 90c - i g +2 sin x cos 2 x
(e) sec ] 180c + a g (f) cot i + 2 sec i
2. Simplify 1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i
=
(a) tan i cos i sin i cos i
(b) tan i cosec i (g) cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i
(c) sec x cot x = sin i cos i
(d) 1 - sin 2 x (h) (cosec x + cot x) (cosec x - cot x) = 1
(e) 1 - cos a
2
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i
(i)
(f) cot 2 x + 1 cos 2 i
(g) 1 + tan 2 x = tan i + cos 2 i
2

(h) sec 2 i - 1 1 + cot b

(j) - cos b
(i) 5 cot 2 i + 5 cosec b
(j)
1 sec b
cosec 2 x =
tan b + cot b
(k) sin 2 a cosec 2 a
4. If x = 2 cos i and y = 2 sin i,
(l) cot i - cot i cos 2 i
show that x 2 + y 2 = 4.
3. Prove that 5. Show that x 2 + y 2 = 81 if
(a) cos 2 x - 1 = - sin 2 x
x = 9 cos i and y = 9 sin i.
1 + sin i
(b) sec i + tan i =
cos i
3
(c) 3 + 3 tan a =
2

1 - sin 2 a

Non-right-angled Triangle Results

A non-right-angled triangle is named so that its angles and opposite sides have
the same pronumeral. There are two rules in trigonometry that refer to non-
right-angled triangles. These are the sine rule and the cosine rule.
332 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Sine rule

sin A sin B sin C

a = b = c
Use this rule for finding an angle.

Use this rule for finding a

a b c
side. or = =
sin A sin B sin C

Proof

In TABC, draw perpendicular AD and call it h.

From TABD,
h
sin B = c
` h = c sin B (1)
From TACD,
h
sin C =
b
` h = b sin C (2)
From (1) and (2),
c sin B = b sin C
sin B sin C
= c
b
Similarly, drawing a perpendicular from C it can be proven that
sin A sin B
a = b .
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 333

EXAMPLES
The sine rule uses 2 sides
and 2 angles, with 1
1. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place. unknown.

Solution
Name the sides a and b, and angles A and B.
a b
=
sin A sin B
x 10.7
=
sin 43c 21l sin 79c 12l
x 10.7
sin 43c 21l # = sin 43c 21l #
sin 43c 21l sin 79c 12l
10.7 sin 43c 21l
x=
sin 79c 12l
Z 7.5 cm

2. Find the value of y, to the nearest whole number.

You can rename the

triangle ABC or just make
sure you put sides with
their opposite angles
together.

Solution
+Y = 180c - (53c + 24c ) You need to find +Y first, as it
= 103c is opposite y.

a b
=
sin A sin B
y 8
=
sin 103c sin 53c
y 8
sin 103c # = sin 103c #
sin 103c sin 53c
8 sin 103c
y=
sin 53c
Z 10

CONTINUED
334 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.

Solution
sin A sin B
a = b
sin i sin 86c 11l
=
6.7 8.3
sin i sin 86c 11l
6.7 # = 6.7 #
6 .7 8 .3
6.7 sin 86c 11l
sin i =
8 .3
- 1 6.7 sin 86c 11l
i = sin c m
8.3
Z 53c39l

Since sin x is positive in the first 2 quadrants, both acute angles (between 0c
and 90c) and obtuse angles (between 90c and 180c) give positive sin ratios.
e.g. sin 50c = 0.766
and sin 130c = 0.766
This affects the sine rule, since there is no way of distinguishing between an
acute angle and an obtuse angle. When doing a question involving an obtuse
angle, we need to use the 2nd quadrant angle of 180c - i rather than relying
on the calculator to give the correct answer.

EXAMPLE

Angle i is obtuse. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.

 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 335

Solution

sin A sin B
a = b
sin i sin 15c 49l
=
11.9 5.4
sin i sin 15c 49l
11.9 # = 11.9 #
11.9 5.4
11.9 sin 15c 49l
sin i =
5.4
- 1 11.9 sin 15c 49l
i = sin c m
5.4
= 36c 55l ^ acute angle h
But i is obtuse
` i = 180c - 36c 55l
= 143c 05l

6.10 Exercises
1. Evaluate all pronumerals, correct (c)
to 1 decimal place.

(a)

(d)

(b)

(e)
336 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Find the value of all pronumerals, BC = 4.6 cm and

in degrees and minutes. +ACB = 33c 47l.

(a) 4. Triangle EFG has +FEG = 48c ,

The shortest side is opposite +EGF = 32c and FG = 18.9 mm.
the smallest angle and the
Find the length of
longest side is opposite the
largest angle. (a) the shortest side
(b) the longest side..
(b)
5. Triangle XYZ has +XYZ = 51c ,
+YXZ = 86c and XZ = 2.1 m.
Find the length of
(a) the shortest side
(b) the longest side.
(c)
6. Triangle XYZ has XY = 5.4 cm,
+ZXY = 48c and +XZY = 63c.
Find the length of XZ.

7. Triangle ABC has BC = 12.7 m,

+ABC = 47c and +ACB = 53c as
shown. Find the lengths of
(d) (a) AB
(b) AC.
A

47c 53c
B C
12.7 m

8. Triangle PQR has sides

(e) (i is obtuse) PQ = 15 mm, QR = 14.7 mm
and +PRQ = 62c 29l. Find to the
4.9 nearest minute
3.7 (a) +QPR
21c31l i (b) +PQR.

9. Triangle ABC is isosceles with

3. Triangle ABC has an obtuse angle AB = AC. BC is produced to
at A. Evaluate this angle to the D as shown. If AB = 8.3 cm,
nearest minute if AB = 3.2 cm, +BAC = 52c and +ADC = 32c
find the length of
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 337

(a) AD 10. Triangle ABC is equilateral with

(b) BD. side 63 mm. A line is drawn from
A A to BC where it meets BC at D
52c and +DAB = 26c 15l. Find the
8.3 cm length of
(a) AD
B 32c D (b) DC.
C

Cosine rule

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C

Similarly

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos B

Proof
A

b c
p

C B
x D a-x

In triangle ABC, draw perpendicular CD with length p and let CD = x.

Since BC = a, BD = a - x
From triangle ACD
b2 = x2 + p2 (1)
x
cos C =
b
` b cos C = x (2)
From triangle DAB
c2 = p2 + ] a - x g 2
= p 2 + a 2 - 2ax + x 2
= p 2 + x 2 + a 2 - 2ax (3)
338 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Substitute (1) into (3):

c 2 = b 2 + a 2 - 2ax (4)
Substituting (2) into (4):
c 2 = b 2 + a 2 - 2a ] b cos C g
= b 2 + a 2 - 2ab cos C

DID YOU KNOW?

Pythagoras’ theorem is a special case of the cosine rule when the triangle is right angled.

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C

When C = 90c

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos 90c

= a 2 + b 2 - 2ab ] 0 g
= a2 + b2

EXAMPLE

Find the value of x, correct to the nearest whole number.

The cosine rule uses 3 sides

and 1 angle, with 1 unknown.

Solution

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
x 2 = 5.6 2 + 6.4 2 - 2 (5.6) (6.4) cos 112c 32l
Z 99.79
x = 99.79
Z 10

Press 5.6 x 2 + 6.4 x 2 - 2 # 5.6 # 6.4

# cos 112 % , ,, 32 % , ,, = =
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 339

When finding an unknown angle, it is easier to change the subject of

this formula to cos C.
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C + 2ab cos C
c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2
c 2 - c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - c 2
2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - c 2
2ab cos C a2 + b2 - c2
=
2ab 2ab

a2 + b2 - c2
cos C =
2ab

Similarly
b2 + c2 - a2
cos A =
2bc Subtract the square of
the side opposite the
a +c -b
2 2 2
cos B = unknown angle.
2ac

EXAMPLES

1. Find i, in degrees and minutes.

Solution
a2 + b2 - c2
cos C =
2ab
52 + 62 - 32
cos i =
2 ]5 g]6 g
52
=
60
52
i = cos - 1 c m
60
Z 29c 56l

2. Evaluate +BAC in degrees and minutes.

A

4.5 cm 6.1 cm

B C
8.4 cm

CONTINUED
340 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution

a2 + b2 - c2
cos C =
2ab
Notice that the negative sign 4.5 2 + 6.1 2 - 8.4 2
cos +BAC =
tells us that the angle will be
2 ] 4. 5 g ] 6 .1 g
obtuse.
= - 0.2386
+BAC = cos- 1 ] - 0.2386 g
= 103c 48l

6.11 Exercises

1. Find the value of all pronumerals, (e)

correct to 1 decimal place.
(a)

2. Evaluate all pronumerals correct

to the nearest minute

(a)
(b)

(b)
(c)

(c)

(d)
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 341

(d) YZ = 5.9 cm. Find the value of all

angles, to the nearest minute.

7. Isosceles trapezium MNOP

has MP = NO = 12 mm,
(e) MN = 8.9 mm, OP = 15.6 mm
and +NMP = 119c 15l.
(a) Find the length of diagonal NP.
(b) Find +NOP.

8. Given the figure below, find the

length of
(a) AC
(b) AD.
3. Kite ABCD has AB = 12.9 mm,
CD = 23.8 mm and B
+ABC = 125c as shown. Find the
length of diagonal AC.
42 c8 l
8.4 cm 3.7 cm
B

12.9 mm 125 c
C
101 c38 l
A C
A

23.8 mm 9.9 cm
D

4. Parallelogram ABCD has sides

11 cm and 5 cm, and one interior
angle 79c 25l. Find the length of D

the diagonals.
9. In a regular pentagon ABCDE
5. Quadrilateral ABCD has sides with sides 8 cm, find the length
AB = 12 cm, BC = 10.4 cm, of diagonal AD.
CD = 8.4 cm and AD = 9.7 cm
10. A regular hexagon ABCDEF has
with +ABC = 63c 57l.
sides 5.5 cm.
(a) Find the length of diagonal AC
(a) Find the length of AD.
(b) Find +DAC
(b) Find +ADF.
(c) Find +ADC.

6. Triangle XYZ is isosceles with

XY = XZ = 7.3 cm and
342 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Applications
The sine and cosine rules can be used in solving problems.

Use the sine rule to find:

1. a side, given one side and two angles
2. an angle, given two sides and one angle

Use the cosine rule to find:

1. a side, given two sides and one angle
2. an angle, given three sides

EXAMPLES

1. The angle of elevation of a tower from point A is 72c. From point B,

50 m further away from the tower than A, the angle of elevation is 47c.
(a) Find the exact length of AT.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find the height h of the tower to 1 decimal place.

Solution

(a) +BAT = 180c - 72c ^ straight angle h

= 108c
+BTA = 180c - ] 47c + 108c g (angle sum of T)
= 25c
a b
=
sin A sin B
AT 50
=
sin 47c sin 25c
Use TBTA to find AT. 50 sin 47c
` AT =
sin 25c
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 343

h
(b) sin 72c =
AT
` h = AT sin 72c Use right-angled TATO
to find h. Do not use the
50 sin 47c
= # sin 72c sine rule.
sin 25c
Z 82.3 m

2. A ship sails from Sydney for 200 km on a bearing of 040c , then sails
on a bearing of 157c for 345 km.
(a) How far from Sydney is the ship, to the nearest km?
(b) What is the bearing of the ship from Sydney, to the nearest degree?

Solution

(a) +SAN = 180c - 40c ^ cointerior angles h

= 140c
` +SAB = 360c - (140c + 157c) ^ angle of revolution h
= 63c
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
x 2 = 200 2 + 345 2 - 2 (200) (345) cos 63c
Z 96374.3
x = 96374.3
Z 310
So the ship is 310 km from Sydney.
sin A sin B
( b)
a = b
sin i sin 63c
=
345 310
345 sin 63c
` sin i =
310
Z 0.99
i Z 82c
The bearing from Sydney = 40c + 82c To find the bearing,
measure +TSB.
= 122c
344 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

6.12 Exercises

1. Find the lengths of the diagonals from one post and 11 m from
of a parallelogram with adjacent the other, find the angle within
sides 5 cm and 8 cm and one of which the ball must be kicked
its angles 32c 42l. to score a goal, to the nearest
degree.
2. A car is broken down to the north
of 2 towns. The car is 39 km from 7. A boat is sinking 1.3 km out to
town A and 52 km from town B. sea from a marina. Its bearing is
If A is due west of B and the 2 041c from the marina and 324c
towns are 68 km apart, what is the from a rescue boat. The rescue
bearing of the car from (a) town A boat is due east of the marina.
(b) town B, to the nearest degree? (a) How far, correct to 2 decimal
places, is the rescue boat from the
3. The angle of elevation to the top
sinking boat?
of a tower is 54c 37l from a point
(b) How long will it take the
12.8 m out from its base. The
rescue boat, to the nearest
tower is leaning at an angle of
minute, to reach the other boat if
85c 58l as shown. Find the height
it travels at 80 km/h?
of the tower.
8. The angle of elevation of the
top of a flagpole from a point a
certain distance away from its
base is 20c. After walking 80 m
towards the flagpole, the angle of
elevation is 75c. Find the height
of the flagpole, to the nearest
metre.

9. A triangular field ABC has sides

54 c37 l 85c58 l AB = 85 m and AC = 50 m. If B is
12.8 m on a bearing of 065c from A and
C is on a bearing of 166c from A,
4. A triangular park has sides 145.6 m,
find the length of BC, correct to
210.3 m and 122.5 m. Find the
the nearest metre.
size of the largest interior angle of
the park. 10. (a) Find the exact value of AC in
the diagram.
5. A 1.5 m high fence leans
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find the
outwards from a house at an
angle i, correct to the nearest
angle of 102c. A boy sits on top
minute.
of the fence and the angle of
depression from him down to the
house is 32c 44l . How far from
the fence is the house?

6. Football posts are 3.5 m apart.

If a footballer is standing 8 m
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 345

11. Find the value of h, correct to 16. Rhombus ABCD with side 8 cm
1 decimal place. has diagonal BD 11.3 cm long.
Find +DAB.

17. Zeke leaves school and runs for

8.7 km on a bearing of 338c,
then turns and runs on a bearing
of 061c until he is due north of
school. How far north of school
is he?

18. A car drives due east for 83.7 km

12. A motorbike and a car leave a then turns and travels for 105.6 km
service station at the same time. on a bearing of 029c. How far is
The motorbike travels on a the car from its starting point?
bearing of 080c and the car travels
19. The figure below shows the
for 15.7 km on a bearing of 108c
diagram that a surveyor makes
until the bearing of the motorbike
to measure a triangular piece of
from the car is 310c. How far,
land. Find its perimeter.
correct to 1 decimal place, has the
motorbike travelled?
13.9 m
13. A submarine is being followed
14.3 m
by two ships, A and B, 3.8 km 58 c1l
132 c31l
apart, with A due east of B. If A
11.4 m
is on a bearing of 165c from the
submarine and B is on a bearing
of 205c from the submarine, find
the distance from the submarine
20. A light plane leaves Sydney and
to both ships.
flies for 1280 km on a bearing of
14. A plane flies from Dubbo on a 050c. It then turns and flies for
bearing of 139c for 852 km, then 3215 km on a bearing of 149c.
turns and flies on a bearing of How far is the plane from Sydney,
285cuntil it is due west of Dubbo. to the nearest km?
How far from Dubbo is the plane,
21. Trapezium ABCD has AD ; BC,
to the nearest km?
with AB = 4.6 cm, BC = 11.3 cm,
15. A triangular roof is 16.8 m up CD = 6.4 cm, +DAC = 23c 30l
to its peak, then 23.4 m on the and +ABC = 78c .
other side with a 125c angle (a) Find the length of AC.
at the peak as shown. Find the (b) Find +ADC to the nearest
length of the roof. minute.

22. A plane leaves Adelaide and

flies for 875 km on a bearing of
125 c
056c. It then turns and flies on a
16.8 m 23.4 m bearing of i for 630 km until it is
due east of Adelaide. Evaluate i
to the nearest degree.
346 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

23. Quadrilateral ABCD has 25. A wall leans inwards and makes
AB = AD = 7.2 cm, BC = 8.9 cm an angle of 88c with the floor.
and CD = 10.4 cm, with (a) A 4 m long ladder leans against
+DAB = 107c the wall with its base 2.3 m out
(a) Find the length of diagonal BD. from the wall. Find the angle that
(b) Find +BCD. the top of the ladder makes with
the wall.
24. Stig leaves home and travels on a
(b) A longer ladder is placed the
bearing of 248c for 109.8 km.
same distance out from the wall
He then turns and travels for
and its top makes an angle of 31c
271.8 km on a bearing of 143c.
with the wall.
Stig then turns and travels home
(i) How long is this
on a bearing of a.
ladder?
(a) How far does he travel on the
(ii) How much further
final part of his journey?
does it reach up the wall
(b) Evaluate a.
than the first ladder?

Area
To find the area of a triangle, you need to know its perpendicular height.
Trigonometry allows us to find this height in terms of one of the angles in the
triangle.

1
A= ab sin C
2

Similarly,
1
A= ac sin B
2
1
A = bc sin A
2

Proof
From D BCD,
h
sin C = a
` h = a sin C
1
A= bh
2
1
= ba sin C
2
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 347

EXAMPLE

Find the area of D ABC correct to 2 decimal places.

To find the area, use

2 sides and their
included angle.

Solution

1
A= ab sin C
2
1
= (4.3) (5.8) sin 112c 34l
2
Z 11.52 units 2

6.13 Exercises

1. Find the area of each triangle (c)

correct to 1 decimal place.
(a)

(d)

(b)

(e)
348 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Calculate the exact area of D ABC.

7. Find the area of a regular

hexagon with sides 4 cm, to the
3. Find the area of DOAB correct to
nearest cm 2 .
1 decimal place (O is the centre of
the circle). 8. Calculate the area of a regular
pentagon with sides 12 mm.

9. The figure below is made from a

rectangle and isosceles triangle
with AE = AB as shown.

84c

E B

4. Find the area of a parallelogram

with sides 3.5 cm and 4.8 cm, 14.3 cm
and one of its internal angles
67c 13l, correct to 1 decimal
place. D C
10.5 cm

5. Find the area of kite ABCD,

correct to 3 significant figures. (a) Find the length of AE.
(b) Find the area of the figure.

10. Given the following figure,

58c
9.4 cm

44c 36c
B D
C
6.7 cm

6. Find the area of the sail, correct (a) Find the length of AC
to 1 decimal place. (b) Find the area of triangle ACD
(c) Find the area of triangle ABC.
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 349

Test Yourself 6
1. Find the exact value of cos i and sin i if 12. Evaluate x, correct to 2 significant
3 figures.
tan i = .
5 (a)
2. Simplify
(a) sin x cot x
cos 40c + sin 50c
(b)
cos 40c
(c) 1 + cot 2 A
(b)
3. Evaluate to 2 decimal places.
(a) sin 39c 54l
(b) tan 61c 30l
(c) cos 19c 2l
13. Evaluate i to the nearest minute.
4. Find i to the nearest minute if
(a) sin i = 0.72 (a)
(b) cos i = 0.286
5
(c) tan i =
7
2 cos 2 i
5. Prove that = 2 + 2 sin i.
1 - sin i
(b)
6. Find the value of b if
sin b = cos ] 2b - 30 g c .
7. Find the exact value of
(a) cos 315c
(b) sin ] - 60c g
(c) tan 120c (c)
8. Solve 2 cos x = -1 for 0c # x # 360c.

9. Sketch the graph of y = cos x, and hence

solve cos x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c .

10. A ship sails on a bearing of 215c from

14. Find the area of triangle MNO.
port until it is 100 km due south of port.
How far does it sail, to the nearest km?

11. Find the length of AB as a surd.

350 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

15. Solve for -180c # x # 180c .

3
(a) sin 2 x =
4
1
(b) tan 2x =
3
(c) 3 tan x = tan x
2

5
16. If sec i = - and tan i 2 0, find sin i
4
and cot i. (a) Find an expression for the length of AD.
(b) Find the height of the pole, to
17. Jacquie walks south from home for 1 decimal place.
3.2 km, then turns and walks west for
1.8 km. What is the bearing, to the 19. A plane flies from Orange for 1800 km
nearest degree, of on a bearing of 300c . It then turns and
(a) Jacquie from her home? flies for 2500 km on a bearing of 205c .
(b) her home from where Jacquie is now? How far is the plane from Orange, to the
nearest km?
18. The angle of elevation from point B to
the top of a pole is 39c , and the angle of
elevation from D, on the other side of
the pole, is 42c. B and D are 20 m apart.

Challenge Exercise 6
1. Two cars leave an intersection at the 4. (a) Find an exact expression for the
same time, one travelling at 70 km/h length of AC.
along one road and the other car (b) Hence, or otherwise, find the value of
travelling at 80 km/h along the other h correct to 1 decimal place.
road. After 2 hours they are 218 km
apart. At what angle, to the nearest
minute, do the roads meet at the
intersection?

2. A ship sails from port on a bearing of

055c , then turns and sails on a bearing of
153c for 29.1 km, when it is due east of
port. How far, to 1 decimal place, is the
ship from its starting point?

3. Evaluate x correct to 3 significant figures.

5. A man walks 3.8 km on a bearing of 134c
from a house. He then walks 2.9 km on a
bearing of 029c . How far is he from the
house, to 1 decimal place?
 Chapter 6 Trigonometry 351

6. Simplify sin ] 360c - x g $ tan ] 90c- x g . 12. Solve 2 cos (i + 10c ) = - 1 for
0c # i # 360c.
7. Find the exact area of D ABC.
13. Two roads meet at an angle of 74c . Find
the distance, correct to 3 significant
figures, between two cars, one 6.3 km
from the intersection along one road
and the other 3.9 km along the other
road.

14. Find the exact value of cos i, given

5
sin i = and cos i 1 0.
9
8. Find the exact value of cos (-315c) . 15. From the top of a vertical pole the angle
of depression to a man standing at the
9. Solve tan 2x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c . foot of the pole is 43c . On the other side
of the pole is another man, and the angle
10. Find i to the nearest minute.
of depression from the top of the pole to
this man is 52c . The men are standing
58 m apart. Find the height of the pole,
to the nearest metre.

16. Show that

cos i ] sin i + cos i g
= 1 + tan i.
] 1 + sin i g ] 1 - sin i g

17. If x = 3 sin i and y = 3 cos i - 2,

eliminate i to find an equation relating
x and y.
11. The angle of depression from the top of
a 4.5 m mast of a boat down to a fish
is 56c 28l . How far down, to 1 decimal
place, does a pelican sitting at the top of
the mast need to fly to catch the fish?
7
Linear Functions

TERMINOLOGY

Collinear points: Two or more points that lie on the same Interval: A section of a straight line including the end
straight line points
Concurrent lines: Two or more lines that intersect at a Midpoint: A point lying exactly halfway between two
single point points
Gradient: The slope of a line measured by comparing Perpendicular distance: The shortest distance between a
the vertical rise over the horizontal run. The symbol for point and a line. The distance will be at right angles to
gradient is m the line
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 353

INTRODUCTION
IN CHAPTER 5, YOU STUDIED functions and their graphs. This chapter
looks at the linear function, or straight-line graph, in more detail.
Here you will study the gradient and equation of a straight line, the
intersection of two or more lines, parallel and perpendicular lines,
the midpoint, distance and the perpendicular distance from a point
to a line.

DID YOU KNOW?

Pierre de Fermat (1601–65) was a lawyer who dabbled in mathematics. He was a contemporary of
Descartes, and showed the relationship between an equation in the form Dx = By, where D and
B are constants, and a straight-line graph. Both de Fermat and Descartes only used positive values
of x, but de Fermat used the x-axis and y-axis as perpendicular lines as we do today.
De Fermat’s notes Introduction to Loci, Method of Finding Maxima and Minima and Varia
opera mathematica were only published after his death. This means that in his lifetime de Fermat
was not considered a great mathematician. However, now he is said to have contributed as
much as Descartes towards the discovery of coordinate geometry. De Fermat also made a great
contribution in his discovery of differential calculus.

Class Assignment

Find as many examples as you can of straight-line graphs in newspapers

and magazines.

Distance
The distance between two points (or the length of the interval between two
points) is easy to find when the points form a vertical or horizontal line.
354 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Find the distance between

1. ^ -1, 4 h and ^ -1, -2 h

Solution

Counting along the y-axis, the distance is 6 units.

2. ^ 3, 2 h and ^ -4, 2 h

Solution

Counting along the x-axis, the distance is 7 units.

When the two points are not lined up horizontally or vertically, we use
Pythagoras’ theorem to find the distance.
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 355

EXAMPLE

Find the distance between points ^ 3, -1 h and ^ -2, 5 h.

Solution

BC = 5 and AC = 6
By Pythagoras’ theorem, You studied Pythagoras’
theorem in Chapter 4.
c =a +b
2 2 2

AB 2 = 5 2 + 6 2
= 25 + 36
= 61
` AB = 61
Z 7.81

DID YOU KNOW?

Pythagoras made many discoveries about music as well as about mathematics. He found
that changing the length of a vibrating string causes the tone of the music to change. For
example, when a string is halved, the tone is one octave higher.

The distance between two points _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by

d= _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
2 2
356 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Proof

Let A = _ x 1, y 1 i and B = _ x 2, y 2 i
Length AC = x 2 - x 1 and length BC = y 2 - y 1
If points A and B were changed By Pythagoras’ theorem
around, the formula would be AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
d = (x 1 - x 2 ) + (y 1 - y 2 ) ,
2 2
d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2
which would give the same
answer. `d= _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
2 2

EXAMPLES

1. Find the distance between the points ^ 1, 3 h and ^ -3, 0 h.

Solution
Let ^ 1, 3 h be _ x 1, y 1 i and ^ -3, 0 h be _ x 2, y 2 i

d= _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
2 2

= ] -3 - 1 g2 + ] 0 - 3 g2
= ] -4 g2 + ] -3 g2
= 16 + 9
= 25
=5
So the distance is 5 units.

2. Find the exact length of AB given that A = ^ -2, -4 h and B = ^ -1, 5 h .

Solution
Let ^ -2, -4 h be _ x 1, y 1 i and ^ -1, 5 h be _ x 2, y 2 i

d= _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
2 2

= 6 -1 - ^ -2 h @ 2 + 6 5 - ^ -4 h @ 2
= 12 + 92
You would still get 82 if you
used (- 2, - 4) as (x 2 , y 2 ) and = 1 + 81
(-1, 5) as (x 1 , y 1 ). = 82
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 357

7.1 Exercises
1. Find the distance between points 12. Prove that A ^ 1, 4 h, B ^ 1, 2 h and
(a) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 3, 6 h C _ 1 + 3 , 3 i are the vertices of
(b) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h an equilateral triangle.
(c) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -3, 7 h
13. If the distance between ^ a, 3 h
2. Find the exact length of the and ^ 4, 2 h is 37 , find the values
interval between points of a.
(a) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -1, 1 h
(b) ^ -5, 1 h and ^ 3, 0 h 14. The points M ^ -1, -2 h, N (3, 0),
(c) ^ - 2, -3 h and ^ - 4, 6 h P ^ 4, 6 h and Q ^ 0, 4 h form
(d) ^ -1, 3 h and ^ -7, 7 h a quadrilateral. Prove that
MQ = NP and QP = MN. What
3. Find the distance, correct to type of quadrilateral is MNPQ?
2 decimal places, between points
(a) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h 15. Show that the diagonals
(b) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h of a square with vertices
(c) ^ 8, -1 h and ^ -7, 6 h A ^ -2, 4 h, B ^ 5, 4 h, C ^ 5, -3 h and
D ^ -2, -3 h are equal.
4. Find the perimeter of D ABC with
vertices A ^ 3, 1 h, B ^ -1, 1 h and 16. (a) Show that the triangle with
C ^ -1, -2 h . vertices A ^ 0, 6 h, B ^ 2, 0 h and
C ^ -2, 0 h is isosceles.
5. Prove that the triangle with (b) Show that perpendicular OA,
vertices ^ 3, 4 h, ^ -2, 7 h and ^ 6, -1 h where O is the origin, bisects BC.
is isosceles.
17. Find the exact length of the
6. Show that AB = BC, where diameter of a circle with centre
A = ^ -2, 5 h, B = ^ 4, -2 h and ^ -3, 4 h if the circle passes
C = ^ -3, -8 h . through the point ^ 7, 5 h .
7. Show that points ^ 3, -4 h and ^ 8,1 h 18. Find the exact length of the
are equidistant from point ^ 7, -3 h . radius of the circle with centre
8. A circle with centre at the origin (1, 3) if the circle passes through
O passes through the point the point ^ -5, -2 h .
_ 2 , 7 i . Find the radius of the
19. Show that the triangle
circle, and hence its equation.
with vertices A ^ -2, 1 h, B ^ 3, 3 h
9. Prove that the points and C ^ 7, -7 h is right angled.
X _ 2 , -3 i, Y _ -1, 10 i and 20. Show that the points
Z _ - 6 , 5 i all lie on a circle X ^ 3, -3 h, Y ^ 7, 4 h and Z ^ - 4, 1 h
with centre at the origin. Find its form the vertices of an isosceles
equation. right-angled triangle.
10. If the distance between ^ a, -1 h
and ^ 3, 4 h is 5, find the value of a.

11. If the distance between ^ 3, -2 h

and ^ 4, a h is 7 , find the exact
value of a.
358 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Midpoint
The midpoint is the point halfway between two other points.

The midpoint of two points _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M=e , o
2 2

Proof

Can you see why

Find the midpoint of points A _ x 1, y 1 i and B _ x 2, y 2 i.
these triangles Let M = ^ x, y h
are similar?
Then D APQ <; D ABR
AQ AP
` =
AR AB
x - x1 1
` x -x =
2 1 2
2 _ x - x1 i = x2 - x1
2x - 2x 1 = x 2 - x 1
2x = x 1 + x 2
x1 + x2
` x=
2
y1 + y2
Similarly, y =
2

EXAMPLES

1. Find the midpoint of ^ -1, 4 h and ^ 5, 2 h.

Solution
x1 + x2
x=
2
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 359

-1 + 5
=
2
4
=
2
=2
y1 + y2
y=
2
4+2
=
2
6
=
2
=3
So M = (2, 3) .

2. Find the values of a and b if ^ 2, -3 h is the midpoint between ^ -7, -8 h

and ^ a, b h.

Solution
x1 + x2
x=
2
-7 + a
2=
2
4 = -7 + a
11 = a
y1 + y2
y=
2
-8 + b
-3 =
2
-6 = -8 + b
2=b
So a = 11 and b = 2.

Note that the x-coordinate of the midpoint is the average of x 1 and x 2 .

The same applies to the y-coordinate.

PROBLEM

A timekeeper worked out the average time for 8 finalists in a race. The
average was 30.55, but the timekeeper lost one of the finalist’s times.
The other 7 times were 30.3, 31.1, 30.9, 30.7, 29.9, 31.0 and 30.3.
Can you find out the missing time?
360 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

7.2 Exercises
1. Find the midpoint of 7. The points A ^ -1, 2 h, B ^ 1, 5 h,
(a) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 4, 6 h C ^ 6, 5 h and D ^ 4, 2 h form a
(b) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h parallelogram. Find the midpoints
(c) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -6, 7 h of the diagonals AC and BD. What
(d) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -8, 1 h property of a parallelogram does
(e) ^ -5, 2 h and ^ 3, 0 h this show?
(f) ^ -2, -2 h and ^ -4, 6 h
(g) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h 8. The points A ^ 3, 5 h, B ^ 9, -3 h,
(h) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h C ^ 5, -6 h and D ^ -1, 2 h form a
(i) ^ 8, -1 h and ^ -7, 6 h quadrilateral. Prove that the
(j) ^ 3, 7 h and ^ -3, 4 h diagonals are equal and bisect
one another. What type of
2. Find the values of a and b if quadrilateral is ABCD?
(a) ^ 4, 1 h is the midpoint of ^ a, b h
and ^ -1, 5 h 9. A circle with centre ^ -2, 5 h has
(b) ^ -1, 0 h is the midpoint of one end of a diameter at ^ 4, -3 h .
^ a, b h and ^ 3, -6 h Find the coordinates of the other
(c) ^ a, 2 h is the midpoint of (3, b h end of the diameter.
and ^ -5, 6 h 10. A triangle has vertices at
(d) ^ -2, 1 h is the midpoint of A ^ -1, 3 h, B ^ 0, 4 h and C ^ 2, -2 h .
^ a, 4 h and ^ -3, b h (a) Find the midpoints X, Y
(e) ^ 3, b h is the midpoint of ^ a, 2 h and Z of sides AB, AC and BC
and ^ 0, 0 h respectively.
1
3. Prove that the origin is the (b) Show that XY = BC,
2
midpoint of ^ 3, -4 h and ^ -3, 4 h . 1 1
XZ = AC and YZ = AB.
2 2
4. Show that P = Q where P is the
midpoint of ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 6, -5 h 11. Point P ^ x, y h moves so that
and Q is the midpoint of ^ -7, -5 h the midpoint between P and
and ^ 11, 3 h . the origin is always a point on
the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1. Find the
5. Find the point that divides the
equation of the locus of P.
interval between ^ 3, -2 h and
^ 5, 8 h in the ratio of 1:1. 12. Find the equation of the locus
The locus is the path
that P (x, y) follows. of the point P ^ x, y h that is the
6. Show that the line x = 3 is the
midpoint between all points on
perpendicular bisector of the
the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 and the
interval between the points
origin.
^ -1, 2 h and ^ 7, 2 h .

Gradient
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. The gradient compares the
vertical rise with the horizontal run.
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 361

rise
Gradient = run

On the number plane, this is a measure of the rate of change of y with

respect to x.

The rate of change of y with respect to x is a very important measure

of their relationship. In later chapters you will use the gradient for many
purposes, including sketching curves, finding the velocity and acceleration
of objects, and finding maximum and minimum values of formulae.

EXAMPLES

Find the gradient of each interval.

1.

You will study the

gradient at different
points on a curve in
the next chapter.

Solution
rise
Gradient = run
2
=
3

CONTINUED
362 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2.

Solution
In this case, x is - 3 (the run is measured towards the left).
rise
Gradient = run
2
=
-3
2
=-
3

Positive gradient leans to the right. Negative gradient leans to the left.

Gradient given 2 points

The gradient of the line between _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by

y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1

Proof
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 363

BC = y 2 - y 1 and AC = x 2 - x 1
rise This formula could also be
Gradient = run y1 - y2
written m =
y2 - y1 x1 - x2
= x -x
2 1

EXAMPLES

1. Find the gradient of the line between points ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -3, 4 h .

Solution
y2 - y1
Gradient: m = x - x
2 1
4-3
=
-3 - 2
1
=
-5
1
=-
5 Collinear points lie on the
same line, so they have
2. Prove that points ^ 2, 3 h, ^ -2, -5 h and ^ 0, -1 h are collinear. the same gradients.

Solution
To prove points are collinear, we show that they have the same gradient
(slope).

CONTINUED
364 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Gradient of the interval between ^ -2, -5 h and ^ 0, -1 h :

y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
-1 - ] -5 g
=
0 - ] -2 g
-1 + 5
=
2
4
=
2
=2

Gradient of the interval between ^ 0, -1 h and ^ 2, 3 h :

y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
3 - ] -1 g
=
2-0
3+1
=
2
4
=
2
=2

Since the gradient of both intervals is the same, the points are collinear.

Gradient given the angle at the x-axis

The gradient of a straight line is given by

m = tan i

where i is the angle the line makes with the x-axis in the positive direction

Proof

rise
m = run
opposite
=
adjacent
= tan i
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 365

For an acute angle tan i 2 0. For an obtuse angle tan i 1 0.

Class Discussion

1. Which angles give a positive gradient?

2. Which angles give a negative gradient? Why?
3. What is the gradient of a horizontal line? What angle does it make
with the x-axis?
4. What angle does a vertical line make with the x-axis? Can you find
its gradient?

EXAMPLES

1. Find the gradient of the line that makes an angle of 135c with the
x-axis in the positive direction.

Solution

m = tan i
= tan 135c Can you see why the
gradient is negative?
= -1

2. Find the angle, in degrees and minutes, that a straight line makes
with the x-axis in the positive direction if its gradient is 0.5.

Solution
m = tan i
` tan i = 0.5
i = 26c34l
366 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

7.3 Exercises
1. Find the gradient of the line 9. A triangle has vertices
between A ^ 3, 1 h, B ^ -1, -4 h and C ^ -11, 4 h .
(a) ^ 3, 2 h and ^ 1, -2 h (a) By finding the lengths of all
(b) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 3, 6 h sides, prove that it is a right-
(c) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h angled triangle.
(d) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -3, 7 h (b) Find the gradients of sides
(e) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -1, 1 h AB and BC.
(f) ^ - 5, 1 h and ^ 3, 0 h
10. (a) Find the midpoints F and
(g) ^ -2, -3 h and ^ -4, 6 h
G of sides AB and AC where
(h) ^ -1, 3 h and ^ -7, 7 h
ABC is a triangle with vertices
(i) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h
A ^ 0, 3 h, B ^ 2, -7 h and C ^ 8, -2 h .
(j) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h
(b) Find the gradients of FG
2. If the gradient of _ 8, y 1 i and and BC.
^ -1, 3 h is 2, find the value of y 1 .
11. The gradient of the line between
3. The gradient of ^ 2, -1 h and ^ x, 0 h a moving point P ^ x, y h and the
is –5. Find the value of x. point A ^ 5, 3 h is equal to the
gradient of line PB where B has
4. The gradient of a line is –1 and
coordinates ^ 2, -1 h . Find the
the line passes through the points
equation of the locus of P.
^ 4, 2 h and ^ x, -3 h . Find the value
of x. 12. Prove that the points ^ 3, -1 h, ^ 5, 5 h
5. (a) Show that the gradient of and ^ 2, -4 h are collinear.
the line through ^ -2, 1 h and
13. Find the gradient of the straight
^ 3, 4 h is equal to the gradient
line that makes an angle of 45c
of the line between the points
with the x-axis in the positive
^ 2, -1 h and ^ 7,2 h .
direction.
(b) Draw the two lines on the
number plane. What can you say 14. Find the gradient, to 2 significant
about the lines? figures, of the straight line that
makes an angle of 42c51l with
6. Show that the points
the x-axis.
A ^ -1, 2 h, B ^ 1, 5 h, C ^ 6, 5 h and
D ^ 4, 2 h form a parallelogram. 15. Find the gradient of the line that
Find the gradients of all sides. makes an angle of 87c14l with
the x-axis, to 2 significant figures.
7. The points
A ^ 3, 5 h, B ^ 9, -3 h, C ^ 5, -6 h and 16. Find the angle, in degrees and
D ^ -1, 2 h form a rectangle. Find minutes, that a line with gradient
the gradients of all the sides and 1.2 makes with the x-axis.
the diagonals.
17. What angle, in degrees and
8. Find the gradients of the minutes does the line with
diagonals of the square with gradient –3 make with the x-axis
vertices A ^ -2, 1 h, B ^ 3, 1 h, in the positive direction?
C ^ 3, 6 h and D ^ -2, 6 h .
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 367

18. Find the exact gradient of the makes an angle of 135c with
line that makes an angle with the the x-axis in the positive
x-axis in the positive direction of direction.
(a) 60c
(b) 30c 20. Find the exact value of x with
(c) 120c. rational denominator if the line
passing through ^ x, 3 h and ^ 2, 1 h
19. Show that the line passing makes an angle of 60c with the
through ^ 4, -2 h and ^ 7, -5 h x-axis.

Gradient given an equation

In Chapter 5 you explored and graphed linear functions. You may have
noticed a relationship between the graph and the gradient and y-intercept of a
straight line.

Investigation

1. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function.

(ii) By selecting two points on the line, find its gradient.
(a) y = x
(b) y = 2x
(c) y = 3x
(d) y = - x
(e) y = - 2x

Can you find a pattern for the gradient of each line? Can you predict
what the gradient of y = 5x and y = - 9x would be?

2. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function.

(ii) Find the y-intercept.
(a) y = x
(b) y = x + 1
(c) y = x + 2
(d) y = x - 2
(e) y = x - 3

Can you find a pattern for the y-intercept of each line? Can you predict
what the y-intercept of y = x + 11 and y = x - 6 would be?

y = mx + b has
m = gradient
b = y-intercept
368 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Find the gradient and y-intercept of the linear function y = 7x - 5.

Solution
The equation is in the form y = mx + b where m = 7 and b = - 5.
Gradient = 7
y-intercept = - 5

2. Find the gradient of the straight line with equation 2x + 3y - 6 = 0.

Solution
First, we change the equation into the form y = mx + b.
2x + 3y - 6 = 0
2x + 3y - 6 + 6 = 0 + 6
2x + 3y = 6
2x - 2x + 3y = 6 - 2x
3y = 6 - 2x
= - 2x + 6
3y - 2x + 6
=
3 3
- 2x 6
y= +
3 3
2
= - x +2
3
2
m=-
3
2
So the gradient is - .
3

There is a general formula for finding the gradient of a straight line.

The gradient of the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by

a
m=-
b

Proof
ax + by + c = 0
by = - ax - c
ax c
y=- -
b b
a
` m=-
b
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 369

EXAMPLE

Find the gradient of 3x - y = 2.

Solution

3x - y = 2
3x - y - 2 = 0
a = 3, b = - 1
a
m=-
b
3
=-
-1
=3
` gradient is 3

7.4 Exercises
1. Find 3. Find the gradient of the straight
(i) the gradient and line.
(ii) the y-intercept of each linear (a) y = 4x
function. (b) y = - 2x - 1
(a) y = 3x + 5 (c) y = 2
(b) f ] x g = 2x + 1 (d) 2x + y - 5 = 0
(c) y = 6x - 7 (e) x + y + 1 = 0
(d) y = - x (f) 3x + y = 8
(e) y = - 4x + 3 (g) 2x - y + 5 = 0
(f) y = x - 2 (h) x + 4y - 12 = 0
(g) f ] x g = 6 - 2x (i) 3x - 2y + 4 = 0
(h) y = 1 - x (j) 5x - 4y = 15
(i) y = 9x 2
(k) y = x + 3
(j) y = 5x - 2 3
x
(l) y =
2. Find 2
x
(i) the gradient and (m) y = - 1
5
(ii) the y-intercept of each linear 2x
(n) y = +5
function. 7
3x
(a) 2x + y - 3 = 0 (o) y = - -2
5
(b) 5x + y + 6 = 0 x 1
(p) 2y = - +
(c) 6x - y - 1 = 0 7 3
(d) x - y + 4 = 0 y
(q) 3x - = 8
(e) 4x + 2y - 1 = 0 5
x y
(f) 6x - 2y + 3 = 0 (r) + =1
2 3
(g) x + 3y + 6 = 0 2x
(s) - 4y - 3 = 0
(h) 4x + 5y - 10 = 0 3
(i) 7x - 2y - 1 = 0 x 2y
(t) + +7=0
(j) 5x - 3y + 2 = 0 4 3
370 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Equation of a Straight Line

There are several different ways to write the equation of a straight line.

General form

ax + by + c = 0

Gradient form

y = mx + b

where m = gradient and b = y-intercept

Intercept form

x y
a+b =1

where a and b are the x-intercept and y-intercept respectively

Proof

b
m = - a, b = b
b
` y = -ax + b
y x
= -a + 1
b
x y
` a+b =1

Point-gradient formula

There are two formulae for finding the equation of a straight line. One of these
uses a point and the gradient of the line.

The equation of a straight line is given by

y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
This is a very useful
formula as it is used in where _ x 1, y 1 i lies on the line with gradient m
many topics in this course.
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 371

Proof
Given point _ x 1, y 1 i on the line with gradient m
Let P = ^ x, y h
Then line AP has gradient
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
y - y1
` m= x-x
1
m _ x - x1 i = y - y1

Two-point formula
This formula is
optional as you can
The equation of a straight line is given by use the point–gradient
formula for any
y - y1 y2 - y1 question.
x - x1 = x2 - x1

where _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i are points on the line

Proof

The gradient is the

same anywhere along
a straight line.

Let P = ^ x, y h
D APQ <; D ABR
PQ BR
So =
AQ AR
y - y1 y2 - y1
i.e. x - x = x - x
1 2 1

The two-point formula is not essential. The right-hand side of it is the gradient
of the line. Replacing this by m gives the point–gradient formula.
372 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient -4 and passing
through the point ^ -2, 3 h .

Solution
m = -4, x 1 = -2 and y 1 = 3
Equation: y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - 3 = - 4 [x - (-2)]
= - 4 (x + 2)
= - 4x - 8
` y = - 4x - 5 (gradient form)
or 4x + y + 5 = 0 (general form)

2. Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points
^ 2, -3 h and ^ -4, -7 h .

Solution
By two-point formula:
y - y1 y2 - y1
x - x1 = x2 - x1
y - ] -7 g -3 - ] -7 g
=
x - ] -4 g 2 - ] -4 g
y+7 -3 + 7
=
x+4 2+4
y+7 2
=
x+4 3
3 ^ y + 7 h = 2 ]x + 4 g
3y + 21 = 2x + 8
-2x + 3y + 13 = 0
or 2x - 3y - 13 = 0
By point-gradient method:
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
-3 - ] -7 g
=
2 - ] -4 g
-3 + 7
=
2+4
2
=
3
Use one of the points, say ^ -4, -7 h .
2
m = , x 1 = -4 and y 1 = -7
3
Equation: y - y 1 = m ( x - x 1)
2
y - (-7) = 6 x - ( - 4) @
3
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 373

2
y+7= ( x + 4)
3
3^ y + 7h = 2 ]x + 4 g
3y + 21 = 2x + 8
` -2x + 3y + 13 =0
or 2x - 3y - 13 =0

3. Find the equation of the line with x-intercept 3 and y-intercept 2.

Solution
x y
Intercept form is a + = 1, where a and b are the x-intercept and
b
y-intercept respectively.
x y
` + =1
3 2
2x + 3y = 6
` 2x + 3y - 6 = 0
Again, the point-gradient formula can be used. The x-intercept and
y-intercept are the points ^ 3, 0 h and ^ 0, 2 h .

7.5 Exercises

1. Find the equation of the straight 2. Find the equation of the straight
line line that makes an angle of
(a) with gradient 4 and 135c with the x-axis and passes
y-intercept -1 through the point ^ 2, 6 h .
(b) with gradient -3 and passing
3. Find the equation of the straight
through ^ 0, 4 h
line passing through
(c) passing through the origin
(a) ^ 2, 5 h and ^ -1, 1 h
with gradient 5
(b) ^ 0, 1 h and ^ -4, -2 h
(d) with gradient 4 and
(c) ^ - 2, 1 h and ^ 3, 5 h
x-intercept -5
(d) ^ 3, 4 h and ^ -1, 7 h
(e) with x-intercept 1 and
(e) ^ -4, -1 h and ^ - 2, 0 h .
y-intercept 3
(f) with x-intercept 3, 4. What is the equation of the line
y-intercept -4 with x-intercept 2 and passing
(g) with y-intercept -1 and through ^ 3, -4 h ?
making an angle of 45c with the
x-axis in the positive direction 5. Find the equation of the line
(h) with y-intercept 5 and making (a) parallel to the x-axis and
an angle of 45c with the x-axis in passing through ^ 2, 3 h
the positive direction. (b) parallel to the y-axis and
passing through ^ -1, 2 h .
374 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

6. A straight line passing through 9. What is the equation of the

the origin has a gradient of - 2. straight line through the point
Find its equation. ^ -4, 5 h and the midpoint of ^ 1, 2 h
and ^ -9, 4 h ?
7. A straight line has x-intercept 4
and passes through ^ 0, -3 h . Find 10. What is the equation of the
its equation. straight line through the
midpoint of ^ 0, 1 h and ^ -6, 5 h
8. Find the equation of the straight
and the midpoint of ^ 2, 3 h and
line with gradient -2 that passes
^ 8, -3 h ?
through the midpoint of ^ 5, -2 h
and ^ -3, 4 h .

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Parallel lines

Class Investigation

Sketch the following straight lines on the same number plane.

1. y = 2x
2. y = 2x + 1
3. y = 2x - 3
4. y = 2x + 5
What do you notice about these lines?

If two lines are parallel, then they have the same gradient. That is,
m1 = m2

Two lines that are parallel have equations

ax + by + c 1 = 0 and ax + by + c 2 = 0
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 375

Proof
a
ax + by + c 1 = 0 has gradient m 1 = -
b
a
ax + by + c 2 = 0 has gradient m 2 = -
b
Since m 1 = m 2, the two lines are parallel.

EXAMPLES

1. Prove that the straight lines 5x - 2y - 1 = 0 and 5x - 2y + 7 = 0 are

parallel.

Solution
5x - 2y - 1 = 0
5x - 1 = 2y
5 1
x- =y
2 2
5 Notice that the equations
` m1 = are both in the form
2
5x - 2y + k = 0.
5x - 2y + 7 = 0
5x + 7 = 2y
5 7
x+ =y
2 2
5
` m2 =
2
5
m1 = m2 =
2
` the lines are parallel.

2. Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the line 2x - y - 3 = 0

and passing through ^ 1, -5 h .

Solution
2x - y - 3 = 0
2x - 3 = y
` m1 = 2
For parallel lines m 1 = m 2
` m2 = 2
Equation: y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - (-5) = 2 (x - 1)
y + 5 = 2x - 2
0 = 2x - y - 7
376 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

DID YOU KNOW?

Parallel lines are usually thought of as lines that never meet. However, there is a whole branch
of geometry based on the theory that parallel lines meet at infinity. This is called affine
geometry. In this geometry there are no perpendicular lines.

Perpendicular lines

Class Investigation

Sketch the following pairs of straight lines on the same number plane.

1. (a) 3x - 4y + 12 = 0 (b) 4x + 3y - 8 = 0
2. (a) 2x + y + 4 = 0 (b) x - 2y + 2 = 0

What do you notice about these pairs of lines?

If two lines with gradients m 1 and m 2 respectively are perpendicular, then

m 1 m 2 = -1
Gradients of perpendicular lines 1
are negative reciprocals of each i.e. m 2 = - m
1
other.

Proof

Let line AB have gradient m 1 = tan a .

Let line CD have gradient m 2 = tan b.
EB
tan b =
EC
+CBE = 180c - a ^ straight angle h
EC
tan ] 180c - a g =
EB
EB
` cot ] 180c - a g =
EC
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 377

` tan b = cot ] 180c - a g

= - cot a
1
=-
tan a
1
So m2 = - m
1
or m 1 m 2 = -1

Perpendicular lines have equations in the form

ax + by + c 1 = 0 and bx - ay + c 2 = 0

Proof
a
ax + by + c 1 = 0 has gradient m 1 = -
b
b
bx - ay + c 2 = 0 has gradient m 2 = - - a
b
=a
a b
m1 m2 = - # a
b
= -1
Since m 1 m 2 = -1, the two lines are perpendicular.

EXAMPLES

1. Show that the lines 3x + y - 11 = 0 and x - 3y + 1 = 0 are

perpendicular.

Solution

3x + y - 11 = 0
y = -3x + 11
` m 1 = -3
x - 3y + 1 = 0
x + 1 = 3y Notice that the equations
1 1 are in the form
x+ =y 3x + y + c 1 = 0 and
3 3
x - 3y + c 2 = 0.
1
` m2 =
3
1
m 1 m 2 = - 3#
3
= -1
` the lines are perpendicular.

CONTINUED
378 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 2, 3 h perpendicular to

the line that passes through ^ -1, 7 h and ^ 3, 3 h .

Solution
Line through ^ -1, 7 h and ^ 3, 3 h:
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
7-3
m1 =
-1 - 3
4
=
-4
= -1
For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = - 1
i.e. -1m 2 = - 1
m2 = 1
Equation through ^ 2, 3 h:
y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - 3 = 1 (x - 2 )
=x-2
0=x-y+1

7.6 Exercises

1. Find the gradient of the straight (i) perpendicular to the line

line making an angle of 120c with the
(a) parallel to the line x-axis in the positive direction
3x + y - 4 = 0 (j) perpendicular to the line
(b) perpendicular to the line passing through ^ 4, -2 h and ^ 3, 3 h .
3x + y - 4 = 0
2. Find the equation of each straight
(c) parallel to the line joining
line
^ 3, 5 h and ^ -1, 2 h
(a) passing through ^ 2, 3 h and
(d) perpendicular to the line with
parallel to the line y = x + 6
x-intercept 3 and y-intercept 2
(b) through ^ -1, 5 h and parallel
(e) perpendicular to the line
to the line x - 3y - 7 = 0
making an angle of 135c with the
(c) with x-intercept 5 and parallel
x-axis in the positive direction
to the line y = 4 - x
(f) perpendicular to the line
(d) through ^ 3, -4 h and
6x - 5y - 4 = 0
perpendicular to the line y = 2x
(g) parallel to the line making an
(e) through ^ -2, 1 h and
angle of 30c with the x-axis
perpendicular to the line
(h) parallel to the line
2x + y + 3 = 0
x - 3y - 7 = 0
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 379

(f) through ^ 7, -2 h and 11. Find the equation of the straight

perpendicular to the line line
3x - y - 5 = 0 (a) passing through the
(g) through ^ -3, -1 h and origin and parallel to the line
perpendicular to the line x+y+3=0
4x - 3y + 2 = 0 . (b) through ^ 3, 7 h and parallel to
the line 5x - y - 2 = 0
3. Show that the straight lines (c) through ^ 0, - 2 h and
y = 3x - 2 and 6x - 2y - 9 = 0 perpendicular to the line
are parallel. x - 2y = 9
4. Show that lines x + 5y = 0 and (d) perpendicular to the line
y = 5x + 3 are perpendicular. 3x + 2y - 1 = 0 and passing
through the point ^ -2, 4 h .
5. Show that lines 6x - 5y + 1 = 0
and 6x - 5y - 3 = 0 are parallel. 12. Find the equation of the straight
line passing through ^ 6, -3 h
6. Show that lines 7x + 3y + 2 = 0 that is perpendicular to the line
and 3x - 7y = 0 are joining ^ 2, -1 h and ^ -5, -7 h .
perpendicular.
13. Find the equation of the line
7. If the lines 3x - 2y + 5 = 0 and through ^ 2, 1 h that is parallel
y = kx - 1 are perpendicular, find to the line that makes an angle
the value of k. of 135c with the x-axis in the
positive direction.
8. Show that the line joining ^ 3, -1 h
and ^ 2, -5 h is parallel to the line 14. Find the equation of the
8x - 2y - 3 = 0. perpendicular bisector of the
line passing through ^ 6, -3 h and
9. Show that the points A ^ -3, -2 h,
^ -2, 1 h .
B ^ -1, 4 h, C ^ 7, -1 h, and
D ^ 5, -7 h are the vertices of a 15. Find the equation of the
parallelogram. straight line parallel to the line
2x - 3y - 1 = 0 and through the
10. The points A ^ -2, 0 h, B ^ 1, 4 h,
midpoint of ^ 1, 3 h and ^ -1, 9 h .
C ^ 6, 4 h and D ^ 3, 0 h form
a rhombus. Show that the
diagonals are perpendicular.

Intersection of Lines
Two straight lines intersect at a single point ^ x, y h . The point satisfies the
equations of both lines. We find this point by solving simultaneous equations.

You may need to revise

simultaneous equations
from Chapter 3.
380 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Concurrent lines meet at a single point. To show that lines are

concurrent, solve two simultaneous equations to find the point of intersection.
Then substitute this point of intersection into the third and subsequent lines
to show that these lines also pass through the point.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the point of intersection between lines 2x - 3y - 3 = 0 and

5x - 2y - 13 = 0.

Solution
Solve simultaneous equations:
2x - 3y - 3 = 0 ^1h
5x - 2y - 13 = 0 ^2h
^ 1 h # 2: 4x - 6y - 6 = 0 ^3h
^ 2 h # 3: 15x - 6y - 39 = 0 ^4h
^ 3 h - ^ 4 h: -11x + 33 = 0
33 = 11x
3=x
Substitute x = 3 into ^ 1 h:
2 ^ 3 h - 3y - 3 = 0
You could use a
- 3y + 3 = 0
computer spreadsheet to
solve these simultaneous 3 = 3y
equations.
1=y
So the point of intersection is ^ 3, 1 h .

2. Show that the lines 3x - y + 1 = 0, x + 2y + 12 = 0 and

4x - 3y - 7 = 0 are concurrent.

Solution
Solve any two simultaneous equations:
3x - y + 1 = 0 ^1h
x + 2y + 12 = 0 ^2h
4x - 3y - 7 = 0 ^3h
^ 1 h # 2: 6x - 2y + 2 = 0 ^4h
2 +
^ h ^ h 4 : 7 x + 14 = 0
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 381

7x = -14
x = -2
Substitute x = -2 into ^ 1 h:
3 ^ -2 h - y + 1 = 0
-y - 5 = 0
-5 = y
So the point of intersection of (1) and (2) is ^ -2, -5 h .
Substitute ^ -2, -5 h into (3): 4x - 3y - 7 = 0
LHS = 4 ^ -2 h - 3 ^ - 5 h - 7
= -8 + 15 - 7
=0
= RHS
So the point lies on line (3)
` all three lines are concurrent.

Equation of a line through the intersection of 2 other lines

To find the equation of a line through the intersection of 2 other lines, find
the point of intersection, then use it with the other information to find the
equation.
Another method uses a formula to find the equation.

If a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0 and a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 are 2 given lines then the

equation of a line through their intersection is given by the formula
(a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1) + k (a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2) = 0 where k is a constant

Proof
Let l 1 have equation a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0.
Let l 2 have equation a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0.
Let the point of intersection of l 1 and l 2 be P ^ x 1, y 1 h .
Then P satisfies l 1
i.e. a 1 x 1 + b 1 y 1 + c 1 = 0
P also satisfies l2
i.e. a 2 x 1 + b 2 y 1 + c 2 = 0
Substitute P into (a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1) + k (a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2) = 0
(a 1 x 1 + b 1 y 1 + c 1) + k (a 2 x 1 + b 2 y 1 + c 2) = 0
0 + k ^0h = 0
0=0
` if point P satisfies both equations l 1 and l 2 then it satisfies l 1 + kl 2 = 0.
382 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLE

Find the equation of the line through ^ -1, 2 h that passes through the
intersection of lines 2x + y - 5 = 0 and x - 3y + 1 = 0.

Solution
Using the formula:
a 1 = 2, b 1 = 1, c 1 = -5 a 2 = 1, b 2 = -3, c 2 = 1
^ a1 x + b1 y + c1 h + k ^ a2 x + b2 y + c2 h = 0
^ 2x + y - 5 h + k ^ x - 3y + 1 h = 0
Since this line passes through ^ -1, 2 h, substitute the point into the
equation:
^ -2 + 2 - 5 h + k ^ -1 - 6 + 1 h = 0
-5 - 6k = 0
-5 = 6k
5
- =k
6
Substitute the value So the equation becomes:
of k back into the
5
equation. ^ 2x + y - 5 h - ^ x - 3y + 1 h = 0
6
6 ^ 2x + y - 5 h - 5 ^ x - 3 y + 1 h = 0
12x + 6y - 30 - 5x + 15y - 5 = 0
7x + 21y - 35 = 0
x + 3y - 5 = 0
Another way to do this example is to find the point of intersection, then
use both points to find the equation.

7.7 Exercises
1. Find the point of intersection of (h) 3x + 7y = 12 and
straight lines 4x - y - 1 6 = 0
(a) 3x + 4y + 10 = 0 and (i) 3x - 5y = - 7 and
2x - 3y - 16 = 0 2x - 3y = 4
(b) 5x + 2y + 11 = 0 and (j) 8x - 7y - 3 = 0 and
3x + y + 6 = 0 5x - 2y - 1 = 0
(c) 7x - 3y = 16 and
5x - 2y = 12 2. Show that the lines
(d) 2x - 3y = 6 and 4x - 5y = 10 x - 2y - 11 = 0 and
(e) x - 3y - 8 = 0 and 2x - y - 10 = 0 intersect at the
4x + 7y - 13 = 0 point ^ 3, -4 h .
(f) y = 5x + 6 and y = - 4x - 3 3. A triangle is formed by 3
(g) y = 2x + 1 and straight lines with equations
5x - 3y + 6 = 0 2 x - y + 1 = 0, 2 x + y - 9 = 0
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 383

and 2x - 5y - 3 = 0. Find the 12. Find the equation of the straight

coordinates of its vertices. line through ^ -1, -2 h that
passes through the intersection
4. Show that the lines of the lines 2x + y - 6 = 0 and
x - 5y - 17 = 0, 3 x + 7 y - 9 = 0.
3x - 2y - 12 = 0 and
5x + y - 7 = 0 are concurrent. 13. Find the equation of the straight
line through ^ 1, 2 h that passes
5. Show that the lines through the intersection of
x + 4y + 5 = 0, 3x - 7y + 15 = 0, the lines x + 2y + 10 = 0 and
2x - y + 10 = 0 and 2x - y + 5 = 0.
6x + 5y + 30 = 0 are concurrent.
14. Find the equation of the straight
6. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ -2, 0 h that passes
line through the origin that through the intersection of
passes through the intersection of the lines 3x + 4y - 7 = 0 and
the lines 5x - 2y + 14 = 0 and 3 x - 2 y - 1 = 0.
3x + 4y - 7 = 0 .
15. Find the equation of the straight
7. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 3, -2 h that passes
line through ^ 3, 2 h that passes through the intersection of
through the intersection of the lines 5x + 2y - 13 = 0 and
the lines 5x + 2y + 1 = 0 and x - 3y + 11 = 0.
3x - y + 16 = 0.
16. Find the equation of the straight
8. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ -3, -2 h that
line through ^ -4, -1 h that passes through the intersection
passes through the intersection of the lines x + y + 1 = 0 and
of the lines 2x + y - 1 = 0 and 3x + 2y = 0 .
3x + 5y + 16 = 0.
17. Find the equation of the straight
9. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 3, 1 h that passes
line through ^ -3, 4 h that passes through the intersection of
through the intersection of the lines 3x - y + 4 = 0 and
the lines 2x + y - 3 = 0 and 2x - y + 12 = 0.
3x - 2y - 8 = 0 .
18. Find the equation of the straight
10. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 3 that passes
line through ^ 2, -2 h that passes through the intersection of
through the intersection of the lines 2x + y - 1 = 0 and
the lines 2x + 3y - 6 = 0 and 3x + 5y + 16 = 0.
3x + 5y - 10 = 0.
19. Find the equation of the straight
11. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 2 that passes
line through ^ 3, 0 h that passes through the intersection of
through the intersection of the lines 5x - 2y - 3 = 0 and
the lines x - y + 1 = 0 and 7x - 3y - 4 = 0 .
4x - y - 2 = 0 .
384 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

20. Find the equation of the 21. Find the equation of the
straight line parallel to the straight line perpendicular to
line 3x - y - 7 = 0 that passes the line x + 5y - 1 = 0 that
through the intersection of passes through the intersection
the lines 3x - 2y - 10 = 0 and of lines 3x - 5y - 3 = 0 and
4x + y - 17 = 0. 2x + 3y + 17 = 0.

Perpendicular Distance
The distance formula d = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2 is used to find the distance
between two points.
Perpendicular distance is used to find the distance between a point and
a line. If we look at the distance between a point and a line, there could be
many distances.

So we choose the shortest distance, which is the perpendicular distance.

The perpendicular distance from _ x 1, y 1 i to the line ax + by + c = 0 is

A distance is always
positive, so take the | ax 1 + by 1 + c |
absolute value.
given by d =
a2 + b2

Proof
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 385

Let d be the perpendicular distance of _ x 1, y 1 i from the line ax + by + c = 0. To find A and C, substitute
c c - ax 1 - c y = 0 and x = 0 into
A = b- a , 0 l C = c 0, - m R = e x 1, o ax + by + c = 0.
b b

c2 c2
In D ACO, AC = +
a2 b2
c2 b2 + c2 a2
=
a2 b2
c a2 + b2
=
ab

- ax 1 - c
PR = y 1 - e o
b
ax 1 + by 1 + c
=
b
Why?
D ACO is similar to D PRQ
PQ PR
` =
AO AC
AO . PR
PQ =
AC
c ax 1 + by 1 + c c a2 + b2
` d=a# '
b ab
c _ ax 1 + by 1 + c i ab
= #
ab c a2 + b2
ax 1 + by 1 + c
=
a2 + b2

All points on one side of the line ax + by + c = 0 make the numerator of

this formula positive. Points on the other side make the numerator negative.
Usually we take the absolute value of d. However, if we want to know if
points are on the same side of a line or not, we look at the sign of d.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the perpendicular distance of ^ 4, - 3 h from the line 3x - 4y - 1 = 0.

Solution

x 1 = 4, y 1 = - 3, a = 3, b = - 4, c = - 1
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
d=
a2 + b2
| 3 ] 4 g + ] - 4 g ] -3 g + ] -1 g |
=
3 2 + ] -4 g2

CONTINUED
386 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

| 12 + 12 - 1 |
=
25
23
=
5
= 4 .6
So the perpendicular distance is 4.6 units.

2. Prove that the line 6x + 8y + 20 = 0 is a tangent to the circle

x 2 + y 2 = 4.

Solution
There are three possibilities for the intersection of a circle and a straight line.

The centre of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 is ^ 0, 0 h and its radius is 2 units.

A tangent is perpendicular to the centre of the circle. So we prove that the
perpendicular distance from the line to the point ^ 0, 0 h is 2 units (the radius).
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
d=
a2 + b2
| 6 (0) + 8 (0) + 20 |
=
62 + 82
| 20 |
=
100
20
=
10
=2
` the line is a tangent to the circle.

3. Show that the points ^ -1, 3 h and ^ 2, 7 h lie on the same side of the line
2 x - 3 y + 4 = 0.
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 387

Solution
To show that points lie on the same side of a line, their perpendicular
distance must have the same sign. We use the formula without the
absolute value sign.

ax 1 + by 1 + c
d=
a2 + b2
^ - 1, 3 h :
2 ]-1 g - 3 ]3 g + 4
d=
22 + ] - 3 g 2
-2 - 9 + 4
=
4+9
-7
=
13
^ 2, 7 h :
2 ]2 g - 3 ]7 g + 4
d=
2 2 + ] -3 g 2
4 - 21 + 4
=
4+9
- 13
=
13
Since the perpendicular distance for both points has the same sign, the
points lie on the same side of the line.

7.8 Exercises

1. Find the perpendicular distance 3. Find as a surd with rational

between denominator the perpendicular
(a) ^ 1, 2 h and 3x + 4y + 2 = 0 distance between
(b) ^ - 3, 2 h and 5x + 12y + 7 = 0 (a) the origin and the line
(c) ^ 0, 4 h and 8x - 6y - 1 = 0 3x - 2y + 7 = 0
(d) ^ - 3, - 2 h and 4x - 3y - 6 = 0 (b) ^ -1, 4 h and 2x + y + 3 = 0
(e) the origin and (c) ^ 3, -1 h and 3x + 14y + 1 = 0
12x - 5y + 8 = 0. (d) ^ 2, - 6 h and 5x - y - 6 = 0
(e) ^ - 4, - 1 h and
2. Find, correct to 3 significant
3 x - 2 y - 4 = 0.
figures, the perpendicular
distance between 4. Show that the origin
(a) ^ 1, 3 h and x + 3y + 1 = 0 is equidistant from the
(b) ^ -1, 1 h and 2x + 5y + 4 = 0 lines 7x + 24y + 25 = 0,
(c) ^ 3, 0 h and 5x - 6y - 12 = 0 4x + 3y - 5 = 0 and
(d) ^ 5, - 3 h and 4x - y - 2 = 0 12x + 5y - 13 = 0.
(e) ^ - 6, - 3 h and 2x - 3y + 9 = 0.
388 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

5. Show that points A ^ 3, - 5 h and 14. Find the perpendicular distance

B ^ -1, 4 h lie on opposite sides of between ^ 0, 5 h and the line
2x - y + 3 = 0. through ^ - 3, 8 h parallel to
4x - 3y - 1 = 0.
6. Show that the points ^ 2, - 3 h and
^ 9, 2 h lie on the same side of the 15. The perpendicular distance
line x - 3y + 2 = 0. between the point ^ x, -1 h and
the line 3x - 4y + 7 = 0 is
7. Show that ^ - 3, 2 h and ^ 4, 1 h lie 8 units. Find two possible values
on opposite sides of the line of x.
4 x - 3 y - 2 = 0.
16. The perpendicular distance
Equidistant means that 8. Show that ^ 0, - 2 h is equidistant between the point ^ 3, b h and the
two or more objects are from the lines 3x + 4y - 2 = 0
the same distance away line 5x - 12y - 2 = 0 is 2 units.
from another object.
and 12x - 5y + 16 = 0. Find the values of b.
9. Show that the points ^ 8, - 3 h and 17. Find m if the perpendicular
^ 1, 1 h lie on the same side of the distance between ^ m, 7 h and the
line 6x - y + 4 = 0. line 9x + 12y + 6 = 0 is 5 units.
10. Show that ^ - 3, 2 h and ^ 4, 1 h lie 18. Prove that the line
on opposite sides of the line 3x - 4y + 25 = 0 is a tangent to
2x + y - 2 = 0. the circle with centre the origin
11. Show that the point ^ 3, - 2 h and radius 5 units.
is the same distance from the 19. Show that the line
line 6x - 8y + 6 = 0 as the 3x - 4y + 12 = 0 does not cut
point ^ - 4, -1 h is from the line the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1.
5x + 12y - 20 = 0.
20. The sides of a triangle are formed
12. Find the exact perpendicular by the lines with equations
distance with rational 2x - y - 7 = 0, 3x + 5y - 4 = 0
denominator from the point and x + 3y - 4 = 0.
^ 4, 5 h to the line with (a) Find the vertices of the
x-intercept 2 and y-intercept -1. triangle.
13. Find the perpendicular distance (b) Find the exact length of all
from ^ - 2, 2 h to the line passing the altitudes of the triangle.
through ^ 3, 7 h and ^ -1, 4 h .
 Chapter 7 Linear Functions 389

Test Yourself 7
1. Find the distance between points ^ - 1, 2 h 10. Find the equation of the straight
and ^ 3, 7 h . line passing through the origin and
parallel to the line with equation
2. What is the midpoint of the origin and 3x - 4y + 5 = 0.
the point ^ 5, - 4 h ?
11. Find the point of intersection between
3. Find the gradient of the straight line lines y = 2x + 3 and x - 5y + 6 = 0.
(a) passing through ^ 3, -1 h and ^ - 2, 5 h
(b) with equation 2x - y + 1 = 0 12. The midpoint of ^ a, 3 h and ^ - 4, b h is
(c) making an angle of 30c with the ^ 1, 2 h . Find the values of a and b.
x-axis in the positive direction
13. Show that the lines x - y - 4 = 0,
(d) perpendicular to the line
2x + y + 1 = 0, 5x - 3y - 14 = 0 and
5 x + 3 y - 8 = 0.
3x - 2y - 9 = 0 are concurrent.
4. Find the equation of the linear function
14. A straight line makes an angle of 153c 29l
(a) passing through ^ 2, 3 h and with
with the x-axis in the positive direction.
gradient 7
What is its gradient, to 3 significant
(b) parallel to the line 5x + y - 3 = 0
figures?
and passing through ^ 1, 1 h
(c) through the origin, and 15. The perpendicular distance from ^ 3, - 2 h
perpendicular to the line 2x - 3y + 6 = 0 to the line 5x - 12y + c = 0 is 2. Find
(d) through ^ 3, 1 h and ^ - 2, 4 h 2 possible values of c.
(e) with x-intercept 3 and y-intercept –1.
16. Find the equation of the straight line
5. Find the perpendicular distance between through ^ 1, 3 h that passes through the
^ 2, 5 h and the line 2x - y + 7 = 0 in surd intersection of the lines 2x - y + 5 = 0
form with rational denominator. and x + 2y - 5 = 0.

6. Prove that the line between ^ -1, 4 h 17. The gradient of the line through ^ 3, - 4 h
and ^ 3, 3 h is perpendicular to the line and ^ x, 2 h is −5. Evaluate x.
4x - y - 6 = 0.
18. Show that the points ^ - 2, 1 h and
7. Find the x- and y-intercepts of ^ 6, 3 h are on opposite sides of the line
2x - 5y - 10 = 0. 2 x - 3 y - 1 = 0.

8. (a) Find the equation of the straight 19. Find the equation of the line with
line l that is perpendicular to the line x-intercept 4 that makes an angle of 45c
1 with the x-axis.
y = x - 3 and passes through ^ 1, -1 h .
2
(b) Find the x-intercept of l. 20. Find the equation of the line with
(c) Find the exact distance from ^ 1, -1 h y-intercept - 2 and perpendicular to the
to the x-intercept of l. line passing through ^ 3, -2 h and ^ 0, 5 h .

9. Prove that lines y = 5x - 7 and

10x - 2y + 1 = 0 are parallel.
390 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Challenge Exercise 7
1. If points ^ - 3k, 1 h, ^ k - 1, k - 3 h and joining ^ -1, 3 h and ^ 2, - 4 h makes with
^ k - 4, k - 5 h are collinear, find the the x-axis in the positive direction.
value of k.
10. Find the equation of the line that passes
2. Find the equation, in exact form, of the through the point of intersection of lines
line passing through _ 3 , -2 i that makes 2x + 5y + 19 = 0 and 4x - 3y - 1 = 0
an angle of 30c with the positive x-axis. that is perpendicular to the line
3x - 2y + 1 = 0.
3. Find the equation of the circle whose
centre is at the origin and with tangent 11. Prove A ^ 2, 5 h, B ^ - 4, 5 h and C ^ -1, 2 h are
x - 3y + 9 = 0. the vertices of a right-angled isosceles
triangle.
4. ABCD is a rhombus where
A = ^ - 3, 0 h, B = ^ 0, 4 h, C = ^ 5, 4 h and 12. Find the coordinates of the centre of
D = ^ 2, 0 h . Prove that the diagonals are a circle that passes through points
perpendicular bisectors of one another. ^ 7, 2 h, ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -4, -1 h .

5. Prove that the points _ -1, 2 2 i, 13. If ax - y - 2 = 0 and bx - 5y + 11 = 0

_ 3 , - 6 i and _ - 5 , 2 i all lie on a intersect at the point ^ 3, 4 h, find the
circle with centre the origin. What are values of a and b.
the radius and equation of the circle?
14. Find the equation of the straight line
6. Find the exact distance between the through ^ 3, -4 h that is perpendicular to
parallel lines 3x + 2y - 5 = 0 and the line with x-intercept and y-intercept
3x + 2y = 1. −2 and 5 respectively.

7. A straight line has x-intercept A ^ a, 0 h 15. Find the exact equation of the straight
and y-intercept B ^ 0, b h, where a and b are line through the midpoint of ^ 0, - 5 h,
positive integers. The gradient of line AB and ^ 4, -1 h that is perpendicular to the
is -1. Find +OBA where O is the origin line that makes an angle of 30c with the
and hence prove that a = b. x-axis.

8. Find the exact perpendicular distance 16. Point P ^ x, y h moves so that it is

between the line 2x + 3y + 1 = 0 equidistant from points A ^ 1, 4 h and
and the point of intersection of lines B ^ - 2, 7 h . By finding the distances AP and
3x - 7y = 15 and 4x - y = - 5. BP, find the equation of the locus of P.

9. Find the magnitude of the angle, in

degrees and minutes, that the line
8
Introduction to
Calculus
TERMINOLOGY

Composite function: A function of a function. One Differentiation: The process of finding the gradient of a
function, f (x), is a composite of one function to another tangent to a curve which is called the derivative
function, for example g(x)
Differentiation from first principles: The process of finding
Continuity: Describing a line or curve that is unbroken the gradient of a tangent to a curve by finding the
over its domain gradient of the secant between two points and finding
the limit as the secant becomes a tangent
Continuous function: A function is continuous over an
interval if it has no break in its graph. For every x value Gradient of a secant: The gradient (slope) of the line
on the graph the limit exists and equals the function between two points that lie close together on a function
value
Gradient of a tangent: The gradient (slope) of a line that
Derivative at a point: This is the gradient of a curve at a is a tangent to the curve at a point on a function. It is the
particular point derivative of the function
Derivative function: The gradient function of a curve Rate of change: The rate at which the dependent variable
obtained through differentiation changes as the independent variable changes
Differentiable function: A function which is continuous
and where the gradient exists at all points on the
function
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 393

INTRODUCTION
CALCULUS IS A VERY IMPORTANT part of mathematics and involves the
measurement of change. It can be applied to many areas such as science,
economics, engineering, astronomy, Crude Oil Production (Mbbl/d)
sociology and medicine. We also see articles Iran
7,000
in newspapers every day that involve change:
the spread of infectious diseases, population 6,000
growth, inflation, unemployment, filling of

Thousand Barrels per Day

5,000
our water reservoirs.
For example, this graph shows the 4,000
change in crude oil production in Iran over
3,000
the years. Notice that while the graph shows
that production is increasing over recent 2,000
years, the rate at which it is being produced
seems to be slowing down. Calculus is used 1,000

to look at these trends and predict what will 0

happen in the future. 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07
74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06
There are two main branches of January 1973–May 2007
calculus. Differentiation is used to calculate
the rate at which two variables change in relation to one another.
Anti-differentiation, or integration, is the inverse of differentiation and You will learn about
integration in the
uses information about rates of change to go back and examine the original
HSC Course.
variables. Integration can also be used to find areas of curved objects.

DID YOU KNOW?

‘Calculus’ comes from the Latin meaning pebble or small stone. In ancient civilisations, stones
were used for counting. However, the mathematics practised by these early people was quite
sophisticated. For example, the ancient Greeks used sums of rectangles to estimate areas of curved
figures.
However, it wasn’t until the 17th century that there was a breakthrough in calculus when
scientists were searching for ways of measuring motion of objects such as planets, pendulums and
projectiles.
Isaac Newton, an Englishman, discovered the main principles of calculus when he was 23
years old. At this time an epidemic of bubonic plague closed Cambridge University where he was
studying, so many of his discoveries were made at home.
He first wrote about his calculus methods, which he called fluxions, in 1671, but his Method
of fluxions was not published until 1704.
Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), in Germany, was also studying the same methods and there Isaac Newton
was intense rivalry between the two countries over who was first!
Search the Internet for further details on these two famous mathematicians. You can find
out about the history of calculus and why it was necessary for mathematicians all those years ago
to invent it.
394 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

In this chapter you will learn about differentiation, which measures the rate of
change of one variable with respect to another.

Gradient
Gradient of a straight line

The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. You studied gradient in the
last chapter.

rise
m = run

Class Discussion

Remember that an increasing line has a positive gradient and a

decreasing line has a negative gradient.

positive negative

Notice also that a horizontal line has zero gradient.

Can you see why?

Can you find the gradient of a vertical line? Why?

Gradient plays an important part, not just in mathematics, but in many areas
including science, business, medicine and engineering. It is used everywhere
we want to find rates.
On a graph, the gradient measures the rate of change of the dependent
variable with respect to the change in the independent variable.
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 395

EXAMPLES

1. The graph shows the average distance travelled by a car over time.
Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.

400
km

t
5
Hours

Solution
The line is increasing so it will have a positive gradient.
rise
m = run
400
=
5
80
=
1
= 80

This means that the car is travelling at the rate of 80 km/hour.

2. The graph shows the number of cases of flu reported in a town over

several weeks.

15
Number of
cases (100s)

t
10
Weeks

Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.

CONTINUED
396 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution
The line is decreasing so it will have a negative gradient.
rise
m = run
1500
=-
10
150
=-
1
= - 150

This means that the rate is -150 cases/week, or the number of cases
reported is decreasing by 150 cases/week.

When finding the gradient of a straight line in the number plane, we think of
a change in y values as x changes. The gradients in the examples above show
rates of change.
However, in most examples in real life, the rate of change will vary. For
example, a car would speed up and slow down depending on where it is in
relation to other cars, traffic light signals and changing speed limits.

Gradient of a curve

Class Discussion

The two graphs show the distance that a bicycle travels over time. One is
a straight line and the other is a curve.
d d

20 20

15 15
km

km

10 10

5 5

t t
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Hours Hours

Is the average speed of the bicycle the same in both cases? What is
different about the speed in the two graphs?
How could you measure the speed in the second graph at any one
time? Does it change? If so, how does it change?
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 397

Here is a more general curve. What could you say about its gradient?
How does it change along the curve?

Copy the graph and mark on it where the gradient is positive, negative
and zero.

Using what we know about the gradient of a straight line, we can see where
the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero by drawing tangents to the
curve in different places around the curve.
y

- +
x

Notice that when the curve increases it has a positive gradient, when it
decreases it has a negative gradient and when it turns around the gradient is zero.

Investigation

There are some excellent computer programs that will draw tangents to
a curve and then sketch the gradient curve. One of these is Geometer
Sketchpad.
Explore how to sketch gradient functions using this or a similar
program as you look at the examples below.
398 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Describe the gradient of each curve.

1.

Solution
Where the curve increases, the gradient is positive. Where it decreases, it
is negative. Where it turns around, it has a zero gradient.

2.

Solution
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 399

Since we have a formula for finding the gradient of a straight line, we find the
gradient of a curve by measuring the gradient of a tangent to the curve.

EXAMPLE

(a) Make an accurate sketch of y = x 2 on graph paper.

(b) Draw tangents to this curve at the points where
x = - 3, x = - 2, x = - 1, x = 0, x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.
(c) Find the gradient of each of these tangents.
(d) Draw the graph of the gradients (the gradient function) on a
number plane.

Solution
(a) and (b)
y

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 There are computer
programs that will
1
draw these tangents.
x
-3 -2 1 2 3

(c) At x = - 3, m = - 6
At x = - 2, m = - 4
At x = - 1, m = - 2
At x = 0, m = 0
At x = 1, m = 2
At x = 2, m = 4
At x = 3, m = 6

(d)

Use the ‘m’ values as

the ‘y’ values on this
graph.
400 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Drawing tangents to a curve is difficult. We can do a rough sketch of

the gradient function of a curve without knowing the actual values of the
gradients of the tangents.
To do this, notice in the example above that where m is positive, the
gradient function is above the x-axis, where m = 0, the gradient function is on
the x-axis and where m is negative, the gradient function is below the x-axis.

EXAMPLES

Sketch the gradient function of each curve.

1.

Solution
First we mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.

Now on the gradient graph, place the points where m = 0 on the x-axis.
These are at x 1, x 2 and x 3 .
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 401

To the left of x 1, the gradient is negative, so this part of the graph will
be below the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is positive, so the
graph will be above the x-axis. Between x 2 and x 3, the gradient is negative,
so the graph will be below the x-axis. To the right of x 3, the gradient is
positive, so this part of the graph will be above the x-axis.

2.

Solution
First mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.

CONTINUED
402 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The gradient is zero at x 1 and x 2 . These points will be on the x-axis. To the
left of x 1, the gradient is positive, so this part of the graph will be above
the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is negative, so the graph will
be below the x-axis. To the right of x 2, the gradient is positive, so this part
of the graph will be above the x-axis.

8.1 Exercises

Sketch the gradient function for each graph.

1. 4.

2. 5.

3. 6.
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 403

7. 9.

8.
10.

Differentiation from First Principles

Seeing where the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero is a good first step,
but there are methods to find a formula for the gradient of a tangent to a curve.
The process of finding the gradient of a tangent is called differentiation.
The resulting function is called the derivative.

Differentiability

A function is called a differentiable function if the gradient of the tangent

can be found.
There are some graphs that are not differentiable in places.
Most functions are continuous, which means that they have a smooth
unbroken line or curve. However, some have a gap, or discontinuity, in the
graph (e.g. hyperbola). This can be shown by an asymptote or a ‘hole’ in the
graph. We cannot find the gradient of a tangent to the curve at a point that
doesn’t exist! So the function is not differentiable at the point of discontinuity.
y

This function is not

x differentiable at a since the curve is
a discontinuous at this point.
404 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

This function is not

x differentiable at b as the curve is
b
discontinuous at this point.

A function may be continuous but not smooth. It may have a sharp

corner. Can you see why curves are not differentiable at the point where there
is a corner?
y

The curve is not differentiable at

point c since it is not smooth at that
c x
point.

A function y = f (x) is differentiable at the point x = a if the derivative

exists at that point. This can only happen if the function is continuous
and smooth at x = a.
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 405

EXAMPLES

1. Find all points where the function below is not differentiable.

Solution
The function is not differentiable at points A and B since there are sharp
corners and the curve is not smooth at these points.
It is not differentiable at point C since the function is discontinuous
at this point.

x2 for x $ 1
2. Is the function f (x) = ) differentiable at all points?
3x - 2 for x 1 1
Solution
The functions f (x) = x 2 and f (x) = 3x - 2 are both differentiable at all
points.
However, we need to look at where one finishes and the other starts, at f (1).

For f (x) = x 2
f ] 1 g = 12
=1
For f (x) = 3x - 2
f ]1 g = 3 ]1 g - 2
=1

This means that both pieces of this function join up (the function is
continuous). However, to be differentiable, the curve must be smooth at
this point.

CONTINUED
406 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Sketching this function shows that it is not smooth (it has a sharp
corner) so it is not differentiable at x = 1.

y = x2

1
x
1

-2

y = 3x - 2

8.2 Exercises
For each function, state whether it has any points at which it is not
differentiable.

1. y 3. y

x
x x1

4. y
2. y

x
x
x1
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 407

5. y y
10.
5
4
3
2
x 1
x1 x2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
4
6. f (x) = x -5

1
7. y=- 11. y = tan x for 0c # x # 360c
x+3
x
x3 if x 2 2 12. f (x) = x
8. f (x) = )
x + 1 if x # 2
Z 2x 13. f (i) = -3 cos 2i
] for x 2 3
9. f (x) = [3 for - 2 # x # 3 14. g (z) = sin 2 z
]
\1 - x for x 1 - 2
2
x-3
15. y =
x2 - 9

Limits

To differentiate from first principles, we need to look more closely at the

concept of a limit.
A limit is used when we want to move as close as we can to something.
Often this is to find out where a function is near a gap or discontinuous point.
You saw this in Chapter 5 when looking at discontinuous graphs. In this topic,
it is used when we want to move from a gradient of a line between two points
to a gradient of a tangent.

EXAMPLES

x2 - x - 2
1. Find lim .
x "2 x-2
Solution

x2 - x - 2 (x + 1) (x - 2) You did this in

lim = lim Chapter 5.
x "2 x-2 x "2 (x - 2 )
= lim (x + 1)
x "2
=2+1
=3

CONTINUED
408 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2xh - h 2 - 3h
2. Find an expression in terms of x for lim .
h "0 h
Solution
2xh - h 2 - 3h h (2 x - h - 3)
lim = lim
h "0 h h "0 h
= lim (2x - h - 3)
h "0
= 2x - 3

3x 2 dx + dx 2 - 5dx
3. Find an expression in terms of x for lim .
dx " 0 dx
Solution

3x 2 d x + d x 2 - 5 d x d x ( 3x 2 + d x - 5 )
lim = lim
dx " 0 dx dx " 0 dx
= lim (3x + dx - 5)
2
dx " 0

= 3x - 52

8.3 Exercises
1. Evaluate 2. Find as an expression in terms of x
x + 3x
2
x 2 h - 2xh - 4h
(a) lim x (a) lim
x "0 h "0 h
5x 3 - 2x 2 - 7x 2x 3 h + xh - h
(b) lim x (b) lim
x "0 h "0 h
x 2 - 3x 3x 2 h 2 - 7xh + 4h 2 - h
(c) lim (c) lim
x "3 x - 3
h "0 h
t 2 - 16 4x 4 h - x 2 h - 4xh 2
(d) lim (d) lim
t "4 t-4 h "0 h
g2 - 1 x 2 h 2 + 3xh 2 - 4xh + 3h
(e) lim (e) lim
g "1 g - 1 h "0 h
x2 + x - 2 2x 2 h + 5xh 2 + 6h
(f) lim (f) lim
x " -2 x+2 h "0 h
h 5 + 2h x 2 dx 2 - 2xdx
(g) lim (g) lim
h "0 h dx " 0 dx
x - 7x + 12
2
4 x 2 dx - 2 dx 2
(h) lim (h) lim
x "3 x-3 dx " 0 dx
n 2 - 25 x 3 dx 2 + 3xdx - dx
(i) lim (i) lim
n "5 n - 5 dx " 0 dx
x 2 + 4x + 3 x 2 dx - 2xdx + 9dx
(j) lim (j) lim
x " -1
x2 - 1 dx " 0 dx
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 409

Differentiation as a limit

y2 - y1
The formula m = x - x is used to find the gradient of a straight line when we
2 1
know two points on the line. However, when the line is a tangent to a curve,
we only know one point on the line—the point of contact with the curve.
To differentiate from first principles, we first use the point of contact
and another point close to it on the curve (this line is called a secant) and then
we move the second point closer and closer to the point of contact until they
overlap and the line is at single point (the tangent). To do this, we use a limit.
If you look at a close up of a graph, you can get some idea of this concept.
When the curve is magnified, two points appear to be joined by a straight line.
We say the curve is locally straight.

Investigation

Use a graphics calculator or a computer program to sketch a curve and

then zoom in on a section of the curve to see that it is locally straight.

For example, here is a parabola.

10 y

2 f 1(x) = x2 x
-20 2 20

-10

Notice how it looks straight when we zoom in on a point on the

parabola?

7.99 y

2.99 f 1(x) = x2 x

Use technology to sketch other curves and zoom in to show that they are
locally straight.
410 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Before using limits to find different formulae for differentiating from first
principles, here are some examples of how we can calculate an approximate
value for the gradient of the tangent to a curve. By taking two points close
together, as in the example below, we find the gradient of the secant and then
estimate the gradient of the tangent.

(3.01, f (3.01))
(3, f (3))

EXAMPLES

1. For the function f ] x g = x 3, find the gradient of the secant PQ where P

is the point on the function where x = 2 and Q is another point on the
curve close to P. Choose different values for Q and use these results to
estimate the gradient of the curve at P.

y
Q (2.1, f(2.1))
P (2, f(2))

x
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 411

Solution
P = ^ 2, f (2) h
Take different values of x for point Q, for example x = 2.1
Using different values of x for point Q gives the results in the table.

Point Q Gradient of secant PQ

y2 - y1
f ( 2 . 1 ) - f (2 ) Use m =
_ 2 .1 , f ] 2 .1 g i x2 - x1
to find
m=
2 .1 - 2 the gradient of the secant.

2 .1 3 - 2 3
=
2 .1 - 2
= 12.61
_ 2.01, f ] 2.01 g i f (2.01) - f (2)
m=
2.01 - 2
2.01 3 - 2 3
=
2.01 - 2
= 12.0601
_ 2.001, f ] 2.001 g i f (2.001) - f (2)
m=
2.001 - 2
2.001 3 - 2 3
=
2.001 - 2
= 12.006001
_ 1 .9 , f ] 1 .9 g i f ( 1 . 9 ) - f (2 )
m=
1 .9 - 2
1 .9 3 - 2 3
=
1 .9 - 2
= 11.41
_ 1.99, f ] 1.99 g i f (1.99) - f (2)
m=
1.99 - 2
1.99 3 - 2 3
=
1.99 - 2
= 11.9401
_ 1.999, f ] 1.999 g i f (1.999) - f (2)
m=
1.999 - 2
1.999 3 - 2 3
=
1.999 - 2
= 11.994001

From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at P is 12.

We can say that as x approaches 2, the gradient approaches 12.
f (x) - f (2)
We can write lim = 12.
x "2 x-2

CONTINUED
412 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. For the curve y = x 2, find the gradient of the secant AB where A is the
point on the curve where x = 5 and point B is close to A. Find an estimate
of the gradient of the curve at A by using three different values for B.

Solution
A = ^ 5, f (5) h
Take three different values of x for point B, for example x = 4.9, x = 5.1
and x = 5.01.
(a) B = ^ 4.9, f (4.9) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
f ( 4 . 9 ) - f (5 )
=
4 .9 - 5
4 .9 2 - 5 2
=
4 .9 - 5
= 9 .9
(b) B = ^ 5.1, f (5.1) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
f ( 5 . 1 ) - f (5 )
=
5 .1 - 5
5 .1 2 - 5 2
=
5 .1 - 5
= 10.1
(c) B = ^ 5.01, f (5.01) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
f (5.01) - f (5)
=
5.01 - 5
5.01 2 - 5 2
=
5.01 - 5
= 10.01
From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at A is 10.
We can say that as x approaches 5, the gradient approaches 10.
f (x) - f (5)
We can write lim = 10.
x "5 x-5

We can find a general formula for differentiating from first principles by

using c rather than any particular number. We use general points P ^ c, f (c) h and
Q ^ x, f (x) h where x is close to c.
The gradient of the secant PQ is given by
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
f (x) - f (c)
= x-c
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 413

The gradient of the tangent at P is found when x approaches c. We call

this fl(c).

f (x) - f (c)
f l(c) = lim
x "c x-c

There are other versions of this formula.

We can call the points P ^ x, f (x) h and Q ^ x + h, f (x + h) h where h is small.
y

Q
(x + h, f(x + h))

P
(x , f(x))
x

Secant PQ has gradient

y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
f (x + h) - f (x)
=
x+h-x
f (x + h) - f (x)
=
h
To find the gradient of the secant, we make h smaller as shown, so that
Q becomes closer and closer to P.
y

Q
(x + h, f(x + h))
Q

P Q

(x, f (x))
x

Search the Internet using

keywords ‘differentiation from
first principles’, gradient of
secant’ and ‘tangent’ to find
mathematical websites that
show this working.
414 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

f (x + h) - f (x)
As h approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim .
h "0 h
We call this fl(x).

f (x + h) - f (x)
fl(x) = lim
h "0 h

The symbol d is a
Greek letter called
delta. If we use P ^ x, y h and Q ^ x + dx, y + dy h close to P where dx and dy are
small:
Gradient of secant PQ
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
y + dy - y
=
x + dx - x
dy
=
dx
dy
As dx approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim . We
dx " 0 d x
dy
call this .
dx

dy dy
= lim
dx dx " 0 dx

All of these different notations stand for the derivative, or the gradient of
the tangent:
dy d d
, (y), ^ f (x) h, f l(x), yl
dx dx dx
These occur because Newton, Leibniz and other mathematicians over the
years have used different notation.

Investigation
dy
Leibniz used where d stood for ‘difference’. Can you see why he would
dx
have used this?

Use the Internet to explore the different notations used in calculus and
where they came from.
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 415

The three formulae for differentiating from first principles all work in a
similar way.

EXAMPLE

Differentiate from first principles to find the gradient of the tangent to

the curve y = x 2 + 3 at the point where x = 1.
Remember that y = x 2 - 3
Solution is the same as f (x) = x 2 - 3.

Method 1:
f (x) - f (c)
f l(c) = lim
x "c x-c
f ]x g = x + 3
2

f ] 1 g = 12 + 3
=4
f (x) - f (c)
f l(c) = lim
x "c x-c
f (x) - f (1)
f l(1) = lim
x "1 x-1
(x 2 + 3) - 4
= lim
x "1 x-1
x2 - 1
= lim
x "1 x - 1

(x + 1) (x - 1)
= lim
x "1 x-1
= lim (x + 1)
x "1
=1+1
=2

Method 2:
f (x + h ) - f ( x )
f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
f ] x g = x2 + 3
f ] 1 g = 12 + 3
=4
f ] x + h g = ] x + h g2 + 3
When x = 1
f ] 1 + h g = ] 1 + h g2 + 3
= 1 + 2h + h 2 + 3
= 2h + h 2 + 4

CONTINUED
416 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

f (x + h) - f (x)
f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
f (1 + h) - f (1)
f l(1) = lim
h "0 h
(2h + h 2 + 4) - 4
= lim
h "0 h
2h + h 2
= lim
h "0 h
h (2 + h)
= lim
h "0 h
= lim (2 + h)
h "0
=2+0
=2

Method 3:

dy dy
= lim
dx dx
dx " 0

y = x2 + 3
When x = 1
y = 12 + 3
=4
So point ^ 1, 4 h lies on the curve.
Substitute point (1 + dx, 4 + dy):

4 + dy = (1 + dx) 2 + 3
= 1 + 2d x + d x 2 + 3
= 2d x + d x 2 + 4
d y = 2d x + d x 2
dy 2d x + d x 2
=
dx dx
dx(2 + dx)
=
dx
= 2 + dx
dy dy
= lim
dx d x " 0 dx
= lim (2 + dx)
dx " 0
=2+0
=2

We can also use these formulae to find the derivative function generally.
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 417

EXAMPLE

Differentiate f ] x g = 2x 2 + 7x - 3 from first principles.

Solution
Try this example using the
other two formulae.
f ] x g = 2x + 7x - 3
2

f ] x + h g = 2 ] x + h g2 + 7 ] x + h g - 3
= 2 ^ x 2 + 2xh + h 2 h + 7x + 7h - 3
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3
f ] x + h g - f ] x g = ^ 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 h - ^ 2x 2 + 7x - 3 h
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 - 2x 2 - 7x + 3
= 4xh + 2h 2 + 7h
f (x + h) - f (x)
f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
4xh + 2h 2 + 7h
= lim
h "0 h
h ( 4 x + 2h + 7 )
= lim
h "0 h
= lim (4x + 2h + 7)
h "0
= 4x + 0 + 7
= 4x + 7

8.4 Exercises

1. (a) Find the gradient of the secant f (x) - f (2)

between the point ^ 1, 2 h and the (b) Find the value of
x-2
point where x = 1.01, on the when x = 2.01.
curve y = x 4 + 1. f (x) - f (2)
(c) Evaluate when
(b) Find the gradient of the x-2
x = 1.99.
secant between ^ 1, 2 h and the
(d) Hence find the gradient of the
point where x = 0.999 on the
tangent at the point ^ 2, 10 h .
curve.
(c) Use these results to find the 3. For the function f ] x g = x 2 - 4,
gradient of the tangent to the find the derivative at point P
curve y = x 4 + 1 at the point where x = 3 by selecting points
^ 1, 2 h . near P and finding the gradient of
the secant.
2. A function f ] x g = x 3 + x has a
tangent at the point ^ 2, 10 h . 4. If f (x) = x 2,
f (x) - f (2) (a) find f (x + h)
(a) Find the value of
x-2 (b) show that
when x = 2.1. f (x + h) - f (x) = 2xh + h 2
418 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(c) show that by substituting the point

f (x + h) - f (x) ^ x + dx, y + dy h
= 2x + h
h dy
(b) show that = 2x + dx + 2
(d) show that fl(x) = 2x . dx
dy
5. A function is given by (c) find .
dx
f (x) = 2x 2 - 7x + 3.
(a) Show that f (x + h) = 11. Differentiate from first principles
2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3. to find the gradient of the
(b) Show that tangent to the curve
f (x + h) - f (x) = 4xh + 2h 2 - 7h. (a) f ] x g = x 2 at the point where
(c) Show that x=1
f (x + h) - f (x) (b) y = x 2 + x at the point ^ 2, 6 h
= 4x + 2h - 7 . (c) f ] x g = 2x 2 - 5 at the point
h
(d) Find fl(x) . where x = -3
(d) y = 3x 2 + 3x + 1 at the point
6. A function is given by where x = 2
f (x) = x 2 + x + 5. (e) f ] x g = x 2 - 7x - 4 at the
(a) Find f ] 2 g. point ^ -1, 6 h .
(b) Find f ] 2 + h g.
(c) Find f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g. 12. Find the derivative function for
(d) Show that each curve by differentiating
f (2 + h) - f ( 2) from first principles
= 5 + h. (a) f ] x g = x 2
h
(b) y = x 2 + 5x
(e) Find fl(2).
(c) f ] x g = 4x 2 - 4x - 3
7. Given the curve f (x) = 4x 3 - 3 (d) y = 5x 2 - x - 1
(a) find f ] -1 g (e) y = x 3
(b) find f ] -1 + h g - f ] -1 g (f) f ] x g = 2x 3 + 5x
(c) find the gradient of the (g) y = x 3 - 2x 2 + 3x - 1
tangent to the curve at the point (h) f (x) = -2x 3.
where x = -1.
13. The curve y = x has a tangent
8. For the parabola y = x - 1 2 drawn at the point ^ 4, 2 h .
(a) find f ] 3 g f (x) - f (4)
(b) find f ] 3 + h g - f ] 3 g (a) Evaluate when
x-4
(c) find fl(3). x = 3 .9 .
f (x) - f (4)
(b) Evaluate when
9. For the function x-4
f (x) = 4 - 3x - 5x 2 x = 3.999.
f (x) - f (4)
(a) find f l(1) (c) Evaluate when
x-4
Remember that
(b) similarly, find the gradient x = 4.01.
-1 1
x =
x of the tangent at the point 14. For the function f (x) = x - 1,
^ -2, -10 h .
f (x) - f (5)
(a) evaluate when
10. For the parabola y = x 2 + 2x x-5
(a) show that x = 4.99.
dy = 2xdx + dx 2 + 2dx
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 419

f (x) - f (5) 15. Find the gradient of the tangent

(b) evaluate when 4
x-5 to the curve y = 2 at point
x = 5.01. x
(c) Use these results to find the P ^ 2, 1 h by finding the gradient of
derivative of the function at the the secant between P and a point
point where x = 5. close to P.

Short Methods of Differentiation

The basic rule

Remember that the gradient of a straight line y = mx + b is m. The tangent to

the line is the line itself, so the gradient of the tangent is m everywhere along
the line.
y

y = mx + b

dy
So if y = mx, =m
dx

d ] g
kx = k
dx

For a horizontal line in the form y = k, the gradient is zero.

y

y=k
x

dy
So if y = k, =0
dx

d ] g
k =0
dx
420 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Investigation

Differentiate from first principles:

y = x2
y = x3
y = x4
Can you find a pattern? Could you predict what the result would be for xn?

Alternatively, you could find an approximation to the derivative of a

f (x + 0.01) - f (x)
function at any point by drawing the graph of y = .
0.01
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to sketch the
derivative for these functions and find the equation of the derivative.

Mathematicians working with differentiation from first principles discovered

this pattern that enabled them to shorten differentiation considerably!
For example:
When y = x 2, yl = 2x
When y = x 3, yl = 3x 2
When y = x 4, yl = 4x 3

d ^ nh
x = nx n - 1
dx

Proof
You do not need to know
this proof. f (x) = x n
f (x + h) = (x + h) n
f (x + h) - f (x) = (x + h) n - x n
= ^ (x + h) - x h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3
+ . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
= h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3
+ . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
f (x + h) - f (x)
f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
= lim
h "0 h
n-1 n-2 n-3 2
= lim [(x + h) + (x + h ) x + (x + h) x + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
h "0

= (x) n - 1 + (x) n - 2 x + (x) n - 3 x 2 + (x) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x) x n - 2 + x n - 1

= nx n - 1
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 421

EXAMPLE

Differentiate f (x) = x 7.

Solution
f l(x) = 7x 6

There are some more rules that give us short ways to differentiate functions.
The first one says that if there is a constant in front of the x (we call this a
coefficient), then it is just multiplied with the derivative.

d ^ nh
kx = knx n - 1
dx

A more general way of writing this rule is:

d
^ kf (x) h = kf l(x)
dx

You do not need to know

Proof this proof.

d kf (x + h) - kf (x)
^ kf (x) h = lim
dx h " 0 h
k [f (x + h) - f (x)]
= lim
h "0 h
f (x + h) - f (x)
= k lim
h "0 h
= kf l(x)

EXAMPLE

Find the derivative of 3x8.

Solution

If y = 3x 8
dy
= 3 # 8x 7
dx
= 24x 7
422 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Also, if there are several terms in an expression, we differentiate each one

separately. We can write this as a rule:

d
^ f (x) + g (x) h = f l(x) + g ’(x)
dx

Proof
You do not need to
d [f (x + h) + g (x + h)] - [f (x) + g (x)]
know this proof. ^ f (x) + g (x) h = lim
dx h "0 h
f (x + h) + g (x + h) - f (x) - g (x)
= lim
h "0 h
f (x + h) - f (x) + g (x + h) - g (x)
= lim
h "0 h
f (x + h ) - f ( x ) g ( x + h ) - g ( x)
= lim = + G
h "0 h h
f (x + h ) - f ( x ) g ( x + h ) - g ( x)
= lim + lim
h "0 h h " 0 h
= f l(x) + gl(x)

EXAMPLE

Differentiate x 3 + x 4.

Solution
d 3
(x + x 4) = 3x 2 + 4x 3
dx

Many functions use a combination of these rules.

EXAMPLES

Differentiate
1. 7x

Solution
d ] g
7x = 7
dx
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 423

2. f (x) = x 4 - x 3 + 5

Solution

f l(x) = 4x 3 - 3x 2 + 0
= 4x 3 - 3x 2

3. y = 4x 7

Solution
dy
= 4 # 7x 6
dx
= 28x 6

4. If f (x) = 2x 5 - 7x 3 + 5x - 4, evaluate f l(-1)

Solution

f l(x) = 10x 4 - 21x 2 + 5

f l(-1) = 10(-1) 4 - 21(-1) 2 + 5
= -6

3x 2 + 5x
5. Differentiate
2x
Solution
Divide by 2x before differentiating.
3x 2 + 5x 3x 2 5x
= +
2x 2x 2x
3 5
= x+
2 2
dy 3
=
dx 2
1
=1
2

6. Differentiate S = 2rr 2 + 2rrh with respect to r.

Solution
We are differentiating with respect to r, so r is the variable and r and h
are constants.
dS
= 2r(2r) + 2rh
dr
= 4r r + 2r h
424 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

8.5 Exercises

1. Differentiate 4. Find f l(x) when

(a) x + 2 f (x) = 8x 2 -7x + 4.
(b) 5x - 9 dy
(c) x 2 + 3x + 4 5. If y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 5, find when
dx
(d) 5x 2 - x - 8 x = - 2.
(e) x 3 + 2x 2 - 7x - 3 dy
6. Find if
(f) 2x 3 - 7x 2 + 7x - 1 dx
(g) 3x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x y = 6x 10 - 5x 8 + 7x 5 - 3x + 8.
(h) x 6 - 5x 5 - 2x 4 ds
7. If s = 5t 2 - 20t , find .
(i) 2x 5 - 4x 3 + x 2 - 2x + 4 dt
(j) 4x 10 - 7x 9 8. Find gl(x) given g (x) = 5x - 4.
dv
Expand brackets 2. Find the derivative of 9. Find when v = 15t 2 - 9.
dt
before differentiating. (a) x ] 2x + 1 g dh
(b) ] 2x - 3 g2 10. If h = 40t - 2t 2, find .
dt
(c) ] x + 4 g ] x - 4 g
4 3 dV
(d) ^ 2x 2 - 3 h
2
11. Given V = rr , find .
3 dr
(e) ] 2x + 5 g ^ x 2 - x + 1 h
12. If f (x) = 2x 3 - 3x + 4,
3. Differentiate evaluate f l(1).
x2 13. Given f (x) = x 2 - x + 5, evaluate
(a) -x
6
(a) f l(3)
x4 x3 (b) f l(-2)
(b) - +4
2 3 (c) x when f l(x) = 7
1 6 2
(c) x ( x - 3) 14. If y = x 3 - 7, evaluate
3
dy
Simplify by dividing 2x 3 + 5x (a) when x = 2
before differentiating. (d) x dx
dy
x 2 + 2x (b) x when = 12
(e) dx
4x
15. Evaluate gl(2) when
2x 5 - 3x 4 + 6x 3 - 2x 2
(f) g (t) = 3t 3 - 4t 2 - 2t + 1.
3x 2
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 425

Tangents and Normals

DID YOU KNOW?

• The word tangent comes from the Latin ‘tangens’, meaning ‘touching’. A tangent to a circle
intersects it only once.

• However, a tangent to a curve could intersect the curve more than once.

This line is a tangent to the

curve at point P.

• A line may only intersect a curve once but not be a tangent.

• So a tangent to a curve is best described as the limiting position of the secant PQ as Q

approaches P.

Remember from earlier in the chapter that the derivative is the gradient of the
tangent to a curve.

dy
is the gradient of the tangent to a curve
dx
426 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

u
EXAMPLES

1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola y = x 2 + 1 at the

point ^ 1, 2 h .

Solution

dy
= 2x + 0
dx
= 2x
dy
At ^ 1, 2 h = 2 (1 )
dx
=2
So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 1, 2 h is 2.

2. Find values of x for which the gradient of the tangent to the curve
y = 2x 3 - 6x 2 + 1 is equal to 18.

Solution

dy
= 6x 2 - 12x
dx
dy dy
is the gradient of the tangent, so substitute = 18.
dx dx
18 = 6x 2 - 12x
0 = 6x 2 - 12x - 18
= x 2 - 2x - 3
= ]x - 3 g]x + 1 g
x - 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0
` x = 3, x = -1

3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 4 - 3x 3 + 7x - 2

at the point ^ 2, 4 h .

Solution

dy
= 4x 3 - 9x 2 + 7
dx
dy
At ^ 2, 4 h = 4 ] 2 g3 - 9 ] 2 g2 + 7
dx
=3
So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 4 h is 3.
Equation of the tangent:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 4 = 3 ]x - 2 g
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 427

= 3x - 6
y = 3x - 2
or 0 = 3x - y - 2

The normal is a straight line perpendicular to the tangent at the same point of
contact with the curve.
y

Tangent

Normal

You used this rule in the

If lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular, then m 1 m 2 = -1 previous chapter.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the gradient of the normal to the curve y = 2x 2 - 3x + 5 at the

point where x = 4.

Solution
dy
is the gradient of the tangent.
dx
dy
= 4x - 3
dx
When x = 4
dy
=4#4-3
dx
= 13
So m 1 = 13
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.
So m 1 m 2 = -1

CONTINUED
428 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

13m 2 = -1
1
m2 = -
13
1
So the gradient of the normal is - .
13

2. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x 3 + 3x 2 - 2x - 1

at the point ^ -1, 3 h .

Solution
dy
is the gradient of the tangent.
dx
dy
= 3x 2 + 6x - 2
dx
When x = -1
dy
= 3 ] -1 g2 + 6 ] -1 g - 2
dx
= -5
So m 1 = - 5
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.
So m 1 m 2 = -1
-5m 2 = -1
1
m2 =
5
1
So the gradient of the normal is .
5
Equation of the normal:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
1
y - 3 = ] x - ] -1 g g
5
5y - 15 = x + 1
0 = x - 5y + 16

8.6 Exercises

1. Find the gradient of the tangent (f) f ] x g = x 3 - 7 at the point

to the curve where x = 3
(a) y = x 3 - 3x at the point where (g) v = 2t 2 + 3t - 5 at the point
x=5 where t = 2
(b) f ] x g = x 2 + x - 4 at the point (h) Q = 3r 3 - 2r 2 + 8r - 4 at the
^ -7, 38 h point where r = 4
(c) f ] x g = 5x 3 - 4x - 1 at the (i) h = t 4 - 4t where t = 0
point where x = -1 (j) f ] t g = 3t 5 - 8t 3 + 5t at the
(d) y = 5x 2 + 2x + 3 at the point point where t = 2.
^ -2, 19 h
(e) y = 2x 9 at the point where
x=1
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 429

2. Find the gradient of the normal 5. Find the equation of the normal
to the curve to the curve
(a) f ] x g = 2x 3 + 2x - 1 at the (a) f ] x g = x 3 - 3x + 5 at the
point where x = -2 point ^ 3, 23 h
(b) y = 3x 2 + 5x - 2 at the (b) y = x 2 - 4x - 5 at the point
point ^ -5, 48 h ^ -2, 7 h
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 2x - 7 at the (c) f ] x g = 7x - 2x 2 at the point
point where x = - 9 where x = 6
(d) y = x 3 + x 2 + 3x - 2 at the (d) y = 7x 2 - 3x - 2 at the point
point ^ -4, - 62 h ^ -3, 70 h
(e) f ] x g = x 10 at the point where (e) y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x + 1 at the
x = -1 point where x = 1.
(f) y = x 2 + 7x - 5 at the
6. Find the equation of the
point ^ - 7, - 5 h
(i) tangent and (ii) normal to the
(g) A = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - x + 1 at the
curve
point where x = 3
(a) f ] x g = 4x 2 - x + 8 at the
(h) f ] a g = 3a 2 - 2a - 6 at the
point ^ 1, 11 h
point where a = - 3
(b) y = x 3 + 2x 2 - 5x at the
(i) V = h 3 - 4h + 9 at the
point ^ -3, 6 h
point ^ 2, 9 h
(c) F ] x g = x 5 - 5x 3 at the point
(j) g ] x g = x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x - 3 at
where x = 1
the point where x = -1.
(d) y = x 2 - 8x + 7 at the
3. Find the gradient of the point ^ 3, - 8 h
(i) tangent and (ii) normal to (e) y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x + 1 at
the curve the point where x = 1.
(a) y = x 2 + 1 at the point
7. For the curve y = x 3 - 27x - 5,
^ 3, 10 h
dy
(b) f ] x g = 5 - x 2 at the point find values of x for which = 0.
where x = -4 dx
(c) y = 2x 5 - 7x 2 + 4 at the 8. Find the coordinates of the point
point where x = -1 at which the curve y = x 3 + 1 has
(d) p ] x g = x 6 - 3x 4 - 2x + 8 a tangent with a gradient of 3.
where x = 1
9. A function f (x) = x 2 + 4x - 12
(e) f ] x g = 4 - x - x 2 at the
has a tangent with a gradient of
point ^ -6, 26 h .
-6 at point P on the curve. Find
4. Find the equation of the tangent the coordinates of the point P.
to the curve
10. The tangent at point P on the
(a) y = x 4 - 5x + 1 at the
curve y = 4x 2 + 1 is parallel to the
point ^ 2, 7 h
x-axis. Find the coordinates of P.
(b) f (x) = 5x 3 - 3x 2 - 2x + 6 at
the point ^ 1, 6 h 11. Find the coordinates of point Q
(c) y = x 2 + 2x - 8 at the where the tangent to the curve
point ^ -3, -5 h y = 5x 2 - 3x is parallel to the line
(d) y = 3x 3 + 1 at the point 7x - y + 3 = 0 .
where x = 2
(e) v = 4t 4 - 7t 3 - 2 at the point
where t = 2
430 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

12. Find the coordinates of point S 14. A function h = 3t 2 - 2t + 5 has a

where the tangent to the curve tangent at the point where t = 2.
y = x 2 + 4x - 1 is perpendicular Find the equation of the tangent.
to the line 4x + 2y + 7 = 0.
15. A function f ] x g = 2x 2 - 8x + 3
13. The curve y = 3x - 4 has a
2
has a tangent parallel to the line
gradient of 6 at point A. 4x - 2y + 1 = 0 at point P. Find
(a) Find the coordinates of A. the equation of the tangent at P.
(b) Find the equation of the
tangent to the curve at A.

Further Differentiation and Indices

The basic rule for differentiating xn works for any rational number n.

Investigation
1 1 -h
1. (a) Show that - = .
x+h x x (x + h)
1
(b) Hence differentiate y = x from first principles.
(c) Differentiate y = x - 1 using a short method. Do you get the same
answer as 1(b)?
2. (a) Show that ( x + h - x ) ( x + h + x ) = h.
(b) Hence differentiate y = x from first principles.
1
(c) Differentiate y = x and show that this gives the same answer as 2(b).
2

We sometimes need to change a function into index form before

differentiating.

EXAMPLES

1. Differentiate 7 3 x .

Solution
1
7 3 x = 7x 3
dy 1 1-1
= 7$ x 3
dx 3
2
7 -3
= x
3
7 1
= # 2
3
x3
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 431

7 1
= #
3 3
x2
7
=
3 3 x2

4
2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2 at the point
x
where x = 2.

Solution
4
y=
x2
= 4x - 2
dy
= - 8x - 3
dx
8
=-
x3
When x = 2
4
y= 2
2
=1
Gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 1 h:
dy 8
=- 3
dx 2
= -1
Equation of the tangent:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 1 = -1 ] x - 2 g
= -x + 2
y = -x + 3
or x + y - 3 = 0

8.7 Exercises

1. Differentiate 2. Find the derivative function,

writing the answer without
(a) x - 3
negative or fractional indices.
(b) x 1.4
1
(c) 6x 0.2 (a) x
1
(d) x 2 (b) 5 x
1 (c) 6 x
(e) 2x 2 - 3x - 1 2
(d) 5
1 x
(f) 3x 3 5
3 (e) - 3
(g) 8x 4 x
1 1
- (f)
(h) - 2x 2
x
432 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1 1 1
Note that = # .
2x 6 2 x6 1 10. Find the equation of the tangent
(g)
2x 6 to f (x) = 6 x at the point where
Use index laws to
simplify first. (h) x x x = 9.
x
2 11. (a) Differentiate x .
(i)
3x (b) Hence find the gradient of the
1 3
(j) + x
4x 2 x 4 tangent to the curve y = x at

3. Find the gradient of the tangent the point where x = 4.

to the curve y = 3 x at the point
12. Find the equation of the tangent
where x = 27. 4
to the curve y = x at the point
12 dx 1
4. If x = , find when t = 2. c 8, m.
t dt 2
5. A function is given by f (x) = 4 x . 13. If the gradient of the tangent to
Evaluate f l(16) . 1
y = x is at point A, find the
6
6. Find the gradient of the tangent coordinates of A.
3
to the curve y = at the point 14. The function f (x) = 3 x has
2x 2
1 3
c 1, 1 m. f l(x) = . Evaluate x.
2 4

dy 2
Expand brackets first. 7. Find if y = ^ x + x h .
2 15. The hyperbola y = x has two
dx
2
tangents with gradient - . Find
x 25
8. A function f (x) = has a
2 the coordinates of the points of
tangent at ^ 4, 1 h . Find the contact of these tangents.
gradient of the tangent.

9. Find the equation of the tangent

1
to the curve y = 3 at the point
x
1
c 2, m.
8

This rule is also called the

function of a function rule
or chain rule. Composite Function Rule
A composite function is a function composed of two or more other functions.
For example, ^ 3x 2 - 4 h is made up of a function u5 where u = 3x 2 - 4.
5

To differentiate a composite function, we need to use the result..

dy dy du
= #
dx du dx
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 433

Proof
You do not need to
learn this proof.
Let dx, dy and du be small changes in x, y and u where dx " 0, dy " 0, du " 0.
dy dy du
Then = #
dx du dx
As dx " 0, du " 0
dy dy du
So lim = lim # lim
dx " 0 d x du " 0 d u dx " 0 d x

Using the definition of the derivative from first principles, this gives
dy dy du
= # .
dx du dx

EXAMPLES

Differentiate
1. (5x + 4) 7

Solution
Let u = 5x + 4
du
Then =5
dx
y = u7
dy
` = 7u 6
du
dy dy du
= #
dx du dx Can you see a quick
= 7u 6 # 5 way of doing this
question?
= 35 (5x + 4) 6

2. (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 9

Solution

Let u = 3x 2 + 2x - 1
du
Then = 6x + 2
dx
y = u9
dy
` = 9u 8
du
dy dy du
= #
dx du dx
= 9u (6x + 2)
8

= 9(6x + 2) (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 8

CONTINUED
434 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. 3-x

Solution
1
3 - x = (3 - x) 2
Let u = 3 - x
du
= -1
dx
1
y = u2
dy 1 -1
= u 2
du 2
dy dy du
= #
dx du dx
1 - 12
= u (-1)
2
1
1 -
= - (3 - x) 2
2
1
=-
2 3-x

The derivative of a composite function is the product of two derivatives.

One is the derivative of the function inside the brackets. The other is the
derivative of the whole function.

d
[ f (x)] n = f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1
dx

You do not need to know

this proof.
Proof
Let u = f (x)
du
Then = f l(x)
dx
y = un
dy
` = nu n - 1
du
dy dy du
= #
dx du dx
= nu n - 1 # f l(x)
= f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 435

EXAMPLES

Differentiate
1. (8x 3 - 1) 5

Solution
dy
= f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1
dx
= 24x 2 $ 5 (8x 3 - 1) 4
= 120x 2 (8x 3 - 1) 4

2. (3x + 8) 11

Solution
yl = f l(x) . n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 3 # 11 (3x + 8) 10
= 33 (3x + 8) 10

3. 1
(6x + 1) 2
Solution
1
= (6x + 1) - 2
(6x + 1) 2
y l = f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 6 # -2 (6x + 1) - 3
= -12 (6x + 1) - 3
12
=-
(6x + 1) 3

8.8 Exercises

1. Differentiate (f) 3 (5x + 9) 9

(a) (x + 3) 4 (g) 2 (x - 4) 2
(b) (2x - 1) 3 (h) (2x 3 + 3x) 4
(c) (5x 2 - 4) 7 (i) (x 2 + 5x - 1) 8
(d) (8x + 3) 6 (j) (x 6 - 2x 2 + 3) 6
(e) (1 - x) 5 1
(k) (3x - 1) 2
436 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(l) (4 - x) - 2 2. Find the gradient of the tangent

(m) (x 2 - 9) - 3 to the curve y = ] 3x - 2 g3 at the
1 point ^ 1, 1 h .
(n) (5x + 4) 3
3
(o) (x 3 - 7x 2 + x) 4 3. If f (x) = 2 (x 2 - 3) 5, evaluate fl(2).

(p) 3x + 4 4. The curve y = x - 3 has a

1 1
(q) tangent with gradient at point
5x - 2 2
(r)
1 N. Find the coordinates of N.
(x 2 + 1) 4
5. For what values of x does the
(s) 3
(7 - 3x) 2
1
5 function f (x) = have
(t) 4x - 1
4+x 4
f l(x) = - ?
1 49
(u)
2 3x - 1
6. Find the equation of the tangent
3
(v) to y = (2x + 1) 4 at the point
4 (2x + 7) 9 where x = - 1.
1
(w)
x 4 - 3x 3 + 3x
(x) 3
(4x + 1) 4
1
(y)
4
( 7 - x) 5

Product Rule
Differentiating the product of two functions y = uv gives the result

dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx

Proof
y = uv
Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v.
y + dy = (u + du) (v + dv)
= uv + udv + vdu + dudv
` dy = udv + vdu + dudv ^ since y = uv h
dy dv du dv
=u +v + du
dx dx dx dx
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 437

As dx " 0, du " 0
dy dv du dv
lim = lim < u +v + du F
dx " 0 d x dx " 0 dx dx dx
dv du dv
= lim < u F + lim < v F + lim < du F
dx " 0 dx d x " 0 dx d x " 0 dx
dy dv du
=u +v You do not need to
dx dx dx know this proof.

It is easier to remember this rule as y l = uv l + vu l. We can also write this

the other way around which helps when learning the quotient rule in the next
section.

If y = uv, y l = u lv + v lu

EXAMPLES

Differentiate
1. ] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g

Solution
You could expand the brackets and then differentiate:
] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g = 3x 2 - 15x + x - 5
= 3x 2 - 14x - 5
dy
= 6x - 14
dx
Using the product rule:
y = uv where u = 3x + 1 and v = x - 5
ul = 3 vl = 1
y l = u lv + v l u
= 3 ] x - 5 g + 1 ] 3x + 1 g
= 3x - 15 + 3x + 1
= 6x - 14

2. 2x 5 ] 5x + 3 g3

Solution

y = uv where u = 2x 5 and v = ] 5x + 3 g 3
u l = 10x 4 v l = 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g 2

CONTINUED
438 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

y l = u lv + v l u
We can simplify this further = 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g2 $ 2x 5
by factorising. = 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 30x 5 ] 5x + 3 g2
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 6 ] 5x + 3 g + 3x @
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 ] 8x + 3 g

3. (3x - 4) 5 - 2x

Solution
1
Remember 5 - 2x = ] 5 - 2x g 2
1
y = uv where u = 3x - 4 and v = ] 5 - 2x g 2
1
1 -
ul = 3 v l = - 2 $ (5 - 2 x ) 2
2

y l = u lv + v lu
1 1
1] -
= 3 ] 5 - 2x g 2 +- 2 $ 5 - 2x g 2 ] 3x - 4 g
2 1
-
=3 5 - 2x - (3x - 4) ] 5 - 2x g 2
3x - 4
=3 5 - 2x - 1
(5 - 2x) 2
3x - 4
=3 5 - 2x -
5 - 2x
3 5 - 2x $ 5 - 2x - (3x - 4)
=
5 - 2x
3(5 - 2x) - (3x - 4)
=
5 - 2x
15 - 6x - 3x + 4
=
5 - 2x
19 - 9x
=
5 - 2x

8.9 Exercises
1. Differentiate (g) 4x ] 3x - 2 g5
(h) 3x 4 ] 4 - x g3
(a) x 3 ] 2x + 3 g
(i) ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 5 g4
(b) ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g
(j) ^ x 3 + 5x 2 - 3 h ^ x 2 + 1 h 5
(c) 3x ] 5x + 7 g
(k) x 2-x
Change this into a product (d) 4x 4 ^ 3x 2 - 1 h
5x + 3
before differentiating.
(e) 2x ^ 3x 4 - x h (l)
2x - 1
(f) x 2 ] x + 1 g3
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 439

2. Find the gradient of the tangent 7. Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve y = 2x ] 3x - 2 g4 at to h = (t + 1) 2 (t - 1) 7at the point
the point ^ 1, 2 h . ^ 2, 9 h .

3. If f (x) = (2x + 3) (3x - 1) 5, 8. Find exact values of x for

evaluate fl(1) . which the gradient of the
tangent to the curve
4. Find the exact gradient of the
y = 2x ] x + 3 g2 is 14.
tangent to the curve y = x 2x + 5
at the point where x = 1. 9. Given f (x) = (4x - 1) (3x + 2) 2,
find the equation of the
5. Find the gradient of the
tangent at the point where
tangent where t = 3, given
x = -1.
x = ] 2t - 5 g ] t + 1 g3.

6. Find the equation of the tangent

to the curve y = x 2 ] 2x - 1 g4 at
the point ^ 1, 1 h .

Quotient Rule
u
Differentiating the quotient of two functions y = v gives the result.

du dv
dy v -u
dx dx
=
dx v2

Proof
u
y= v
Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v.
u + du
y + dy =
v + dv
u + du u u
` dy = - v a since y = v k
v + dv
v (u + du) u (v + dv)
= -
v (v + dv) v (v + dv)
v (u + du) - u (v + dv)
=
v (v + dv)
vu + vdu - uv - udv
=
v (v + dv)
vdu - udv
=
v (v + dv)
du dv
v -u
dy dx dx
=
dx v (v + dv)
As dx " 0, dv " 0
440 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

R V
S v du - u dv W
dy S dx dx W
lim = lim S W
dx " 0 dx dx " 0 v ( v + d v)
T X
du dv
dy v -u
You do not need to know dx dx
this proof. =
dx v2
u lv - v lu
It is easier to remember this rule as y l = .
v2

u u lv - v lu
If y = v , y l =
v2

EXAMPLES

Differentiate
1. 3x - 5
5x + 2
Solution
u
y = v where u = 3x - 5 and v = 5x + 2
ul = 3 vl = 5
u lv - v lu
yl =
v2
3 (5x + 2) - 5 (3x - 5)
=
(5x + 2) 2
15x + 6 - 15x + 25
=
(5x + 2) 2
31
=
(5x + 2) 2

2. 4x 3 - 5x + 2
x3 - 1

Solution
u
y = v where u = 4x 3 - 5x + 2 and v = x 3 - 1
u l = 12x 2 - 5 v l = 3x 2
u l v - v lu
yl =
v2
(12x 2 - 5) (x 3 - 1) - 3x 2 (4x 3 - 5x + 2)
=
(x 3 - 1 ) 2
12x - 12x - 5x 3 + 5 - 12x 5 + 15x 3 - 6x 2
5 2
=
(x 3 - 1 ) 2
10x 3 - 18x 2 + 5
=
(x 3 - 1) 2
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 441

8.10 Exercises

1. Differentiate
(s) (2x - 9)
3

(a) 1 5x + 1
2x - 1 (t) x-1
(b) 3x (7x + 2) 4
x+5 (u) (3x + 4)
5

(c) x3 (2x - 5) 3
x -4 (v) 3x + 1
2

(d) x - 3 x+1
5x + 1
(w) x-1
(e) x - 7
2x - 3
x2
(x) x2 + 1
(f) 5x + 4
x+3 (x - 9) 2
(g) x
2. Find the gradient of the tangent to
2x - x
2
2x
the curve y = at the point
(h) x + 4 3x + 1
x-2 1
c 1, m.
(i) 2x + 7 2
4x - 3
4x + 5
(j) x + 5 3. If f (x) = evaluate f l(2).
3x + 1 2x - 1
(k) x + 1 4. Find any values of x for which
3x 2 - 7 the gradient of the tangent to the
2x 2 4x - 1
(l) curve y = is equal to - 2.
2x - 3 2x - 1
(m) x + 4
2
2x
x2 - 5 5. Given f (x) = find x if
x+3
(n) x
3
1
f l(x) = .
x+4 6
(o) x + 2x - 1
3
6. Find the equation of the tangent
x+3 x
to the curve y = at the
(p) x - 2x - 1 x+2
2

3x + 4 2
point c 4, m.
(q) x 3
+x 3
x -x-1
2
7. Find the equation of the tangent
2x x2 - 1
(r) 1 to the curve y = at the
(x + 5) 2 x+3
point where x = 2.
442 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Test Yourself 8
1. Sketch the derivative function of 6. Find the gradient of the tangent to the
each graph curve y = x 3 - 3x 2 + x - 5 at the point
(a) (-1, -10) .
dh
7. If h = 60t - 3t 2, find when t = 3.
dt
8. Find all x-values that are not
differentiable on the following curves.
(a)

(b)

(b) y

5
4
3
2
1
x
-44 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
2. Differentiate y = 5x 2 - 3x + 2 from first -1
-2
principles.
-3
-4
3. Differentiate
-5
(a) 7x 6 - 3x 3 + x 2 - 8x - 4 (c) y
(b) 3x - 4
5
2x + 1 4
(c) (x 2 + 4x - 2) 9 3
2
(d) 5x(2x - 1) 4
1
(e) x 2 x x
5 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4
(f) 2 -2
x
-3
dv -4
4. Find if v = 2t 2 - 3t - 4.
dt -5

5. Given f (x) = (4x - 3) 5, find the value of 9. Differentiate

(a) f (1) (a) f ] x g = 2 ] 4x + 9 g4
5
(b) f 1 (1). (b) y =
x-3
(c) y = x ] 3x - 1 g2
4
(d) y = x
(e) f (x) = 5 x
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 443

10. Sketch the derivative function of the 14. At which points on the curve
following curve. y = 2x 3 - 9x 2 - 60x + 3 are the tangents
y horizontal?

15. Find the equation of the tangent to the

curve y = x 2 + 2x - 5 that is parallel to
the line y = 4x - 1.

16. Find the gradient of the tangent to the

curve y = ] 3x - 1 g3 ] 2x - 1 g2 at the point
where x = 2.
x

17. Find f l(4) when f ] x g = ] x - 3 g9 .

18. Find the equation of the tangent to the

1 1
curve y = at the point where x = .
3x 6

1 2
19. Differentiate s = ut + at with respect
2
11. Find the equation of the tangent to to t and find the value of t for which
the curve y = x 2 + 5x - 3 at the point ds
^ 2, 11 h . = 5, u = 7 and a = - 10.
dt
12. Find the point on the curve 20. Find the x-intercept of the tangent to
y = x 2 - x + 1 at which the tangent has a 4x - 3
the curve y = at the point where
gradient of 3. 2x + 1
x = 1.
dS
13. Find if S = 4rr 2.
dr

Challenge Exercise 8
1. If f (x) = 3x 2 (1 - 2x) 5, find the value of 5. Find the points on the curve y = x 3 - 6
f (1) and fl(1) . where the tangents are parallel to the line
y = 12x - 1. Hence find the equations of
5h + 3 dA the normals to the curve at those points.
2. If A = , find when h = 1.
7h - 1 dh
dx 6. Find f l(2) if f (x) = 3x - 2 .
3. Given x = 2t 4 + 100t 3, find and find
dt
dx 7. Differentiate (5x + 1) 3 (x - 9) 5 .
values of t when = 0.
dt
2x + 1
4. Find the equations of the tangents to the 8. Find the derivative of y = .
(4x - 9) 4
curve y = x (x - 1) (x + 2) at the points
where the curve cuts the x-axis. 9. If f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 4, for what exact
values of x is fl(x) = 7?
444 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

10. Find the equation of the normal to the (b) Sketch the derivative function for
curve y = 3 x + 1 at the point where the graph.
x = 8.
y
11. The tangent to the curve y = ax + 2 at
3

the point where x = 3 is inclined at 135c

to the x-axis. Find the value of a.
x
12. The normal to the curve y = x 2 + 1 at the 90c 180c 270c 360c

point where x = 2, cuts the curve again

at point P. Find the coordinates of P.

13. Find the exact values of the

x- coordinates of the points on the curve 20. Find the point of intersection
y = (3x 2 - 2x - 4) 3 where the tangent is between the tangents to the curve
horizontal. y = x 3 - 2x 2 - 5x + 3 at the points where
x = 2 and x = - 1.
14. Find the gradient of the normal to the
curve y = 2x 5 - x at the point (4, 8) . 21. Find the equation of the tangent to the
x2 - 3
15. Find the equation of the tangent to parabola y = at the point where
2
the curve y = x 3 - x 2 + 2x + 6 at point the tangent is perpendicular to the line
P (1, 8) . Find the coordinates of point Q 3x + y - 3 = 0.
where this tangent meets the y-axis and
calculate the exact length of PQ. 3x - 2
22. Differentiate .
2x 3
16. The equation of the tangent to the
curve y = x 4 - nx 2 + 3x - 2 at the point 23. (a) Find the equations of the tangents
where x = - 2 is given by 3x - y - 2 = 0. to the parabola y = 2x 2 at the points
Evaluate n. where the line 6x - 8y + 1 = 0 intersects
with the parabola.
17. The function f (x) = 3x + 1 has a (b) Show that the tangents are
tangent that makes an angle of 30c with perpendicular.
the x-axis. Find the coordinates of the
point of contact for this tangent and find 24. Find any x values of the function
2
its equation in exact form. f (x) = 3 where it is not
x - 8x 2 + 12x
18. Find all x values of the function differentiable.
f (x) = (x 2 - 3) (2x - 1) 8 for which
25. The equation of the tangent to the curve
f l(x) = 0.
y = x 3 + 7x 2 - 6x - 9 is y = ax + b at the
19. (a) Find any points at which the graph point where x = -4. Evaluate a and b.
below is not differentiable.
 Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 445

26. Find the exact gradient with rational 33. For the function
denominator of the tangent to the curve f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, f (2) = 4,
y = x 2 - 3 at the point where x = 5. f l(1) = 0 and f l(x) = 8 when x = -3.
p Evaluate a, b and c.
27. The tangent to the curve y = x has a
1 34. Find the equation of the tangent to the
gradient of - at the point where x = 3.
6 curve S = 2rr 2 + 2rrh at the point where
Evaluate p. r = 2 (h is a constant).
dV 2r
28. Find when r = and h = 6 given
dr 3 35. Differentiate
1 (a) 2x 3 - x ] 3x - 5 g4
V = rr 3 h.
3 2x + 1
(b)
(x - 3) 3
29. Evaluate k if the function
f (x) = 2x 3 - kx 2 + 1 has f l(2) = 8. 36. The tangents to the curve
y = x 3 - 2x 2 + 3 at points A and B are
30. Find the equation of the chord joining
perpendicular to the tangent at ^ 2, 3 h .
the points of contact of the tangents to
Find the exact values of x at A and B.
the curve y = x 2 - x - 4 with gradients
3 and -1. 37. (a) Find the equation of the normal to
the curve y = x 2 + x - 1 at the point
31. Find the equation of the straight line
P where x = 3.
passing through ^ 4, 3 h and parallel to the
(b) Find the coordinates of Q , the point
tangent to the curve y = x 4 at the point
where the normal intersects the parabola
^ 1, 1 h .
again.
32. Find fl(7) as a fraction, given
1
f (x) = 3 .
x+1
9
The Quadratic
Function
TERMINOLOGY

Axis of symmetry: A line about which two parts of Maximum value: The maximum or greatest y-value of a
a graph are symmetrical. One half of the graph is a graph for a given domain
reflection of the other
Minimum value: The minimum or smallest y-value of a
Coefficient: A constant multiplied by a pronumeral in an graph for a given domain
algebraic term e.g. in ax3 the a is the coefficient
Negative definite: A quadratic function where f(x) is
Discriminant: Part of the quadratic formula, the algebraic always negative for all values of x
expression b 2 - 4ac is called the discriminant as its value
Positive definite: A quadratic function where f(x) is always
determines the number and nature of the roots of a
positive for all values of x
quadratic equation
Root of an equation: The solution of an equation
Equations reducible to quadratics: Equations that can be
reduced to the form: ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Indefinite: A quadratic function where f(x) can be both
positive and negative for varying values of x
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 451

INTRODUCTION
THE SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC equations is important in many fields,
such as engineering, architecture and astronomy. In this chapter you will
study quadratic equations in detail, and look at the relationship between
quadratic equations and the graphs of quadratic functions (the parabola).
You will study the axis of symmetry and maximum and minimum
values of the quadratic function. You will also look at the quadratic
formula in detail, and at the relationships between the roots (solutions)
of quadratic equations, the formula and the quadratic function.

DID YOU KNOW?

Thousands of clay tablets from ancient Babylonia have been discovered by archaeologists. These
tablets are from as far back as 2000 BC. They show that the Babylonians had mastered many
mathematical skills. Geometry, including Pythagoras’ theorem, was well developed, and geometric
problems were often worked out by using algebra.
Quadratic equations were used in solving geometry problems. The word ‘quadratic’ comes
from the Latin ‘quadratum’, meaning ‘four-sided figure’. Completing the square and the quadratic
formula were both used to solve quadratic equations.
The Babylonians also had some interesting approximations for square roots. For example,
17
2 = . An approximation for 2 that is very accurate was found on a tablet dating back to 1600 BC:
12
24 51 10
2 =1+ + + = 1.414213
60 60 2 60 3

Graph of a Quadratic Function

Axis of symmetry

EXAMPLE

(a ) Sketch the parabola y = x 2 - 4x on the number plane.

(b) Find the equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
(c ) Find the minimum value of the parabola.

Solution
(a) For the y-intercept, x = 0
i.e. y = 0 2 - 4 (0)
=0
For the x-intercept, y = 0 The axis of symmetry lies halfway
between x = 0 and x = 4.
i.e. 0 = x 2 - 4x
= x (x - 4)
` x = 0 or x - 4 = 0
x=4

CONTINUED
452 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(b) The axis of symmetry has equation x = 2.

(c) Since the parabola is symmetrical about the line x = 2, the
minimum value is on this line.
Substitute x = 2 into the equation of the parabola
i.e. y = 2 2 - 4 (2)
= -4
So the minimum value is - 4.

Class Investigation

1. How would you find the axis of symmetry for a graph with no
x-intercepts?

2. How would you find the axis of symmetry of a graph where the
x-intercepts are irrational numbers?

The axis of symmetry of the quadratic function y = ax 2 + bx + c has the

equation
b
x=-
2a
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 453

Proof
The axis of symmetry lies midway between the x-intercepts.
For the x-intercepts, y = 0
i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a

The x-coordinate of the axis of symmetry is the average of the

x-intercepts.

- b - b 2 - 4ac - b + b 2 - 4ac
+
2a 2a
i.e. x=
2
- 2b
2a
=
2
- 2b
=
4a
b
=-
2a

The parabola has a minimum value if a 2 0.

The shape of the parabola is concave upwards.

Minimum value

The parabola has a maximum value if a 1 0.

The shape of the parabola is concave downwards.

Maximum value
454 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

b
The minimum or maximum value is f c - m
2a

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum value of
the quadratic function y = x 2 - 5x + 1.

Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by
b
x=-
2a
(- 5 )
i.e. x=-
2 ( 1)
5
=
2
1
` Equation is x = 2
2
5 2 5
Minimum value: y = c m - 5 c m + 1
2 2
25 25
= - +1
4 2
1
= -5
4
a 2 0 gives a minimum
1
value. So minimum value is - 5 .
4

2. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the maximum value of
the quadratic function y = - 3x 2 + x - 5.

Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by
b
x=-
2a
1
i.e. x=-
2 (- 3 )
1
=
6
1
` Equation is x =
6
1 2 1
Maximum value: y = - 3 c m + c m - 5
6 6
1 1
=- + -5
12 6
11
= -4
12
a 1 0 gives a maximum
11
value.
So maximum value is - 4 .
12
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 455

Class Investigation

Examine the graph of y = - 3x 2 + x - 5 from the above example. Are

there any solutions for the quadratic equation - 3x 2 + x - 5 = 0?

The minimum or maximum point of the parabola is called the vertex.

EXAMPLE

(a) Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the
vertex of the parabola y = 2x 2 - 12x + 7.
(b) Find the y-intercept and sketch the graph.

Solution
(a) Axis of symmetry: y
b
x=-
2a
- 12
=-
2#2
=3 7
When x = 3
y = 2 ] 3 g 2 - 12 ] 3 g + 7 x
3
= - 11
So the vertex is (3, -11) .
(b) For y-intercept, x = 0
-11
y = 2 ] 0 g 2 - 12 ] 0 g + 7 (3, -11)

=7
The vertex is the minimum point of the parabola since a 2 0.

9.1 Exercises

1. By finding the intercepts on 3. Find the equation of the

the axes, sketch the parabola axis of symmetry and the
y = x 2 + 2x. Find the equation minimum value of the parabola
of its axis of symmetry, and the y = x 2 + 3x + 2.
minimum value.
4. Find the equation of the
2. Find the equation of the axis of axis of symmetry and the
symmetry and the minimum value minimum value of the parabola
of the parabola y = 2x 2 + 6x - 3. y = x 2 - 4.
456 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

5. Find the equation of the (c) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x - 3

axis of symmetry and the (d) y = x 2 - 2x
minimum point of the parabola (e) f ] x g = x 2 - 4x - 7
y = 4x 2 - 3x + 1. (f) f ] x g = 2x 2 + x - 3
(g) y = - x 2 - 2x + 5
6. Find the equation of the
(h) y = - 2x 2 + 8x + 3
axis of symmetry and the
(i) f ] x g = - 3x 2 + 3x + 7
maximum value of the parabola
(j) f ] x g = - x 2 + 2x - 4
y = - x 2 + 2x - 7.
14. For each quadratic function
7. Find the equation of the
(i) find any x-intercepts using the
axis of symmetry and the
quadratic formula.
maximum point of the parabola
(ii) state whether the function
y = - 2x 2 - 4x + 5.
has a maximum or minimum
8. Find the minimum value of value and find this value.
y = x 2 + 4x + 3. How many (iii) sketch the function on a
solutions does the equation number plane.
x 2 + 4x + 3 = 0 have? (a) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x + 4
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 2x - 3
9. Find the minimum value of
(c) y = x 2 - 6x + 1
y = x 2 + x + 4. How many
(d) f ] x g = x 2 + 2x
solutions does the equation
(e) y = 2x 2 - 18
x 2 + x + 4 = 0 have?
(f) y = 3x 2 + x - 2
10. Find the minimum value of (g) f ] x g = - x 2 - 2x + 6
y = x 2 + 4x + 4. How many (h) f ] x g = - x 2 - x + 3
solutions does the equation (i) y = - x 2 - 3x + 2
x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0 have? (j) y = - 2x 2 + 4x + 5

11. Find the equation of the axis of 15. (a) Find the minimum value of
symmetry and the coordinates of the parabola y = x 2 - 2x + 5.
the vertex for each parabola. (b) How many solutions
(a) y = x 2 + 6x - 3 does the quadratic equation
(b) y = - x 2 - 8x + 1 x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0 have?
(c) y = - 2x 2 + 5x (c) Sketch the parabola.
(d) y = 4x 2 + 10x - 7
16. (a) How many x-intercepts
(e) y = 3x 2 + 18x + 4
has the quadratic function
12. Find f ] x g = x 2 - 3x + 9 ?
(i) the equation of the axis of (b) Find the minimum point of
symmetry the function.
(ii) the minimum or maximum (c) Sketch the function.
value and
17. (a) Find the maximum value
(iii) the vertex of the parabola.
of the quadratic function
(a) y = x 2 + 2x - 2
f ] x g = - 2x 2 + x - 4 .
(b) y = - 2x 2 + 4x - 1
(b) How many solutions
13. Find the maximum or minimum has the quadratic equation
point for each function. - 2x 2 + x - 4 = 0 ?
(a) y = x 2 + 2x + 1 (c) Sketch the graph of the
(b) y = x 2 - 8x - 7 quadratic function.
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 457

18. (a) Sketch the parabola 20. By sketching f ] x g = x 2 + x + 2,

y = x 2 - 5x + 6. show that x 2 + x + 2 2 0 for all x.
(b) From the graph, find values
of x for which x 2 - 5x + 6 2 0. 21. Show by a sketch that
(c) Find the domain over which - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x.
x 2 - 5x + 6 # 0 .
22. Sketch y = - 5x 2 + 4x - 1 and
19. Sketch y = 3x 2 - 2x + 4 and show that -5x 2 + 4x - 1 1 0 for
hence show that 3x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 all x.
for all x.

Investigation

Could you tell without sketching the function y = x 2 - x + 5 if

x 2 - x + 5 2 0 for all x? How could you do this?

How could you know that - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x without sketching You will look at this later
on in the chapter.
the graph of f ] x g = - x 2 + 2x - 7?

Quadratic Inequalities
You looked at solving quadratic inequations in Chapter 3 using the number
line. You can also solve them using the graph of a parabola.

For any curve on a number plane

y = 0 is on the x-axis (all values of y are zero on the x-axis)
y 2 0 is above the x-axis (all positive values of y lie above the x-axis)
y 1 0 is below the x-axis (all negative values of y lie below the x-axis)

Substituting ax 2 + bx + c for y in the general parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c gives

the following results:

For the parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 on the x-axis
ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 above the x-axis
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0 below the x-axis
458 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

y
a20

ax2 + bx + c 2 0

x ax 2 + bx + c = 0

ax 2 + bx + c 1 0

y
a10

ax 2 + bx + c 2 0

x ax 2 + bx + c = 0

ax 2 + bx + c 1 0

EXAMPLES

1. Solve x 2 - 3x + 2 $ 0.

Solution
First sketch y = x 2 - 3x + 2 showing x-intercepts (a 2 0 so it is concave
upwards).
For x-intercepts, y = 0
0 = x 2 - 3x + 2
= ]x - 2g]x - 1g
x - 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0
x = 2, x=1
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 459

x
1 2

y $ 0 on and above the x-axis

So x 2 - 3x + 2 $ 0 on and above the x-axis.
` x # 1, x $ 2

2. Solve 4x - x 2 2 0.

Solution
First sketch y = 4x - x 2 showing x-intercepts (a 1 0 so it is concave
downwards).
For x-intercepts, y = 0
0 = 4x - x 2
= x ]4 - x g
x = 0, 4-x=0
x = 0, 4=x
y

y 2 0 above the x-axis

So 4x - x 2 2 0 above the x-axis.
` 0 1 x 1 4.

CONTINUED
460 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Solve x 2 - 25 1 0.

Solution
First sketch y = x 2 - 25 showing x-intercepts (a 2 0 so it is concave
upwards).
For x-intercepts, y = 0
0 = x 2 - 25
= ]x + 5 g]x - 5 g
x + 5 = 0, x - 5 = 0
x = - 5, x=5

x
-5 5

y 1 0 below the x-axis

So x 2 - 25 1 0 below the x-axis.
` -5 1 x 1 5

9.2 Exercises
Solve

1. x2 - 9 2 0 6. 2t - t 2 2 0

2. n2 + n # 0 7. x 2 + 2x - 8 2 0

3. a 2 - 2a $ 0 8. p 2 + 4p + 3 $ 0

4. 4 - x2 1 0 9. m 2 - 6m + 8 2 0

5. y 2 - 6y # 0 10. 6 - x - x 2 # 0
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 461

11. 2h 2 - 7h + 6 1 0 16. 12 - n - n 2 # 0

12. x 2 - x - 20 # 0 17. x 2 - 2x 1 15

13. 35 + 9k - 2k 2 $ 0 18. - t 2 $ 4t - 12

14. q 2 - 9q + 18 2 0 19. 3y 2 2 14y + 5

15. ] x + 2 g2 $ 0 20. ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g $ 5

The Discriminant
The values of x that satisfy a quadratic equation are called the roots of the
equation.

The roots of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are the x-intercepts of the graph

y = ax 2 + bx + c

1. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has 2 x-intercepts, then the quadratic equation

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 2 real roots.
y y

a20 a10

x x

Since the graph can be both positive and negative, it is called an

indefinite function.

2. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has 1 x-intercept, then the quadratic equation

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 1 real root
y y

a20 a10

x x
462 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has no x-intercepts, then the quadratic equation

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has no real roots
y y

a20 a10

x x

Since this graph is always positive, Since this graph is always

it is called a positive definite negative, it is called a negative
function. definite function.

This information can be found without sketching the graph.

Investigation

1. Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula

(a) x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0
(b) x 2 + 4x - 7 = 0
(c) x 2 + x + 5 = 0
(d) x 2 - 6x + 9 = 0
2. Without solving a quadratic equation, can you predict how many
roots it has by looking at the quadratic formula?

-b ! b 2 - 4ac
In the quadratic formula x = , the expression b 2 - 4ac is called
2a
the discriminant. It gives us information about the roots of the quadratic
equation ax 2 + bx + x = 0.
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 463

EXAMPLES

Use the quadratic formula to find how many real roots each quadratic
equation has.

1. x 2 + 5x - 3 = 0

Solution

- b ! b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a
- 5 ! 5 2 - 4 #1# - 3
=
2 #1
- 5 ! 25 + 12
=
2
- 5 ! 37
=
2
There are 2 real roots:
- 5 + 37 - 5 - 37
x= ,
2 2

2. x 2 - x + 4 = 0

Solution

- b ! b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a
- (-1) ! (-1) 2 - 4 #1# 4
=
2 #1
1 ! -15
=
2
There are no real roots since -15 has no real value.

3. x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0

Solution

- b ! b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a
- (- 2) ! (- 2) 2 - 4 #1#1
=
2 #1
2! 0
=
2
CONTINUED
464 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

There are 2 real roots:

2+ 0 2- 0
x= ,
2 2
= 1, 1
However, these are equal roots.

Notice that when there are 2 real roots, the discriminant b 2 - 4ac 2 0.
When there are 2 equal roots (or just 1 real root), b 2 - 4ac = 0.
Tis the Greek When there are no real roots, b 2 - 4ac 1 0.
letter 'delta'.
We often use D = b 2 - 4ac.

1. If T2 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 2 real

unequal (different) roots.
y y

a20 a10

x x

If T is a perfect square, the roots are rational.

If T is not a perfect square, the roots are irrational.

2. If T = 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 1 real root

or 2 equal roots.
y y

a20 a10

x x
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 465

3. If T1 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has no real roots.

y
y

a20 a10

x x

If T1 0 and a 2 0, it is positive If T1 0 and a 1 0, it is

definite and ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 negative definite and
for all x. ax 2 + bx + c 1 0 for all x.

We can examine the roots of the quadratic equation by using the

discriminant rather than the whole quadratic formula.

EXAMPLES

1. Show that the equation 2x 2 + x + 4 = 0 has no real roots.

Solution

T = b 2 - 4ac
= 12 - 4 ] 2 g ] 4 g
= 1 - 32
= - 31
10
So the equation has no real roots.

2. Find the values of k for which the quadratic equation 5x 2 - 2x + k = 0

has real roots.

Solution
For real unequal roots, T 2 0.
For real equal roots, T = 0.
So for real roots, T $ 0.

CONTINUED
466 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

T $0
b - 4ac $ 0
2

] -2 g 2 - 4 ] 5 g ] k g $ 0
4 - 20k $ 0
4 $ 20k
1
$k
5

3. Show that x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x.

Solution
If a 2 0 and T1 0, then ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 for all x.
y

a20

a =1
20
T = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -2 g 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= 4 - 16
= -12
10

Since a 2 0 and T1 0, x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x.

4. Show that the line 4x + y + 4 = 0 is a tangent to the parabola y = x 2.

Solution
For the line to be a tangent, it must intersect with the curve in only
1 point.
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 467

5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 1 2 3 4 5
-11
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

It is too hard to tell from the graph if the line is a tangent, so we solve
simultaneous equations to find any points of intersection.
y = x2 ]1 g
4x + y + 4 = 0 ]2 g
Substitute (1) into (2):
4x + x 2 + 4 = 0
x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0
We don’t need to find the roots of the equation as the question only asks
how many roots there are. We find the discriminant.
D = b 2 - 4ac
= 42 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= 16 - 16
=0
` the equation has 1 real root (equal roots) so there is only one point of
intersection.
So the line is a tangent to the parabola.

9.3 Exercises
1. Find the discriminant of each (i) - 2x 2 + x + 2 = 0
quadratic equation. (j) - x 2 + 4x - 4 = 0
(a) x 2 - 4x - 1 = 0
(b) 2x 2 + 3x + 7 = 0 2. Find the discriminant and
(c) - 4x 2 + 2x - 1 = 0 state whether the roots of the
(d) 6x 2 - x - 2 = 0 quadratic equation are real or
(e) - x 2 - 3x = 0 imaginary (not real), and if they
(f) x 2 + 4 = 0 are real, whether they are equal
(g) x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0 or unequal, rational or irrational.
(h) -3x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0
468 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(a) x2 - x - 4 = 0 12. If x 2 - 2kx + 1 = 0 has real roots,

(b) 2x 2 + 3x + 6 = 0 evaluate k.
(c) x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0
13. Find exact values of p if
(d) x 2 + 6x + 9 = 0
px 2 - 2x + 3p = 0 is negative
(e) 2x 2 - 5x - 1 = 0
definite.
(f) - x 2 + 2x - 5 = 0
(g) - 2x 2 - 5x + 3 = 0 14. Evaluate b if
(h) - 5x 2 + 2x - 6 = 0 ] b - 2 g x 2 - 2bx + 5b = 0 has real
(i) -x2 + x = 0 roots.
(j) - 2x 2 + 8x - 2 = 0
15. Find values of p for which
3. Find the value of p for which the quadratic equation
the quadratic equation x 2 + px + p + 3 = 0 has real roots.
x 2 + 2x + p = 0 has equal roots.
16. Show that the line y = 2x + 6
4. Find any values of k for cuts the parabola y = x 2 + 3 in
which the quadratic equation 2 points.
x 2 + kx + 1 = 0 has equal roots.
17. Show that the line 3x + y - 4 = 0
5. Find all the values of b for which cuts the parabola y = x 2 + 5x + 3
2x 2 + x + b + 1 = 0 has real roots. in 2 points.
6. Evaluate p if px 2 + 4x + 2 = 0 has 18. Show that the line y = - x - 4
no real roots. does not touch the parabola
y = x 2.
7. Find all values of k for which
] k + 2 g x 2 + x - 3 = 0 has 2 real 19. Show that the line y = 5x - 2
unequal roots. is a tangent to the parabola
y = x 2 + 3x - 1 .
8. Prove that 3x 2 - x + 7 2 0 for all
real x. 20. The line y = 3x - p + 1 is a
tangent to the parabola y = x 2.
9. Find the values of k for which
Evaluate p.
x 2 + ] k + 1 g x + 4 = 0 has real
roots. 21. Which of these lines is a tangent
to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4?
10. Find values of k for which the
(a) 3x - y - 1 = 0
expression kx 2 + 3kx + 9 is
(b) 5x + y - 3 = 0
positive definite.
(c) 4x + 3y - 10 = 0
11. Find the values of m for (d) 5x - 12y + 26 = 0
which the quadratic equation (e) 2x + y - 7 = 0
x 2 - 2mx + 9 = 0 has real and
different roots.

Quadratic Identities
When you use the quadratic formula to solve an equation, you compare a
quadratic, say, 3x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0 with the general quadratic ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 469

You are assuming when you do this that 3x 2 - 2x + 5 and ax 2 + bx + c are

equivalent expressions.
We can state this as a general rule:
If two quadratic expressions are equivalent to each other then the
corresponding coefficients must be equal.

If a 1 x 2 + b 1 x + c 1 / a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 for all real x

then a 1 = a 2, b 1 = b 2 and c 1 = c 2

Proof
If a 1 x 2 + b 1 x + c 1 = a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 for more than two values of x, then
(a 1 - a 2) x 2 + (b 1 - b 2) x + (c 1 - c 2) = 0.
That is, a 1 = a 2, b 1 = b 2 and c 1 = c 2 .

EXAMPLES

1. Write 2x 2 - 3x + 5 in the form A (x - 1)2 + B (x - 1) + C.

Solution

A ] x - 1 g2 + B (x - 1) + C = A (x 2 - 2x + 1) + Bx - B + C
= Ax 2 - 2Ax + A + Bx - B + C
= Ax 2 + (- 2A + B) x + A - B + C
For 2x - 3x + 5 / Ax 2 + (- 2A + B) x + A - B + C
2

A=2 ( 1) You learnt how to solve

simultaneous equations
- 2A + B = - 3 (2) with 3 unknowns in
A-B+C=5 ( 3) Chapter 3.

Substitute (1) into (2):

- 2 ( 2) + B = - 3
- 4 + B = -3
B=1
Substitute A = 2 and B = 1 into (3):
2-1+C=5
1+C=5
C=4
` 2x 2 - 3x + 5 / 2 (x - 1) 2 + (x - 1) + 4

CONTINUED
470 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Find values for a, b and c if x 2 - x / a (x + 3)2 + bx + c - 1.

Solution

a ] x + 3 g2 + bx + c - 1 = a (x 2 + 6x + 9) + bx + c - 1
= ax 2 + 6ax + 9a + bx + c - 1
= ax 2 + (6a + b) x + 9a + c - 1
For x - x / ax 2 + (6a + b) x + 9a + c - 1
2

a =1 ( 1)
6a + b = -1 ( 2)
9a + c - 1 = 0 ( 3)
Substitute (1) into (2):
6 (1) + b = -1
6 + b = -1
b = -7
Substitute (1) into (3):
9 (1) + c - 1 = 0
8+c=0
c = -8
` a = 1, b = -7, c = - 8

3. Find the equation of the parabola that passes through the points
(-1, -3), (0, 3) and (2, 21) .

Solution
The parabola has equation in the form y = ax 2 + bx + c. Substitute the
points into the equation:
^ -1, -3 h: -3 = a ] -1 g 2 + b ] -1 g + c
=a-b+c
` a - b + c = -3 ]1 g
^ 0, 3 h : 3 = a ]0 g2 + b ]0 g + c
=c
` c =3 ]2 g
^ 2, 21 h: 21 = a ] 2 g 2 + b ] 2 g + c
= 4a + 2b + c
` 4a + 2b + c = 21 ]3 g
Solve simultaneous equations to find a, b and c.
Substitute (2) into (1):
a - b + 3 = -3
a - b = -6 ( 4)
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 471

Substitute (2) into (3):

4a + 2b + 3 = 21
4a + 2b = 18 (5 )
(4) # 2:
2a - 2b = -12 (6 )
(6) + (5):
2a - 2b = -12
4a + 2b = 18
6a =6
a=1
Substitute a = 1 into (5):
4 (1) + 2b = 18
4 + 2b = 18
2b = 14
b=7
` a = 1, b = 7, c = 3
Thus the parabola has equation y = x 2 + 7x + 3.

9.4 Exercises
1. Find values of a, b and c for 2. Find values of m, p and q for
which which 2x 2 - x - 1
(a) x 2 + 4x - 3 / m ] x + 1 g 2 + p ] x + 1 g + q.
/ a ]x + 1 g 2 + b ]x + 1 g + c
3. Express x 2 - 4x + 5 in the form
(b) 2x 2 - 3x + 1
Ax ] x - 2 g + B ] x + 1 g + C + 4.
/ a ]x + 2 g2 + b ]x + 2 g + c
(c) x 2 - x - 2 4. Show that x 2 + 2x + 9 can
/ a ]x - 1 g2 + b ]x - 1 g + c be written in the form
(d) x 2 + x + 6 a ]x - 2g]x + 3g + b ]x - 2g + c
/ a ]x - 3 g2 + b ]x - 3 g + c where a = 1, b = 1 and c = 17.
(e) 3x 2 - 5x - 2
/ a ]x + 1 g2 + b ]x - 1 g + c 5. Find values of A, B and C if
(f) 4x 2 + x - 7 x 2 + x - 2 / A ] x - 2 g 2 + Bx + C.
/ a ]x - 2 g2 + b ]x - 2 g + c
6. Find values of a, b and c
(g) 2x 2 + 4x - 1
for which 3x 2 + 5x - 1
/ a ]x + 4 g2 + b ]x + 2 g + c
/ ax ] x + 3 g + bx 2 + c ] x + 1 g .
(h) 3x 2 - 2x + 5
/ a ] x + 1 g 2 + bx + c 7. Evaluate K, L and M if
(i) - x 2 + 4x - 3 x 2 / K ] x - 3 g 2 + L ] x + 1 g - 2M.
/ a ]x + 3 g2 + b ]x + 3 g + c
(j) - 2x 2 + 4x - 3
/ a ]x - 1 g2 + b ]x + 1 g + c
472 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

8. Express 4x 2 + 2 in the form 10. Find the equation of the parabola

a ] x + 5 g + b ] 2x - 3 g 2 + c - 2 . that passes through the points
(a) (0, -5), (2, -3) and (-3, 7)
9. Find the values of a, b and c if (b) (1, -2), (3, 0) and (-2, 10)
20x - 17 / a ] x - 4 g 2 - b ] 5x + 1 g + c. (c) (-2, 21), (1, 6) and (-1, 12)
(d) (2, 3), (1, -4) and (-1, -12)
(e) (0, 1), (-2, 1) and (2, -7)

Sum and Product of Roots

When you solve a quadratic equation, you may notice a relationship between
the roots. You also used this to factorise trinomials in Chapter 2.

EXAMPLE

(a) Solve x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0.
(b) Find the sum of the roots.
(c) Find the product of the roots.

Solution
(a) x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0
(x - 4) (x - 5) = 0
x - 4 = 0, x - 5 = 0
Notice -9 is the coefficient of
` x = 4, x=5
x and 20 is the constant term (b) Sum = 4 + 5
in the equation.
=9
(c) Product = 4 # 5
= 20

This relationship with the sum and product of the roots works for any
quadratic equation.

The general quadratic equation can be written in the form

x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0
where a and b are the roots of the equation.

Proof
Suppose the general quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has roots a and b.
Then this equation can be written in the form
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 473

(x - a ) (x - b) = 0
i.e. x - bx - a x + ab = 0
2

x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0

EXAMPLES

1. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 6 and - 1.

Solution
It doesn’t matter
Method 1: Using the general formula which way around we
x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0 where a = 6 and b = -1 name these roots.

a + b = 6 + -1
=5
ab = 6 # -1
= -6
Substituting into x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0 gives
x 2 - 5x - 6 = 0

Method 2:
If 6 and -1 are the roots of the equation then it can be written as
]x - 6 g]x + 1 g = 0
x 2 + x - 6x - 6 = 0
x 2 - 5x - 6 = 0

2. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 3 + 2 and 3 - 2 .

Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula
a+b=3+ 2+3- 2
=6
ab = (3 + 2 ) # (3 - 2 )
= 3 2 - ( 2 )2
=9-2
=7
Substituting into x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0 gives
x 2 - 6x + 7 = 0

Method 2:
If 3 + 2 and 3 - 2 are the roots of the equation then it can be
written as
_x - "3 + 2 ,i_x - "3 - 2 ,i = 0
^x - 3 - 2 h^x - 3 + 2 h = 0
x 2 - 3x + 2 x - 3x + 9 - 3 2 - 2 x + 3 2 - 2 = 0
x 2 - 6x + 7 = 0
474 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

We can find a more general relationship between the sum and product of
roots of a quadratic equation.

If a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0:

b
Sum of roots: a + b = - a
c
Product of roots: ab = a

Proof
If an equation has roots a and b, it can be written as x 2 - (a + b )x + ab = 0.
But we know that a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
Using quadratic identities, we can compare the two forms of the
equation.

ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 bx c 0
a + a +a=a
b c
x2 + a x + a = 0
b c
For x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab / x 2 + a x + a
b
- (a + b ) = a
b
` a + b = -a
c
Also ab = a

EXAMPLES

1. Find (a) a + b (b) ab (c) a2 + b2 if a and b are the roots of

2x 2 - 6x + 1 = 0.

Solution
b
(a) a + b = - a
(-6)
=-
2
=3
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 475

c
(b) ab = a
1
=
2

(c) a 2 + b 2 ! (a + b ) 2
^ a + b h2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2
^ a + b h2 - 2ab = a 2 + b2
] 3 g 2 - 2 c 1 m = a2 + b2
2
9 - 1 = a 2 + b2
8 = a 2 + b2

2. Find the value of k if one root of kx 2 -7x + k + 1 = 0 is - 2.

Solution
If - 2 is a root of the equation then x = -2 satisfies the equation.
Substitute x = - 2 into the equation:
k ] -2 g 2 - 7 ] -2 g + k + 1 = 0
4k + 14 + k + 1 = 0
5k + 15 = 0
5k = - 15
k = -3

3. Evaluate p if one root of x 2 + 2x - 5p = 0 is double the other root.

You could use b
Solution and 2b instead.

If one root is a then the other root is 2a .

Sum of roots:
b
a + b = -a
2
a + 2a = -
1
3a = - 2
2
a=-
3
CONTINUED
476 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Product of roots:
c
ab = a
- 5p
a # 2a =
1
2a = - 5p
2

2 2
2 c - m = - 5p
3
4
2 c m = - 5p
9
8
= - 5p
9
8
- =p
45

9.5 Exercises
1. Find a + b and ab if a and b are 4. Find the value of m in
the roots of x 2 + 2mx - 6 = 0 if one of the
(a) x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0 roots is 2.
(b) 2x 2 - 3x - 6 = 0
5. If one of the roots of
(c) 5x 2 - x - 9 = 0
the quadratic equation
(d) x 2 + 7x + 1 = 0
2x 2 - 5x + k - 1 = 0 is - 3, find
(e) 3y 2 - 8y + 3 = 0
the value of k.
2. If a and b are the roots
6. One root of
of the quadratic equation
3x 2 - 2 (3b + 1) x + 4b = 0 is 8.
x 2 - 3x - 6 = 0, find the value of
Find the value of b.
(a) a + b
(b) ab 7. In the quadratic equation
1 1 2x 2 - 3x + k = 0, one root is
(c) +
a b double the other. Find the value
(d) a2 + b2 of k.

3. Find the quadratic equation 8. In the quadratic equation

whose roots are x 2 - 8x + p - 1 = 0, one root
(a) 2 and - 5 is triple the other. Find the
(b) - 3 and 7 value of p.
(c) - 1 and - 4
(d) 4 + 5 and 4 - 5 9. In the quadratic equation
(e) 1 + 2 7 and 1 - 2 7 (k - 2) x 2 + 50x + 2k + 3 = 0,
1 the roots are reciprocals of each
Reciprocals are n and .
n
other. Find the value of k.
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 477

10. In the quadratic equation 17. Find values of k in the equation

x 2 + mx + 2 = 0, the roots are k +1 Consecutive numbers
x 2 + (k + 1 ) x + c m = 0 if: are numbers that
consecutive. Find the values of m. 4
(a) roots are equal in magnitude follow each other
in order, such as
11. In the quadratic equation but opposite in sign 3 and 4.
- 3x 2 - (k + 1) x + 5 = 0, the (b) roots are equal
roots are equal in magnitude but (c) one root is 1
opposite in sign. Find the value (d) roots are reciprocals of one
of k. another
(e) roots are real.
12. Find values of n in the equation
2x 2 - 5(n - 1) x + 12 = 0 if the 18. Find exact values of p in the
two roots are consecutive. equation x 2 + px + 3 = 0 if
(a) the roots are equal
13. If the sum of the roots of (b) it has real roots
x 2 + px + r = 0 is - 2 and the (c) one root is double the other.
product of roots is - 7, find the
values of p and r. 19. Find values of k in the equation
x 2 + kx + k - 1 = 0 if
14. One root of the quadratic (a) the roots are equal
equation x 2 + bx + c = 0 is 4 and (b) one root is 4
the product of the roots is 8. Find (c) the roots are reciprocals of
the values of b and c. one another.
15. The roots of the quadratic 20. Find values of m in the equation
equation x 2 + 4x - a = 0 are mx 2 + x + m - 3 = 0 if
b + 1 and b - 3. Find the values (a) one root is -2
of a and b. (b) it has no real roots
16. Show that the roots of (c) the product of the roots is 2.
the quadratic equation
3mx 2 + 2x + 3m = 0 are always
reciprocals of one another.

Equations Reducible to Quadratics

To solve a quadratic equation such as ] x - 3 g 2 - ] x - 3 g - 2 = 0, you could
expand the brackets and then solve the equation. However, in this section you
will learn a different way to solve this.
There are other equations that do not look like quadratic equations that
can also be solved this way.
478 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Solve ] x + 2 g 2 - 3 ] x + 2 g - 4 = 0.

Solution
Let u=x+2
Then u - 3u - 4
2
=0
]u - 4 g]u + 1 g =0
u - 4 = 0, u + 1 =0
u = 4, u = -1
But u=x+2
So x + 2 = 4, x + 2 = -1
x = 2, x = -3

2
2. Solve x + x = 3 where x ! 0.

Solution
2
x+ x =3
2
x#x+x#x =3#x
x 2 + 2 = 3x
x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0
]x - 2 g]x - 1 g = 0
x - 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0
x = 2, x=1

3. Solve 9 x - 4.3 x + 3 = 0.

Solution
x
9x = ^ 32 h = ^ 3x h
2

So 9 x - 4.3 x + 3 = 0 can be written as

^ 3 x h2 - 4.3 x + 3 = 0
Let k = 3x
k 2 - 4k + 3 = 0
]k - 3 g]k - 1 g = 0
k - 3 = 0, k - 1 = 0
k = 1, k=3
But k = 3 x
So 3 x = 1, 3x = 3
x = 0, x=1
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 479

4. Solve 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.

Solution
Let sin x = u
Then 2u + u - 1 = 0
2

] 2u - 1 g ] u + 1 g = 0
2u - 1 = 0 or u + 1 = 0
2u = 1 u = -1
1
u=
2
But u = sin x 30c
1
So sin x = or sin x = -1 2 3
2
1
sin x = has solutions in the 1st and 2nd quadrants
2 See Chapter 6 if you have
1 600c forgotten how to solve a
sin 30c = 1
2 trigonometric equation.

So x = 30c, 180c - 30c

= 30c, 150c

For sin x = - 1, we use the graph of y = sin x

x
90c 180c 270c 360c

-1

From the graph:

x = 270c
So solutions to 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 are
x = 30c, 150c, 270c
480 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

9.6 Exercises
1. Solve (c) 5 2x - 5 x - 20 = 0
(a) ] x - 1 g 2 + 7 ] x - 1 g + 10 = 0 (d) 9 x + 3 x - 12 = 0
(b) ^ y - 3 h 2 - ^ y - 3 h - 2 = 0 (e) 4 x - 10.2 x + 16 = 0
(c) ] x + 2 g 2 - 2 ] x + 2 g - 8 = 0
(d) ] n - 5 g 2 + 7 ] n - 5 g + 6 = 0 5. Solve x 2 +
4
= 5 (x ! 0 ) .
(e) ] a - 4 g 2 + 6 ] a - 4 g - 7 = 0 x2
(f) ^ p + 1 h 2 - 9 ^ p + 1 h + 20 = 0
(g) ] x + 3 g 2 - 4 ] x + 3 g - 5 = 0 1 2 1
6. Solve b x + x l + b x + x l - 2 = 0
(h) ] k - 8 g 2 - ] k - 8 g - 12 = 0
(x ! 0) .
(i) ] t - 2 g 2 + 2 ] t - 2 g - 24 = 0
(j) ] b + 9 g 2 - 2 ] b + 9 g - 15 = 0
7. Solve
2. Solve (x ! 0) . 1 2 1
d x2 + n - 9 d x 2 + 2 n + 20 = 0
6 x2 x
(a) x - x = 1
correct to 2 decimal places
6
(b) x + x = 5 (x ! 0) .
20
(c) x + x - 9 = 0 8. Solve for 0c # x # 360c.
15 (a) sin 2 x - sin x = 0
(d) x + x = 8 (b) cos 2 x + cos x = 0
12
(e) 2x + x = 11 (c) 2 sin 2 x - sin x - 1 = 0
(d) 2 cos 2 x = cos x
3. Solve (e) sin x = cos 2 x - 1
(a) x 4 - 7x 2 - 18 = 0
(b) y 4 - 6y 2 + 8 = 0, giving exact 9. Solve for 0c # x # 360c.
values (a) tan 2 x - tan x = 0
(c) ^ x 2 - x h + ^ x 2 - x h - 2 = 0
2 (b) cos 2 x - 1 = 0
giving exact values (c) 2 sin 2 x - sin x = 0
(d) (d) 8 sin 4 x - 10 sin 2 x + 3 = 0
^ x 2 + 3x -1 h2 - 7 ^ x 2 + 3x -1 h +10 = 0 (e) 3 tan 4 x - 10 tan 2 x + 3 = 0
correct to 2 decimal places 10. Show that the equation
(e) ^ a 2 + 4a h + 2 ^ a 2 + 4a h - 8 = 0
2
2
x+3+ = 5 has 2 real
giving exact values. x+3
irrational roots (x ! - 3) .
4. Solve
(a) 2 2x - 9.2 x + 8 = 0
(b) 3 2p + 3 p - 12 = 0
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 481

Test Yourself 9
1. Solve 9. Find
(a) x 2 - 3x # 0 (a) the equation of the axis of
(b) n 2 - 9 2 0 symmetry and
(c) 4 - y 2 $ 0 (b) the maximum value of the quadratic
function y = - 2x 2 - x + 6.
2. Evaluate a, b and c if 2x 2 - 5x + 7
= 2a(x + 1) 2 + b (x + 1) + c. 10. Write 3x 2 + 7 in the form
a (x - 2) 2 + b (x + 3) + c.
3. Find
(a) the equation of the axis of 11. Solve 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 for
symmetry and 0c # x # 360c.
(b) the minimum value of the parabola
12. Find the value of k in x 2 + 3x + k - 1 = 0
y = x 2 - 4x + 1.
if the quadratic equation has
4. Show that y = x 2 - 2x + 7 is a positive (a) equal roots
definite quadratic function. (b) one root - 3
(c) one root double the other
5. If a and b are roots of the quadratic (d) consecutive roots
equation x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0, find (e) reciprocal roots.
(a) a + b
(b) ab 3
13. Solve 2x = 5 + x (x ! 0) .
1 1
(c) +
a b
(d) ab2 + a 2 b 14. Find values of m such that
(e) a 2 + b2 mx 2 + 3x - 4 1 0 for all x.

6. Solve (3x - 2) 2 - 2 (3x - 2) - 3 = 0. 15. Solve 5 2x - 26.5 x + 25 = 0.

7. Describe the roots of each quadratic 16. For each set of graphs, state whether they
equation as have
(i) real, different and rational (i) 2 points
(ii) real, different and irrational (ii) 1 point
(iii) equal or (iii) no points of intersection.
(iv) unreal. (a) xy = 7 and 3x - 5y - 1 = 0
(a) 2x 2 - x + 3 = 0 (b) x 2 + y 2 = 9 and y = 3x - 3
(b) x 2 - 10x - 25 = 0 (c) x 2 + y 2 = 1 and x - 2y - 3 = 0
(c) x 2 - 10x + 25 = 0 2
(d) y = x and y = 3x + 1
(d) 3x 2 + 7x - 2 = 0 (e) y = x 2 and y = 4x - 4
(e) 6x 2 - x - 2 = 0

8. Show that - 4 + 3x - x 2 1 0 for all x.

482 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

17. State if each quadratic function is (d)

(i) indefinite
(ii) positive definite or
(iii) negative definite.
(a)

18. Show that kx 2 - px + k = 0 has reciprocal

roots for all x.

(b) 19. Find the quadratic equation that has

roots
(a) 4 and - 7
(b) 5 + 7 and 5 - 7

20. Solve 2 2x - 10.2 x + 16 = 0.

(c)

Challenge Exercise 9
1. Show that the quadratic equation 25
4. Solve x 2 + 1 + = 10.
2x 2 - kx + k - 2 = 0 has real rational x2 + 1
roots.
5. Find the maximum value of the function
2. Find the equation of a quadratic f (x) = - 2x 2 - 4x + 9.
function that passes through the points
(- 2, 18), (3, - 2) and (1, 0) . 6. Find the value of n for which the
equation (n + 2) x 2 + 3x - 5 = 0 has one
3. Find the value of a, b and c if root triple the other.
x 2 + 5x - 3 / ax (x + 1) + b (x + 1)2 + cx.
 Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function 483

7. Find the values of p for which 12. Find exact values of k for which
x 2 - x + 3p - 2 2 0 for all x. x 2 + 2kx + k + 5 = 0 has real roots.

8. Show that the quadratic equation 13. Solve 3 - 2 cos 2 x - 3 sin x = 0 for
x 2 - 2px + p 2 = 0 has equal roots. 0c # x # 360c.
1 2 1
9. Solve 2 2x + 1 - 5.2 x + 2 = 0. 14. Solve b x + x l - 5 b x + x l + 6 = 0.

10. Find values of A, B and C if

15. Solve 2 sin 2 x + cos x - 2 = 0 for
4x 2 - 3x + 7 / (Ax + 4)2 + B (x + 4) + C.
0c # x # 360c.
4x + 1
11. Express in the form 16. If a and b are the roots of the quadratic
x -x-22
equation 2x 2 + 4x - 5 = 0, evaluate
a b
+ . a 3 + b 3.
x-2 x+1
10
Locus and the
Parabola
TERMINOLOGY

Axis: A line around which a curve is reflected e.g. the axis Latus rectum: A focal chord that is perpendicular to the
of symmetry of a parabola axis of the parabola
Chord: An interval joining any two points on a curve. In Locus: The path traced out by a point that
this chapter, any two points on a parabola moves according to a particular pattern or rule.
Locus can be described algebraically or
Circle: The locus of a point moving so that it is
geometrically
equidistant from a fixed point on a plane surface
Directrix: A fixed line from which all points equidistant Parabola: The locus of a point moving so that it is
from this line and a fixed point called the focus form a equidistant from a fixed point called the focus and a
parabola fixed line called the directrix

Focal chord: A chord that passes through the focus Tangent: A straight line that touches a curve at a single
point only
Focal length: The distance between the focus and the
vertex of a parabola or the shortest distance between the Vertex: The turning point (maximum or minimum point)
vertex and the directrix of a parabola. It is the point where the parabola meets
Focus: A fixed point from which all points equidistant the axis of symmetry
from this point and the directrix form a parabola
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 485

INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER EXPANDS THE work on functions that you have already learned.
It shows a method of finding the equation of a locus. In particular, you will
study the circle and the parabola, defined as a locus.

Circle

DID YOU KNOW?

Locus problems have been studied since very early times. Apollonius of Perga (262–190 BC),
a contemporary (and rival) of Archimedes, studied the locus of various figures. In his Plane Loci,
he described the locus points whose ratio from two fixed points is constant. This locus is called
the ‘Circle of Apollonius’.
2
Apollonius also used the equation y = lx for the parabola.
René Descartes (1596–1650) was another mathematician who tried to solve locus problems.
His study of these led him to develop analytical (coordinate) geometry.

Locus
A relation can be described in two different ways. It can be a set of points that
obey certain conditions, or a single point that moves along a path according
to certain conditions.
A locus is the term used to describe the path of a single moving point
that obeys certain conditions.
486 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

Describe the locus of the following.

1. A pencil on the end of compasses.

Solution
The path of the pencil is a circle with centre at the point of the
compasses.

2. A person going up an escalator (standing still on one step).

What would the locus be

if the person walks up the
escalator?

Solution
The body travels along a straight line parallel to the escalator.

3. A doorknob on a closing door.

 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 487

Solution
If the door could swing right around it would follow a circle. So a door
closing swings through an arc of a circle.

4. A point on the number line that is 3 units from 0.

Solution

The locus is !3.

5. A point in the number plane that moves so that it is always 3 units

from the y-axis.

Solution
The locus is 2 vertical lines with equations x = !3.

Class Discussion

Describe the path of a person abseiling down a cliff.

10.1 Exercises
Describe the locus of the following:

1. a racing car driving around a 4. a ball’s flight when thrown

track
5. a person driving up to the 5th
2. a person climbing a ladder floor of a car park

3. a child on a swing
488 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

6. a point that moves along the 13. a point that is always 5 units
number line such that it is always below the x-axis
less than 2 units from 0
14. a point that is always 3 units
7. a point on the number plane that away from the point (1, 1)
moves so that it is always 2 units
15. a point that is always 7 units to
from the origin
the left of the y-axis
8. a point that moves so that it is
16. a point that is always 3 units to
always 1 unit from the x-axis
the right of the y-axis
9. a point that moves so that it is
17. a point that is always 8 units
always 5 units from the y-axis
from the x-axis
10. a point that moves so that it is
18. a point that is always 4 units
always 2 units above the x-axis
from the y-axis
11. a point that moves so that it is
19. a point that is always 6 units
always 1 unit from the origin
from the point (- 2, 4)
12. a point that moves so that it is
20. a point that is always 1 unit from
always 4 units from the point
the point (- 4, 5).
^ 1, - 2 h

A locus describes a single point P ^ x, y h that moves along a certain path. The
equation of a locus can often be found by using P ^ x, y h together with the
information given about the locus.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it

is always 3 units from the origin.

Solution
You may recognise this locus as a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h radius 3 units. Its
equation is given by x 2 + y 2 = 9.
You studied this formula in
2
Alternatively, use the distance formula.
Chapter 7. It is easier to use d
than d to find the equation of d= _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
2 2

the locus. or d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 489

Place P anywhere on
the number plane.
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.
We want PO = 3
i.e. PO 2 = 9
^x - 0h2+ ^y - 0h2 = 9
x2 + y2 = 9

2. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves

so that distance PA to distance PB is in the ratio 2:1 where
A = ^ - 3, 1 h and B = ^ 2, - 2 h .

Solution

Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.

PA : PB = 2:1
PA 2
i.e. =
PB 1
PA = 2PB
` PA 2 = ] 2PB g 2
Use the distance
= 4PB 2 formula as in
Example 1.
i.e. [x - ^ - 3 h] 2 + ^ y - 1 h2 = 4 $ ^ x - 2 h 2 + [y - ^ - 2 h] 2 .
^ x + 3 h 2 + ^ y - 1 h2 = 4 [^ x - 2 h 2 + ^ y + 2 h 2 ]
x + 6x + 9 + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 4 ^ x 2 - 4x + 4 + y 2 + 4x + 4 h
2

= 4x 2 - 16x + 16 + 4y 2 + 16y + 16
0 = 3x 2 - 22x + 3y 2 + 18y + 22 This is the equation
of a circle.
or 3x 2 - 22x + 3y 2 + 18y + 22 = 0

3. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that

the line PA is perpendicular to line PB, where A = ^ 1, 2 h and B = ^ - 3, -1 h .

CONTINUED
490 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.
For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = -1
These results come from
Chapter 7.
y2 - y1
Using m = x - x
2 1
y-2
PA: m 1 =
x -1
y - ] -1 g
PB: m 2 =
x - ]-3g
y +1
=
x+3
For PA perpendicular to PB
y - 2 y +1
# = -1
x -1 x + 3
y2 - y - 2
= -1
x 2 + 2x - 3
y 2 - y - 2 = - ^ x 2 + 2x - 3 h
The locus is a circle with = - x 2 - 2x + 3
diameter AB.
i.e. x 2 + 2x + y 2 - y - 5 = 0

4. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is equidistant from

fixed point A ^ 1, - 2 h and fixed line with equation y = 5.

Solution

Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.

B has coordinates ^ x, 5 h .
We want PA = PB
i.e. PA 2 = PB 2
^ x - 1 h + [ y - ^ - 2 h] 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + ^ y - 5 h 2
2

This is the equation of

a parabola. Can you
^x - 1h2+ ^y + 2h2 = ^y - 5h2
see where the parabola x 2 - 2x + 1 + y 2 + 4y + 4 = y 2 - 10y + 25
lies?
x 2 - 2x + 14y - 20 = 0
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 491

10.2 Exercises

1. Find the equation of the locus of 11. Find the equation of the locus of
point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it a point that moves so that it is
is always 1 unit from the origin. equidistant from the point ^ 2, 0 h
and the line x = 6.
2. Find the equation of the locus of
point P ^ x, y h that moves so that 12. Find the equation of the locus
it is always 9 units from the point of a point that moves so that
^ -1, -1 h . it is equidistant from the point
^ 1, -1 h and the line y = 3.
3. Find the equation of the locus
of a point that moves so that it 13. Find the equation of the locus
is always 2 units from the point of a point that moves so that
^ 5, - 2 h . it is equidistant from the point
^ 0, - 3 h and the line y = 3.
4. Find the equation of the locus of
point P ^ x, y h that moves so that 14. Find the equation of the locus
it is equidistant from the points of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so
^ 3, 2 h and ^ -1, 5 h . that the line PA is perpendicular
to line PB where A = ^ 1, - 3 h and
5. Find the equation of the locus
B = ^ 4, 5 h .
of a point that moves so that it
is equidistant from the points 15. Find the equation of the locus
^ - 4, 6 h and ^ 2, -7 h . of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so
that the line PA is perpendicular
6. Find the equation of the locus of
to line PB, where A = ^ - 4, 0 h and
point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it
B = ^ 1, 1 h .
is equidistant from the x-axis and
the y-axis. 16. Find the equation of the locus
of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so
7. Find the equation of the locus of
that the line PA is perpendicular
a point P that moves so that PA
to line PB where A = ^ 1, 5 h and
is twice the distance of PB where
B = ^ - 2, - 3 h .
A = ^ 0, 3 h and B = ^ 4, 7 h .
17. Point P moves so that
8. Find the equation of the locus of
PA 2 + PB 2 = 4 where A = ^ 3, -1 h
point P ^ x, y h that moves so that
and B = ^ - 5, 4 h . Find the
the ratio of PA to PB is 3:2 where
equation of the locus of P.
A = ^ - 6, 5 h and B = ^ 3, -1 h .
18. Point P moves so that
9. Find the equation of the locus
PA 2 + PB 2 = 12 where
of a point that moves so that
A = ^ - 2, - 5 h and B = ^ 1, 3 h .
it is equidistant from the point
Find the equation of the locus
^ 2, - 3 h and the line y = 7.
of P.
10. Find the equation of the locus of
19. Find the equation of the locus
a point that moves so that it is
of a point that moves so that
equidistant from the point ^ 0, 5 h
its distance from the line
and the line y = - 5.
3x + 4y + 5 = 0 is always 4 units.
492 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

20. Find the equation of the locus 23. Find the equation of the locus
of a point that moves so that of a point that moves so that
its distance from the line it is equidistant from the line
12x - 5y - 1 = 0 is always 1 unit. 3x + 4y - 5 = 0 and the line
5x + 12y - 1 = 0.
21. Find the equation, in exact form,
of the locus of a point that moves 24. Given two points A ^ 3, - 2 h and
so that its distance from the line B ^ -1, 7 h, find the equation of the
x - 2y - 3 = 0 is always 5 units. locus of P ^ x, y h if the gradient of
PA is twice the gradient of PB.
22. Find the equation of the locus
of a point that moves so that 25. If R is the fixed point ^ 3, 2 h
it is equidistant from the line and P is a movable point ^ x, y h,
4x - 3y + 2 = 0 and the line find the equation of the locus
3x + 4y - 7 = 0. of P if the distance PR is twice
the distance from P to the line
y = -1.

PROBLEM

Can you see 2 mistakes in the solution to this question?

Find the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that its perpendicular
distance from the line 12x + 5y - 1 = 0 is always 3 units.

Solution
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
d=
a2 + b2
| 5x + 12y - 1|
3=
5 2 + 12 2
| 5x + 12y - 1|
=
25 + 144
| 5x + 12y - 1|
=
169
| 5x + 12y - 1|
=
13
` 39 = 5x + 12y - 1
0 = 5x + 12y - 40
Can you find the correct locus?
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 493

Circle as a Locus
The locus of point P (x, y) that is always a constant distance from a fixed
point is a circle.

The circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius r, has the equation

x2 + y2 = r2

Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is always r units from the
origin.

Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.

OP = r
i.e. OP 2 = r 2
^ x - 0 h + ^ y - 0 h 2 = r2
2

x2 + y2 = r2
So x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is the equation of the locus. It describes a circle with radius r
and centre ^ 0, 0 h .

The circle, centre ^ a, b h and radius r, has the

equation
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2

Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is always r units from point
A ^ a, b h .
494 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.

AP = r
i.e. AP 2 = r 2
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2
So ] x - a g2 + ^ y - b h2 = r 2 is the equation of the locus. It describes a circle
with radius r and centre ^ a, b h .

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the locus of a point that is always 2 units from
the point ^ -1, 0 h .

Solution
This is a circle with radius 2 and centre ^ -1, 0 h . Its equation is in the form
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2
You could find this equation by
using P (x, y) and treating the i.e. [x - ^ -1 h] 2 + ^ y - 0 h 2 = 2 2
question as a locus problem. ^ x + 1 h 2 + y2 = 4
x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 = 4
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 3 = 0

2. Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0.

Solution
You learned how to
complete the square in We put the equation into the form ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r 2 .
Chapter 3.
To do this we complete the square.
b 2
In general, to complete the square on x 2 + bx, add c m to give:
2
b 2 b 2
x 2 + bx + c m = c x + m
2 2
First we move any constants to the other side of the equation, then
complete the square.
2 2
To complete the square on x 2 + 2x, we add c m = 1.
2
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 495

6 2
To complete the square on y 2 - 6y, we add c m = 9.
2
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y = 15
x + 2x + 1 + y 2 - 6y + 9 = 15 + 1 + 9
2

^ x + 1 h 2 + ^ y - 3 h 2 = 25
^ x - ] - 1 g h 2 + ^ y - 3 h 2 = 52
The equation is in the form ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r 2 .
This is a circle, centre ^ -1, 3 h and radius 5.

10.3 Exercises

1. Find the length of the radius and 5. Find the equation of the locus
the coordinates of the centre of of a point moving so that it is
each circle. 7 units from the point ^ 1, 0 h .
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 100
6. Find the equation of the locus
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 5
of a point moving so that it is
(c) ^ x - 4 h 2 + ^ y - 5 h 2 = 16
2 units from the point ^ - 3, 8 h .
(d) ^ x - 5 h 2 + ^ y + 6 h 2 = 49
(e) x 2 + ^ y - 3 h2 = 81 7. Find the equation of the locus of
a point moving so that it is 2
2. Find the equation of each circle
units from the point ^ 5, - 2 h .
in expanded form (without
grouping symbols). 8. Find the equation of a circle with
(a) Centre (0, 0) and radius 4 centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius 3 units.
(b) Centre (3, 2) and radius 5
(c) Centre ^ -1, 5 h and radius 3 9. Find the equation of a circle with
(d) Centre (2, 3) and radius 6 centre ^ 1, 5 h and radius 1 unit.
(e) Centre ^ - 4, 2 h and radius 5
10. Find the equation of a circle with
(f) Centre ^ 0, - 2 h and radius 1
centre ^ - 6, 1 h and radius 6 units.
(g) Centre (4, 2) and radius 7
(h) Centre ^ - 3, - 4 h and radius 9 11. Find the equation of a circle with
(i) Centre ^ - 2, 0 h and radius 5 centre ^ 4, 3 h and radius 3 units.
(j) Centre ^ - 4, -7 h and
radius 3 . 12. Find the equation of a circle
with centre ^ 0, - 3 h and radius
3. Find the equation of the locus of 2 2 units.
a point moving so that it is 1 unit
from the point ^ 9, - 4 h . 13. Find the coordinates of the centre
and the length of the radius of
4. Find the equation of the locus each circle.
of a point moving so that it is (a) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y - 4 = 0
4 units from the point ^ - 2, - 2 h . (b) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0
(c) x 2 + y 2 - 2y = 0
496 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(d) x2 - 10x + y 2 + 6y - 2 = 0 23. Find the exact length of AB

(e) x2 + 2x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0 where A and B are the centres
(f) x2 - 12x + y 2 = 0 of the circles x 2 - 6x + y 2 = 0
(g) x2 + 6x + y 2 - 8y = 0 and x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 6y - 3 = 0
(h) x2 + 20x + y 2 - 4y + 40 = 0 respectively.
(i) x2 - 14x + y 2 + 2y + 25 = 0
24. (a) Find the length of XY where
(j) x2 + 2x + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0
X and Y are the centres of the
14. Find the centre and radius of the circles x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
circle with equation given by and x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
x 2 - 6x + y 2 + 2y - 6 = 0. respectively.
(b) Find the radius of each circle.
15. Find the centre and radius of the (c) What conclusion can you draw
circle with equation given by from the results for (a) and (b)?
x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 10y + 4 = 0.
25. Show that the circles x 2 + y 2 = 4
16. Find the centre and radius of the and x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 4y - 4 = 0
circle with equation given by both have 3x + 4y + 10 = 0 as a
x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 12y - 12 = 0. tangent.
17. Find the centre and radius of the 26. A circle has centre C ^ -1, 3 h and
circle with equation given by radius 5 units.
x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 14y + 1 = 0. (a) Find the equation of the
circle.
18. Find the centre and radius of the
(b) The line 3x - y + 1 = 0 meets
circle with equation given by
the circle at two points. Find
x 2 + 3x + y 2 - 2y - 3 = 0.
their coordinates.
19. Sketch the circle whose (c) Let the coordinates be X and
equation is given by Y, where Y is the coordinate
x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0. directly below the centre C. Find
the coordinates of point Z, where
20. Prove that the line
YZ is a diameter of the circle.
3x + 4y + 21 = 0 is a
(d) Hence show +ZXY = 90c.
tangent to the circle
x 2 - 8x + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0. 27. (a) Find the perpendicular
distance from P ^ 2, - 5 h to the line
21. (a) Show that
5x + 12y - 2 = 0.
x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 4y + 1 = 0 and
(b) Hence find the equation
x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 4y - 4 = 0 are
Concentric circles have
of the circle with centre P and
concentric.
the same centre. tangent 5x + 12y - 2 = 0.
(b) Find the difference between
their radii.

22. Given two points A ^ 2, - 5 h and

B ^ - 4, 3 h, find the equation of
the circle with diameter AB.
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 497

Parabola as a Locus
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line
is always a parabola. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is
called the directrix.

Work on the parabola as a locus is very important, as the properties of the

parabola are useful to us. The parabola is used in lenses of glasses and cameras,
in car headlights, and for bridges and radio telescope dishes.

DID YOU KNOW?

Any rope or chain supporting a load (e.g.

a suspension bridge) is in the shape of a
parabola.
Find some examples of suspension
bridges that have a parabola shaped chain.
Other bridges have ropes or chains
hanging freely. These are not in the shape
of a parabola, but are in a shape called a
catenary. Can you find some bridges with this
shape?
More recent bridges are cable-stayed,
where ropes or chains are attached to towers,
or pylons, and fan out along the sides of the bridge. An example is the Anzac Bridge
in Sydney.
There are many different bridge designs. One famous bridge in Australia is the Sydney
Harbour Bridge.
Research different bridge designs and see if you can find some with parabolic shapes.

Parabola with vertex at the origin

Just as the circle has a special equation when its centre is at the origin, the
parabola has a special equation when its vertex is at the origin. Both also have
a more general formula.
498 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The locus of a point that is equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line
is always in the shape of a parabola.
If the fixed point is (0, a) and the fixed line is y = - a (where a 2 0), then
one of the equidistant points is the origin (0, 0). The distance between the
points (0, 0) and (0, a) is a units.
The point on y = - a directly below the origin is ^ 0, - a h and the distance
from (0, 0) to ^ 0, - a h is also a units.
y

(0, a)

(0, -a) y =- a

To find the equation of the parabola, we use the general process to find
the equation of any locus. The features of the parabola have special names.

A parabola is equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line.

• The fixed point is called the focus.
• The fixed line is called the directrix.
• The turning point of the parabola is called the vertex.
• The axis of symmetry of the parabola is called its axis.
• The distance between the vertex and the focus is called the focal
length.
• An interval joining any two points on the parabola is called a chord.
• A chord that passes through the focus is called a focal chord.
• The focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis is called the latus
rectum.
• A tangent is a straight line that touches the parabola at a single point.
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 499

PARABOLA x 2 = 4 ay

The locus of point P ^ x, y h moving so that it is equidistant from the point

^ 0, a h and the line y = - a is a parabola with equation
x 2 = 4ay

Proof

Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.

Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line y = - a, point B = ^ x, - a h .

PA = PB
` PA 2 = PB 2
^ x - 0 h 2 + ^ y - a h 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + [y - ^ - a h] 2
x2 + ^ y - a h 2 = ^ y + a h 2
x 2 + y 2 - 2ay + a 2 = y 2 + 2ay + a 2
x 2 = 4ay

The parabola x 2 = 4ay has

• focus at ^ 0, a h
• directrix with equation y = - a
• vertex at ^ 0, 0 h
Since the focal length is a, a
• axis with equation x = 0 is always a positive number.
• focal length the distance from the vertex to the focus with length a
• latus rectum that is a horizontal focal chord with length 4a

Class Investigation

Find the equation of the locus if point P ^ x, y h is equidistant from ^ 0, - a h

and y = a.
500 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus has coordinates ^ 0, 2 h

and whose directrix has equation y = - 2.

Solution
The focus has coordinates in the form ^ 0, a h and the directrix has
equation in the form y = - a, where a = 2.
` the parabola is in the form x 2 = 4ay where a = 2
i.e. x 2 = 4 (2) y
x 2 = 8y

2.
(a) Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of
the parabola x 2 = 20y.
(b) Find the points on the parabola at the endpoints of the latus rectum
and find its length.

Solution
(a) The parabola x 2 = 20y is in the form x 2 = 4ay
4a = 20
` a=5
The focal length is 5 units.
We can find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the
directrix in two ways.
Method 1:
Draw the graph x 2 = 20y and count 5 units up and down from the
origin as shown.

x2 = 20y

(0, 5)
5
x
5

(0, -5) y = -5

The focus is (0, 5) and the directrix has equation y = -5.

 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 501

Method 2:
The focus is in the form (0, a) where a = 5.
So the focus is (0, 5).
The directrix is in the form y = - a where a = 5.
So the directrix is y = - 5.
(b) The latus rectum is a focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of
the parabola as shown

x2 = 20 y

(0, 5)

The endpoints of the latus rectum will be where the line y = 5 and the
parabola intersect.
Substitute y = 5 into the parabola.
x 2 = 20y
= 20 ] 5 g
= 100
x = ! 100
= !10
So the endpoints are (-10, 5) and (10, 5).
y

x2 = 20 y

(-10, 5) (0, 5) (10, 5)

The latus rectum is 4a

units long which gives
20 units.
From the graph, the length of the latus rectum is 20 units.

CONTINUED
502 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Find the equation of the focal chord to the parabola x 2 = 4y that

passes through (- 4, 4).

Solution
The parabola x 2 = 4y is in the form x 2 = 4ay.
4a = 4
`a=1
The focal length is 1 unit.
The focus is 1 unit up from the origin at (0, 1) and the focal chord also
passes through (- 4, 4).
y

(-4, 4) x2 = 4y

(0, 1)

We can find the equation of the line between (0, 1) and (- 4, 4) by using
either formula
You used these y - y1 y2 - y1
formulae in Chapter 7. y - y 1 = m _ x - x 1 i or x - x = x - x
1 2 1
y - y1 y2 - y1
x - x1 = x2 - x1
y -1 4 -1
=
x-0 -4 - 0
y -1 3
x = -4
- 4 ^ y - 1 h = 3x
- 4y + 4 = 3x
0 = 3x + 4y - 4

As you saw in the previous chapter, a parabola can be concave

downwards. Can you guess what the equation of this parabola might be?

PARABOLA x 2 = - 4 ay

The locus of a point P(x, y) moving so that it is equidistant from the

point ^ 0, - a h and the line y = a is a parabola with equation x 2 = - 4ay
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 503

Proof
y

B(x, a) y=a

P(x, y)

A(0, -a)

Let P(x, y) be a point of the locus.

Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line y = a, point B = ^ x, a h .
PA = PB
` PA 2 = PB 2
^ x - 0 h 2 + 7 y - ^ - a h A = ^ x - x h 2 + ^ y - a h2
2

x 2 + ^ y + a h2 = ^ y - a h2
x + y 2 + 2ay + a 2 = y 2 - 2ay + a 2
2

x 2 = - 4ay

The parabola x 2 = - 4ay has

• focus at ^ 0, - a h
• directrix with equation y = a
• vertex at (0, 0)
• axis with equation x = 0
• focal length a
• latus rectum a horizontal focal chord with length 4a
504 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 0, - 4 h and directrix

y = 4.

Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is below the directrix as shown. So
the parabola will be concave downwards (the parabola always turns away
from the directrix).
y

y=4

(0, -4)

The focal length is 4 so a = 4.

The parabola is in the form x 2 = - 4ay where a = 4.
x 2 = - 4ay
= -4]4gy
= - 16y

2. Find the coordinates of the vertex, the coordinates of the focus and
the equation of the directrix of the parabola x 2 = - 12y.

Solution
The parabola x 2 = -12y is in the form x 2 = - 4ay.
4a = 12
`a=3
The focal length is 3 units.
The vertex is (0, 0).
We can find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix
in two ways.
Method 1:
Draw the graph x 2 = -12y and count 3 units up and down from the
origin as shown. (The parabola is concave downward.)
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 505

y=3

(0, -3)
x2 = -12y

Counting down 3 units, the focus is ^ 0, - 3 h .

Counting up 3 units, the directrix has equation y = 3.
Method 2:
The focus is in the form ^ 0, - a h where a = 3.
So the focus is ^ 0, - 3 h .
The directrix is in the form y = a where a = 3.
So the directrix is y = 3.

3. Find the equation of the parabola with focal length 5 and whose
vertex is ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis is x = 0.

Solution
Vertex ^ 0, 0 h and axis given by x = 0 give a parabola in the form
x 2 = !4ay, since there is not enough information to tell whether it is
concave upwards or downwards.
This gives two possible parabolas.

CONTINUED
506 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Focal length of 5 means a = 5

The equation is x 2 = !4 (5) y
i.e. x 2 = !20y

10.4 Exercises

1. Find the equation of each (d) x 2 = 36y

parabola. (e) x 2 = 40y
(a) focus (0, 5), directrix y = - 5 (f) x 2 = 44y
(b) focus (0, 9), directrix y = - 9 (g) x 2 = 12y
(c) focus (0, 1), directrix y = -1 (h) x 2 = 6y
(d) focus (0, 4), directrix y = - 4 (i) x 2 = 10y
(e) focus (0, 10), directrix (j) x 2 = 15y
y = -10
(f) focus (0, 3), directrix y = - 3 4. Find
(g) focus (0, 6), directrix y = - 6 (i) the coordinates of the
(h) focus (0, 11), directrix focus and
y = -11 (ii) the equation of the
(i) focus (0, 2), directrix y = - 2 directrix of
(j) focus (0, 12), directrix (a) x 2 = - 4y
y = -12 (b) x 2 = - 24y
(c) x 2 = - 8y
2. Find the equation of each (d) x 2 = - 48y
parabola. (e) x 2 = - 20y
(a) focus (0, - 1), directrix y = 1 (f) x 2 = - 16y
(b) focus (0, - 3), directrix y = 3 (g) x 2 = - 32y
(c) focus (0, - 4), directrix y = 4 (h) x 2 = - 40y
(d) focus (0, - 7), directrix y = 7 (i) x 2 = - 2y
(e) focus (0, - 6), directrix y = 6 (j) x 2 = - 22y
(f) focus (0, - 9), directrix y = 9
(g) focus (0, - 8), directrix y = 8 5. Find the equation of the parabola
(h) focus (0, - 2), directrix y = 2 with
(i) focus (0, -15), directrix (a) coordinates of the focus ^ 0, 7 h
y = 15 and equation of the directrix
(j) focus (0, -13), directrix y = -7
y = 13 (b) coordinates of the focus
^ 0, 11 h and equation of the
3. Find directrix y = -11
(i) the coordinates of the (c) coordinates of the focus
focus and ^ 0, - 6 h and equation of the
(ii) the equation of the directrix y = 6
directrix of (d) coordinates of the focus ^ 0, 2 h
(a) x 2 = 4y and coordinates of the vertex
(b) x 2 = 28y ^ 0, 0 h .
(c) x 2 = 16y
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 507

(e) coordinates of the vertex 11. The equation of the latus rectum
^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis x = 0 of a parabola is given by y = - 3.
and focal length 3 The axis of the parabola is x = 0,
(f) coordinates of the vertex and its vertex is ^ 0, 0 h .
^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis x = 0 (a) Find the equation of the
and focal length 8 parabola.
(g) coordinates of the vertex (b) Find the equation of the
^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis directrix.
x = 0, and passing through the (c) Find the length of the focal
point ^ - 8, 2 h chord that meets the parabola at
(h) coordinates of the vertex 1
c 2, - m .
^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis 3
x = 0, and passing through the
12. (a) Show that the point ^ - 3, 3 h
point ^ -1, 7 h .
lies on the parabola with
6. Find the coordinates of the focus, equation x 2 = 3y.
the equation of the directrix and (b) Find the equation of the line
the focal length of the parabola passing through P and the focus F
(a) x 2 = 8y of the parabola.
(b) x 2 = 24y (c) Find the coordinates of the
(c) x 2 = -12y point R where the line PF meets
(d) x 2 = 2y the directrix.
(e) x 2 = - 7y
13. (a) Find the equation of chord
(f) 2x 2 = y
1
PQ where P c -1, m and Q ^ 2, 1 h
7. Find the equation of the focal 4
chord that cuts the curve x 2 = 8y lie on the parabola x 2 = 4y.
at ^ - 4, 2 h . (b) Show that PQ is not a focal
chord.
8. The tangent with equation (c) Find the equation of the circle
2x - y - 4 = 0 touches the with centre Q and radius 2 units.
parabola x 2 = 4y at A. Find the (d) Show that this circle passes
coordinates of A. through the focus of the
parabola.
9. The focal chord that cuts the
parabola x 2 = - 6y at ^ 6, - 6 h cuts 14. (a) Show that Q _ 2aq, aq 2 i lies on
the parabola again at X. Find the the parabola x 2 = 4ay.
coordinates of X. (b) Find the equation of the focal
chord through Q.
10. Find the coordinates of the
(c) Prove that the length of the
endpoints of the latus rectum of
latus rectum is 4a.
the parabola x 2 = - 8y. What is
the length of the latus rectum?
508 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Investigation

Sketch the parabola x = y 2. You may like to complete the table below to
help you with its sketch.

x
y -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Is this parabola a function? What is its axis of symmetry?

The parabola that has y2 rather than x2 in its equation is a sideways

parabola. It still has the same properties, but generally the x and y values are
swapped around.

PARABOLA y 2 = 4 ax

The locus of point P ^ x, y h moving so that it is equidistant from the point

^ a, 0 h and the line x = - a is a parabola with equation
y 2 = 4ax

Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h, which moves so that it is
equidistant from the point ^ a, 0 h and the line x = - a.

Coordinates of B are ^ - a, y h .
We want PA = PB
i.e. PA 2 = PB 2
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - 0 h 2 = [x - ^ - a h 2 ] 2 + ^ y - y h 2
^ x - a h 2 + y2 = ^ x + a h 2
x 2 - 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = x 2 + 2ax + a 2
y 2 = 4ax
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 509

The parabola y 2 = 4ax has

• focus at ^ a, 0 h
• equation of directrix x = - a
• vertex at ^ 0, 0 h
• axis with equation y = 0
• focal length the distance from the vertex to the focus with length a
• latus rectum that is a vertical focal chord with length 4a

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (7, 0) and directrix
x = - 7.

Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is to the right of the directrix
as shown (the parabola always turns away from the directrix). So the
parabola turns to the right.
y

x=-7

7 7
x
(7, 0)

CONTINUED
510 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The focal length is 7 so a = 7.

The parabola is in the form y 2 = 4ax where a = 7.
y 2 = 4ax
= 4^7hx
= 28x.

2. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of
the parabola y 2 = 32x.

Solution
The parabola y 2 = 32x is in the form y 2 = 4ax.
4a = 32
` a=8
The focal length is 8 units.
Method 1:
Draw the graph y 2 = 32x and count 8 units to the left and right from the
origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the right.)
y

x=-8

8 8
x
(8, 0)

y2 = 32x
2

Counting 8 units to the right, the focus is (8, 0).

Counting 8 units to the left, the directrix has equation x = - 8.
Method 2:
The focus is in the form (a, 0) where a = 8.
So the focus is (8, 0).
The directrix is in the form x = - a where a = 8.
So the directrix is x = - 8.

A parabola can also turn to the left.

 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 511

PARABOLA y 2 = - 4 ax

The locus of a point P(x, y) moving so that it is equidistant from

the point ^ - a, 0 h and the line x = a is a parabola with equation
y 2 = - 4ax

Proof

P(x, y)
B(a, y)

x
A( - a, 0)

x=a

Let P(x, y) be a point of the locus.

Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line x = a,
point B = ^ a, y h .
PA = PB
` PA 2 = PB 2
7 x - ^ - a h A + ^ y - 0 h2 = ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - y h 2
2

^ x + a h 2 + y2 = ^ x - a h 2
x 2 + 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = x 2 - 2ax + a 2
y 2 = - 4ax
512 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The parabola y 2 = - 4ax has

• focus at (- a, 0)
• directrix with equation x = a
• vertex at (0, 0)
• axis with equation y = 0
• focal length a
• latus rectum a vertical focal chord with length 4a

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (- 4, 0) and directrix

x = 4.

Solution
Drawing this information shows that the parabola turns to the left.
y

4 4
x
( - 4, 0)

x=4

The focal length is 4 so a = 4.

The parabola is in the form y 2 = - 4ax where a = 4.
y 2 = - 4ax
= -4^ 4h x
= -16x.

2. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of
the parabola y 2 = - 2x.

Solution
The parabola y 2 = - 2x is in the form y 2 = - 4ax.
4a = 2
1
` a=
2
1
The focal length is unit.
2
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 513

Method 1:
1
Draw the graph y 2 = - 2x and count unit to the left and right from the
2
origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the left.)
y

1 1
2 2
x
( - 1, 0
2 )
1
x=
2

1 1
Counting units to the left, the focus is c - , 0 m .
2 2
1 1
Counting units to the right, the directrix has equation x = .
2 2
Method 2:
1
The focus is in the form (- a, 0) where a = .
2
1
So the focus is c - , 0 m .
2
1
The directrix is in the form x = a where a = .
2
1
So the directrix is x = .
2

10.5 Exercises

1. Find the equation of each 2. Find the equation of each

parabola. parabola.
(a) focus (2, 0), directrix x = - 2 (a) focus (- 9, 0), directrix x = 9
(b) focus (5, 0), directrix x = - 5 (b) focus (- 4, 0), directrix x = 4
(c) focus (14, 0), directrix (c) focus (-10, 0), directrix x = 10
x = -14 (d) focus (- 6, 0), directrix x = 6
(d) focus (9, 0), directrix x = - 9 (e) focus (- 2, 0), directrix x = 2
(e) focus (8, 0), directrix x = - 8 (f) focus (-12, 0), directrix x = 12
(f) focus (6, 0), directrix x = - 6 (g) focus (-11, 0), directrix x = 11
(g) focus (7, 0), directrix x = - 7 (h) focus (- 5, 0), directrix x = 5
(h) focus (3, 0), directrix x = - 3 (i) focus (- 3, 0), directrix x = 3
(i) focus (4, 0), directrix x = - 4 (j) focus (- 7, 0), directrix x = 7
(j) focus (1, 0), directrix x = -1
514 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. Find (f) coordinates of the vertex

(i) the coordinates of the ^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis y = 0
focus and and focal length 2
(ii) the equation of the (g) coordinates of the vertex
directrix of ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis
(a) y 2 = 8x y = 0 and passing through the
(b) y 2 = 12x point ^ 3, 6 h
(c) y 2 = 16x (h) coordinates of the vertex
(d) y 2 = 4x ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis
(e) y 2 = 28x y = 0 and passing through the
(f) y 2 = 32x point ^ 2, 1 h .
(g) y 2 = 24x
6. Find the coordinates of the focus,
(h) y 2 = 36x
the equation of the directrix and
(i) y 2 = x
the focal length of the parabola
(j) y 2 = 18x
(a) y 2 = 8x
4. Find (b) y 2 = 4x
(i) the coordinates of the (c) y 2 = -12x
focus and (d) y 2 = 6x
(ii) the equation of the (e) y 2 = - 5x
directrix of (f) 3y 2 = x
(a) y 2 = - 8x
7. Find the equation of the focal
(b) y 2 = -12x
chord that cuts the curve y 2 = 16x
(c) y 2 = - 28x
at ^ 4, 8 h .
(d) y 2 = - 4x
(e) y 2 = - 24x 8. Find the length of the latus
(f) y 2 = - 52x rectum of the parabola y 2 = 12x.
(g) y 2 = - 60x What are the coordinates of its
(h) y 2 = - 2x endpoints?
(i) y 2 = - 26x
(j) y 2 = - 5x 9. The line with equation
x - 3y - 27 = 0 meets the
5. Find the equation of the parabola parabola y 2 = 4x at two points.
with Find their coordinates.
(a) coordinates of the focus ^ 5, 0 h
1
and equation of the directrix 10. Let R c , - 2 m be a point on the
5
x = -5 parabola y 2 = 20x.
(b) coordinates of the focus ^ 1, 0 h (a) Find the equation of the focal
and equation of the directrix chord passing through R.
x = -1 (b) Find the coordinates of the
(c) coordinates of the focus point Q where this chord cuts the
^ - 4, 0 h and equation of the directrix.
directrix x = 4 (c) Find the area of DOFQ where
(d) coordinates of the focus ^ 3, 0 h O is the origin and F is the focus.
and coordinates of the vertex (d) Find the perpendicular
^ 0, 0 h distance from the chord to the
(e) coordinates of the vertex point P ^ -1, -7 h .
^ 0, 0 h equation of the axis y = 0 (e) Hence find the area of DPQR.
and focal length 9
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 515

Application

A parabolic satellite dish receives its signals through the focus. If the dish has
height 12 m and a span of 20 m, find where the focus should be placed, to the
nearest mm.

SOLUTION

The parabola is of the form x 2 = 4ay and passes through (10, 12) and (-10, 12)
Substituting (10, 12) gives

10 = 4a (12)
2

100 = 48a
2.083 = a
This is 2083 mm to
the nearest millimetre.
So the focus should be placed 2.083 m from the vertex.

Here is a summary of the 4 different types of parabola with the vertex at

the origin.

1. x 2 = 4ay

x2 = 4ay
Focus
(0, a)

Directrix
y = -a
516 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. x 2 = - 4ay

Directrix
y=a

Focus
(0, -a)

x 2 = -4ay

3. y 2 = 4ax

Directrix
x = -a

x
Focus
(a, 0)

y 2 = 4a x

4. y 2 = - 4ax

Directrix
x=a

x
Focus
(-a, 0)

y2 = -4ax

General Parabola
When the parabola does not have its vertex at the origin, there is a more
general formula.
Since we use a to mean the focal length, we cannot use (a, b) as the
vertex. We use (h, k) instead.
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 517

PARABOLA (x - h)2 = 4a(y - k)

The concave upwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal

length a has equation ^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h

Proof
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ h, k h and focal length a.

Counting up a units from vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h, k + a h .

Counting down a units from V gives the point on the directrix D = ^ h, k - a h .
So the equation of the directrix is given by y = k - a.
We find the equation of the locus of P ^ x, y h that is equidistant from point
F ^ h, k + a h and line y = k - a.

B has coordinates ^ x, k - a h .
We want PF = PB
i.e. PF 2 = PB 2
^ x - h h 2 + [ y - ^ k + a h] 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + [ y - ^ k + a h] 2
^x - hh2 + ^ y - k - ah2 = ^ y - k + ah2
^x - hh2 = ^ y - k + ah2- ^ y - k - ah2
= [^ y - k + a h + ^ y - k - a h ] # [^ y - k + a h - ^ y - k - a h ]
^ difference of two squares h
= ^ 2y - 2k h ^ 2a h
= 4ay - 4ak
= 4a ^ y - k h
518 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The parabola ^ x - h h2 = 4a ^ y - k h has

• axis parallel to the y-axis
• vertex at ^ h, k h
• focus at ^ h, k + a h
• directrix with equation y = k - a

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 2, 3 h and directrix with
equation y = - 7.

Solution

Draw a diagram to find

the vertex and to find a.

Coordinates of B are ^ 2, -7 h .
The vertex is the midpoint of ^ 2, 3 h and ^ 2, -7 h .
` vertex = ^ 2, - 2 h
Focal length is the distance from the focus to the vertex.
` a=5
From the diagram the parabola is concave upwards.
The equation is in the form
^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h
i.e. ^ x - 2 h 2 = 4 ^ 5 h [ y - ^ - 2 h]
= 20 ^ y + 2 h
x 2 - 4x + 4 = 20y + 40
x 2 - 4x - 20y - 36 = 0

2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and the focus, and the equation of
the directrix, of the parabola with equation x 2 + 6x - 12y - 3 = 0.
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 519

Solution
Complete the square on x.
x 2 + 6x - 12y - 3 = 0
x 2 + 6x = 12y + 3
x 2 + 6x + 9 = 12y + 3 + 9
^ x + 3 h2 = 12y + 12
= 12 (y + 1)
So the parabola has equation ^ x + 3 h2 = 12 ^ y + 1 h .
Its vertex has coordinates ^ - 3, -1 h .
4a = 12
` a=3
The parabola is concave upwards as it is in the form ^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h .

Count up 3 units to the focus

It is easy to find
` focus = ^ - 3, 2 h the focus and the
Count down 3 units to the directrix directrix by counting
along the y-axis.
` directrix has equation y = - 4.

PARABOLA (x - h)2 = - 4a(y - k)

The concave downwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a
has equation ^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h

Proof
Find the equation of the concave downwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.
520 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Counting down a units from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h, k - a h .

Counting up a units from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
D = ^ h, k + a h .
So the equation of the directrix is given by y = k + a.
We find the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point
F ^ h, k - a h and line y = k + a.

B y=k+a

P (x, y)

F (h , k - a)

B has coordinates ^ x, k + a h .
We want PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
^x - hh2 + 7y - ^k - ahA = ^x - xh2 + 7y - ^k + ahA
2 2

^x - hh + ^y - k + ah = ^y - k - ah
2 2 2

^x - hh2 = ^y - k - ah2- ^y - k + ah2

= 7^y - k - ah + ^y - k + ahA7^y - k - ah - ^y - k + ahA
(difference of two squares)
= ^ 2y - 2k h ^ - 2a h
= - 4ay + 4ak
= - 4a ^ y - k h
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 521

The parabola ^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h has

• axis parallel to the y-axis
• vertex at (h, k)
• focus at ^ h, k - a h
• directrix with equation y = k + a

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (- 2, 1) and directrix

y = 3.

Solution
y

B y=3
3
1
2
1
1
(-2, 1)
x
-2 -1

Coordinates of B are (- 2, 3).

The vertex is the midpoint of (- 2, 1) and (- 2, 3).
` vertex = (- 2, 2)
Focal length a = 1.
From the diagram the curve is concave downwards.
The equation is in the form
^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h
7x - ^ -2 h A = -4 ]1 g^ y - 2 h
2
i.e.
^ x + 2h 2 = -4^ y - 2h
x 2 + 4x + 4 = - 4y + 8
x 2 + 4x + 4y - 4 = 0.

2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola x 2 - 8x + 8y - 16 = 0.

CONTINUED
522 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution
Complete the square on x.
x 2 - 8x + 8y - 16 = 0
x 2 - 8x = - 8y + 16
x 2 - 8x + 16 = - 8y + 16 + 16
^ x - 4 h2 = - 8y + 32
= -8^ y - 4h
So the parabola has equation ^ x - 4 h 2 = - 8 ^ y - 4 h .
Its vertex has coordinates (4, 4).
4a = 8
`a=2
The parabola is concave downwards as it is in the form
^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h .

y=6

5 2
(4, 4)
4
3 2
2 (4, 2)

1 2 3 4

Count down 2 units to the focus

` focus = ^ 4, 2 h
Count up 2 units to the directrix
` directrix has equation y = 6.

PARABOLA ( y - k)2 = 4a(x - h)

The parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a that turns
to the right has equation ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h

Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the right with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 523

Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h + a, k h .
Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
D = ^ h - a, k h .
So the equation of the directrix is given by x = h - a.
We find the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point
F ^ h + a, k h and line x = h - a.

y
x=h-a

B P (x, y)

F (h +a, k)

B has coordinates ^ h - a, y h .
We want PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
7x - ^h + ahA + ^y - kh2 = 7x - ^h - ahA + ^y - y h2
2 2

^x - h - ah2+ ^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2

^y - kh2 = ^x - h + ah2- ]x - h - ag2
= 7^x - h + ah + ^x - h - ahA7^x - h + ah - ^x - h - ahA
(difference of two squares)
= ^ 2x - 2h h ^ 2a h
= 4ax - 4ah
= 4a ^ x - h h
524 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

The parabola ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h has

• axis parallel to the x-axis
• vertex at ^ h, k h
• focus at ^ h + a, k h
• directrix with equation x = h - a

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (1, -1) and directrix
x = - 5.

Solution

y
x = -5
5

3
2
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
B (1, -1)
3 3 -2
-3

Coordinates of B are (- 5, -1).

The vertex is the midpoint of (- 5, -1) and (1, -1).
` vertex = ^ - 2, -1 h
Focal length a = 3
From the diagram the parabola curves to the right.
The equation is in the form
^ y - k h 2 = 4a ] x - h g
7 y - ^ -1 h A = 4 ] 3 g 7 x - ^ - 2 h A
2
i.e.
^ y + 1 h 2 = 12 ] x + 2 g
y 2 + 2y + 1 = 12x + 24
y 2 + 2y - 12x - 23 = 0
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 525

2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola y 2 + 12y - 4x - 8 = 0.

Solution
Complete the square on y.
y 2 + 12y - 4x - 8 = 0
y 2 + 12y = 4x + 8
y 2 + 12y + 36 = 4x + 8 + 36
^ y + 6 h 2 = 4x + 44
= 4 ^ x + 11 h
So the parabola has equation ^ y + 6 h2 = 4 ^ x + 11 h
or 7 y - ] - 6 g A 2 = 4 6 x - ] -11 g @ .
Its vertex has coordinates (-11, - 6).
4a = 4
` a=1
The parabola turns to the right as it is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h .

x = -12

(-11, -6)
(-10, -6)
1 1

Count 1 unit to the right for the focus

` focus = ^ -10, - 6 h .
Count 1 unit to the left for the directrix
` directrix has equation x = -12.

PARABOLA (y – k)2 = – 4a(x – h)

The parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a that turns to
the left has equation ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
526 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the left with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.

Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h - a, k h.
Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
D = ^ h + a, k h.
So the equation of the directrix is given by x = h + a.
We find the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point
F ^ h - a, k h and line x = h + a.

x=h+a

P (x, y) B

F (h -a, k)

B has coordinates ^ h + a, y h .
We want PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
7x - ^h - ahA + ^y - kh2 = 7x - ^h + ahA + ^y - y h2
2 2

^x - h + ah2+ ^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2

^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2- ^x - h + ah2
= 7^x - h - ah + ^x - h + ahA7^x - h - ah - ^x - h + ahA
(difference of two squares)
= ^ 2x - 2h h ^ - 2a h
= - 4ax + 4ah
= - 4a ^ x - h h
= - 4a ^ y - k h
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 527

The parabola ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ] x - h g has

• axis parallel to the x-axis
• vertex at (h, k)
• focus at ^ h - a, k h
• directrix with equation x = h + a

EXAMPLES

1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (2, 1) and directrix x = 3.

Solution

y
x=3

1 1
2 2
B 1
1 (2, 1)
(2 2x, 1)
1 2

Coordinates of B are (3, 1).

The vertex is the midpoint of (3, 1) and (2, 1).
1
` vertex = c 2 , 1 m
2
1
Focal length a =
2
From the diagram the parabola curves to the left.
The equation is in the form
^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
1 1
i.e. ^y - 1h2 = -4c m cx - 2 m
2 2
1
^y - 1h = -2cx - 2 m
2
2
y 2 - 2y + 1 = - 2x + 5
y 2 - 2y + 2x - 4 = 0

2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola y 2 + 4y + 8x - 4 = 0.

CONTINUED
528 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Solution
Complete the square on y.
y 2 + 4y + 8x - 4 = 0
y 2 + 4y = - 8 x + 4
y 2 + 4y + 4 = - 8x + 4 + 4
^ y + 2 h 2 = - 8x + 8
= -8 ]x - 1 g
So the parabola has equation ^ y + 2 h2 = - 8 ] x - 1 g
or 7 y - ] - 2 g A 2 = - 8 ] x - 1 g .
Its vertex has coordinates ^ 1, - 2 h .
4a = 8
` a=2
The parabola turns to the left as it is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h

x=3

1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
(1, -2)
(-1, -2) -22
2 2

Count 2 units to the left for the focus

` focus = ^ -1, - 2 h .
Count 2 units to the right for the directrix
` directrix has equation x = 3.

10.6 Exercises

1. Complete the square on x to (e) x 2 - 12x - 8y - 20 = 0

write each equation in the form (f) x 2 + 14x + 16y + 1 = 0
] x - h g2 = !4a ^ y - k h . (g) x 2 - 4x + 4y - 16 = 0
(a) x 2 - 6x - 8y - 15 = 0 (h) x 2 + 18x - 12y + 9 = 0
(b) x 2 - 10x - 4y + 1 = 0 (i) x 2 + 2x - 8y - 7 = 0
(c) x 2 - 2x - 4y - 11 = 0 (j) x 2 - 6 x + 4y + 1 = 0
(d) x 2 - 8x + 12y - 20 = 0
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 529

2. Complete the square on y to (g) x2 + 2x + 8y - 15 = 0

write each equation in the form (h) x2 - 4 x + 4y = 0
^ y - k h2 = !4a ] x - h g (i) x2 - 8x + 12y + 4 = 0
(a) y 2 - 8y - 4x = 0 (j) x2 + 4x + 16y - 12 = 0
(b) y 2 - 2y - 8x - 15 = 0
(c) y 2 + 4y - 12x - 8 = 0 5. Find
(d) y 2 - 20y + 4x - 16 = 0 (i) the coordinates of the focus and
(e) y 2 + 6y + 16x - 7 = 0 (ii) the equation of the directrix of
(f) y 2 - 12y - 8x + 4 = 0 (a) y 2 + 2y - 4x - 3 = 0
(g) y 2 + 10y + 24x - 23 = 0 (b) y 2 - 8y - 12x + 4 = 0
(h) y 2 + 24y - 4x = 0 (c) y 2 - 6y - 8x - 7 = 0
(i) y 2 - 4y + 20x - 16 = 0 (d) y 2 + 4y - 16x - 12 = 0
(j) y 2 + 8y + 8x = 0 (e) y 2 - 2y - 24x + 25 = 0
(f) y 2 + 10y + 8x + 1 = 0
3. Find the equation of each parabola (g) y 2 + 14y + 4x + 1 = 0
(a) focus ^ -1, 3 h, directrix y = - 1 (h) y 2 - 12y + 20x - 4 = 0
(b) focus ^ - 4, 1 h, directrix y = -1 (i) y 2 - 4y + 32x - 28 = 0
(c) focus (2, 0), directrix y = - 4 (j) y 2 + 6y + 40x + 29 = 0
(d) focus (3, 6), directrix y = 2
(e) focus ^ - 2, 5 h, directrix 6. Find the equation of the parabola
y = -3 with vertex ^ 0, 3 h if it is concave
(f) focus ^ -1, - 4 h, directrix y = 4 upwards and a = 3.
(g) focus ( 4, - 3), directrix y = 7
7. Find the equation of the parabola
(h) focus ^ - 5, 1 h, directrix y = 5
with vertex ^ - 2, -1 h, focal
(i) focus ^ - 3, - 6 h, directrix y = 0
length 2, and axis parallel to the
(j) focus ^ 0, -7 h, directrix y = - 5
y-axis.
(k) focus (2, 3), directrix x = - 4
(l) focus ^ -1, 4 h, directrix x = - 3 8. A parabola has its vertex at
(m) focus (6, 0), directrix x = 2 ^ 1, - 5 h and its focal length as 1.
(n) focus ( 3, - 2 ), directrix If the parabola is concave
x = -5 upwards, find its equation.
(o) focus ^ 1, -1 h, directrix x = - 3
9. A parabola has its axis parallel
(p) focus ^ - 2, - 4 h, directrix x = 4
to the x-axis. If its vertex has
(q) focus (2, 1), directrix x = 4
coordinates ^ 2, 6 h and a = 3, find
(r) focus ^ - 5, 3 h, directrix x = 3
its equation if it turns to the left.
(s) focus ^ - 1, 2 h, directrix x = 0
(t) focus (3, 1), directrix x = 4 10. Find the equation of the parabola
with vertex at ^ 1, 0 h and focus at
4. Find
^ 1, 4 h .
(i) the coordinates of the focus and
(ii) the equation of the directrix of 11. Find the equation of the parabola
(a) x 2 - 6x - 4y - 3 = 0 that has vertex ^ 1, 1 h and focus
(b) x 2 - 2x - 8y - 7 = 0 ^ 1, 8 h .
(c) x 2 + 4x - 4y = 0
(d) x 2 - 8x - 12y + 4 = 0 12. A parabola has its vertex at
(e) x 2 + 10x - 8y + 1 = 0 ^ 2, - 2 h and focus at ^ - 4, - 2 h .
(f) x 2 - 6x + 4y + 1 = 0 Find its equation.
530 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

13. Find the equation of the parabola 21. The latus rectum of a parabola
with vertex ^ 0, 3 h and focus ^ 8, 3 h . has endpoints ^ - 2, 3 h and ^ 6, 3 h .
Find two possible equations for
14. Find the equation of the parabola
the parabola.
with vertex ^ 3, 3 h and equation of
directrix y = 5. 22.

15. Find the equation of the parabola

with vertex ^ 3, -1 h and directrix
x = -1.

16. A parabola has directrix y = 5 and

focus ^ - 3, 3 h . Find its equation.
(a) Find the equation of the arch
17. Find the equation of the locus
above.
of a point moving so that it is
(b) Find the coordinates of its
equidistant from the point ^ 2, 2 h
focus and the equation of its
and the line y = - 4.
directrix.
18. Find the equation of the parabola
23. (a) Sketch y = x 2 + 2x - 8,
with focus ^ 2, -1 h and directrix
showing intercepts and the
x = 10.
minimum point.
19. Find the coordinates of the vertex (b) Find the coordinates of the
and focus and the equation of the focus and the equation of the
directrix for the parabola directrix of the parabola.
(a) x 2 + 4x - 8y + 12 = 0
24. Find the equation of the parabola
(b) x 2 - 6x - 12y + 33 = 0
with vertex ^ - 2, 3 h that also
(c) x 2 - 2x + 4y + 5 = 0
passes through ^ 2, 1 h and is
(d) y 2 - 8y - 16x + 64 = 0
concave downwards.
(e) y 2 + 4y - 24x + 4 = 0
(f) y 2 + 8x + 40 = 0. 25. A parabolic satellite dish has a
diameter of 4 m at a depth of
20. For the parabola
0.4 m. Find the depth at which
x 2 + 2x + 28y - 111 = 0, find
its diameter is 3.5 m, correct to
the coordinates of its vertex and
1 decimal place.
focus, and the equations of its
directrix and axis. What is its
maximum value?

DID YOU KNOW?

The word ‘directrix’ is due to the Dutch mathematician Jan De Witt (1629–72). He published a
work called Elementa curvarum, in which he defined the properties of the parabola, ellipse,
circle and hyperbola. These curves are all called conic sections.
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 531

De Witt was well known as the ‘Grand Pensionary of Holland’. He took part in the politics
and wars of his time, opposing Louis XIV. When the French invaded Holland in 1672, De Witt
was seized and killed.

Tangents and Normals

Remember that the gradient of the tangent to a curve is given by the
derivative.
The normal to the curve is perpendicular to its tangent at that point.
That is, m 1 m 2 = - 1 for perpendicular lines.

EXAMPLES

1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 8y at the point

^ 4, 2 h .

Solution

x 2 = 8y
x2
` y=
8
dy 2x
=
dx 8
x
=
4
CONTINUED
532 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

dy
4
At ^ 4, 2 h, =
dx
4
=1
So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 4, 2 h is 1.

2. Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x 2 = 4y at the point

^ - 8, 16 h .

Solution

x 2 = 4y
x2
So y=
4
dy 2x
=
dx 4
x
=
2
dy -8
At (- 8, 16): =
dx 2
= -4
So the gradient of the tangent m 1 = - 4.
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.
` m 1 m 2 = -1
So ] - 4 g m 2 = -1
1
` m2 =
4
The equation of the normal is given by
y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
1
i.e. y - 16 = [x - (- 8)]
4
1
= (x + 8 )
4
4y - 64 = x + 8
0 = x - 4y + 72.

10.7 Exercises

1. Find the gradient of the tangent 3. Find the gradient of the normal
to the parabola x 2 = 12y at the to the parabola x 2 = 4y at the
point where x = 2. point where x = 2.

2. Find the gradient of the tangent 4. Find the gradient of the tangent
to the parabola x 2 = - 3y at the to the parabola x 2 = 16y at the
point ^ 6, -12 h . point ^ 4, 1 h .
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 533

5. Show that the gradient of the 12. The normal of the parabola
tangent to the curve x 2 = 2y at x 2 = 18y at ^ - 6, 2 h cuts the
any point is its x-coordinate. parabola again at Q. Find the
coordinates of Q.
6. Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve x 2 = 8y at the point 13. Find the equations of the normals
^ 4, 2 h . to the curve x 2 = - 8y at the
1
7. Find the equation of the normal points ^ -16, - 32 h and c - 2, - m .
2
to the curve x 2 = 4y at the point Find their point of intersection
where x = - 4. and show that this point lies on
the parabola.
8. Find the equations of the tangent
and normal to the parabola 14. Find the equation of the tangent
x 2 = - 24y at the point ^ 12, - 6 h . at ^ 8, 4 h on the parabola x 2 = 16y.
This tangent meets the tangent
9. Find the equations of the tangent
at the vertex of the parabola at
and normal to the parabola
point R. Find the coordinates
x 2 = 16y at the point where x = 4.
of R.
10. Find the equation of the tangent
15. (a) Show that the point P _ 2p, p 2 i
to the curve x 2 = - 2y at the
lies on the parabola x 2 = 4y.
point ^ 4, - 8 h . This tangent meets
(b) Find the equation of the
the directrix at point M. Find the
normal to the parabola at P.
coordinates of M.
(c) Show that p 2 + 1 = 0 if the
11. Find the equation of the normal normal passes through the focus
to the curve x 2 = 12y at the point of the parabola ^ p ! 0 h .
^ 6, 3 h . This normal meets the
parabola again at point P. Find
the coordinates of P.
534 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Test Yourself 10
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point 12. Find the equation of the parabola with
moving so that it is equidistant from directrix x = 6 and focus ^ - 6, 0 h .
A ^ - 1, 2 h and B ^ 3, 5 h.
13. A parabola has a focus at ^ 0, 4 h and its
2. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex is at ^ 0, 2 h. Find the equation of
focus ^ 2, 1 h and directrix y = - 3. the parabola.

3. Find the radius and centre of the circle 14. Find the equation of the locus of a point
x 2 - 6x + y 2 - 2y - 6 = 0. that is always 3 units from the line
4x - 3y - 1 = 0 .
4. Find the coordinates of
(a) the vertex and 15. A point is equidistant from the x- and
(b) the focus of the parabola y-axis. Find the equation of its locus.
(y + 3) 2 = 12 ] x - 1 g .
16. Find the equation of the parabola with
5. Find the equation of the locus of a point vertex at the origin, axis y = 0 and
that is always 5 units from the origin. 1
passing through the point c 1 , 5 m .
4
6. Find 17. Find the gradient of
(a) the equation of the directrix and (a) the tangent and
(b) the coordinates of the focus of the (b) the normal to the parabola x 2 = - 12y
parabola x 2 = - 8y. at the point where x = 3.
7. A point P ^ x, y h moves so that AP and BP 18. (a) Find the equation of the normal
are perpendicular, given A = ^ 3, 2 h and to the parabola x 2 = 4y at the point
B = ^ - 4, 1 h . Find the equation of the ^ - 8, 16 h .
locus of P. (b) This normal cuts the parabola again
8. Point P ^ x, y h is equidistant from the at Q. Find the coordinates of Q.
point A ^ 4, - 2 h and the line y = 6. Find 19. Show that 7x - 3y + 12 = 0 is a focal
the equation of the locus. chord of the parabola x 2 = 16y.
9. Find (a) the coordinates of the (i) vertex 20. Find the point of intersection of the
and (ii) focus and (b) the equation normals to the parabola x 2 = -12y at the
of the directrix of the parabola 1 1
points c 4, -1 m and c - 2, - m .
x 2 - 2x - 4y + 5 = 0. 3 3
21. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to
10. Find the equation of the tangent to the
the parabola x 2 = 12y at the point P (6, 3).
parabola x 2 = 18y at the point ^ - 6, 2 h .
(b) Find R, the y-intercept of the tangent.
11. Find the length of the diameter of the (c) Show that FP = FR where F is the
circle x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 12y + 3 = 0. focus.
 Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola 535

Challenge Exercise 10
1. (a) Find the equation of the locus of 9. Sketch the region
point P, which is equidistant from fixed x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 4y - 4 # 0.
points A ^ 3, 5 h and B ^ -1, 2 h .
10. (a) Find the equation of the locus
(b) Show that this locus is the
of a point P moving so that PA is
perpendicular bisector of line AB.
perpendicular to PB where A = ^ - 4, 3 h
2. (a) Find the equation of the circle with and B = ^ 0, 7 h .
centre ^ 1, 3 h and radius 5 units. (b) Show that this locus is a circle with
(b) Show that the circle cuts the x-axis at centre ^ - 2, 5 h and radius 2 2 .
the points ^ 5, 0 h and ^ - 3, 0 h .
11. Find the exact gradient, with rational
3. The line with equation 5x - 12y + 36 = 0 denominator, of the normal to the
is a chord of the parabola x 2 = 12y. Find the parabola y 2 = 12x at the point where
point of intersection of the tangents to the x = 4 in the first quadrant.
parabola from the endpoints of the chord.
12. (a) Find the equation of the parabola
4. (a) Find the equation of the normals to with vertex ^ 3, - 2 h and focus ^ 7, - 2 h .
the parabola x 2 = 8y at the points (b) Find the equation of the tangent to
1 the parabola at the point where x = 4 in
M c - 2, m and N ^ 8, 8 h .
2 the first quadrant.
(b) Show that these normals are
perpendicular. 13. Find the exact length of the line
(c) Find the point of intersection X of from ^ 2, 7 h to the centre of the circle
the normals. x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 6y - 3 = 0 .
(d) Find the equation of line MN and
14. Find the equation of the locus of
show that it is a focal chord.
midpoints of all chords of length
5. From which point on the parabola x 2 = 4ay 2 units in the circle with equation
does the normal pass through the focus? x 2 + y 2 - 2 y - 3 = 0.

6. (a) Find the equation of the tangents to 15. A satellite dish is to be 3.5 m wide and
the parabola x = 4y at the points
2 1.1 m deep. Find the position of the
1 focus in millimetres, correct to the
A c 1, m and B ^ - 4, 4 h .
4 nearest millimetre.
(b) Show that the point of intersection of
these tangents lies on the directrix. 1.1 m

7. Find the equation of the parabola with

3.5 m
axis parallel to the y-axis and passing
through points ^ 0, - 2 h, ^ 1, 0 h and ^ 3, - 8 h . 16. Find the equation of the locus of point
8. Find the equation of the straight line P that moves such that the distance
through the centres of the circles with from P to the lines 3x - 4y + 1 = 0 and
equations x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 8y - 5 = 0 and 12x + 5y + 3 = 0 is in the ratio 3:1.
x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 10y + 10 = 0.
540 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Answers
Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic 8. (a) 0.83o (b) 0.07
oo (c) 0.13
oo (d) 0.16
o o
(e) 0.6 oo
(f) 0.15
o o oo
(g) 0.142857 or 0. 142857 (h) 1.18
Problem
8 2 5 7 67 6 7
5 9. (a) (b) (c) 1 (d) 3 (e) (f) (g)
9 9 9 9 99 11 45

Exercises 1.1 13 217 37

(h) (i) (j) 1
60 990 495
1. (a) Rational (b) Rational (c) Rational (d) Irrational
(e) Rational (f) Irrational (g) Irrational (h) Rational o
10. (a) 0.5 (b) 7.4 o
(c) 0.73 oo
(d) 0.68 oo
(e) 1.72
(i) Rational (j) Irrational
5 1 8 7 4
7 11. (a) (b) 2 (c) (d) 2 (e)
2. (a) 18 (b) 11 (c) 6 (d) 11 (e) - 4.3 (f) −1 (g) 2 8 8 11 18 45
15
19 1
(h) 1 (i) 2 (j) 3 12. 74% 13. 77.5% 14. 17.5% 15. 41.7%
20 3
3. (a) 16.36 (b) 21.87 (c) 8.80 (d) 22.71 (e) - 13.20
Exercises 1.4
(f) 0.17 (g) 0.36 (h) 1.20 (i) - 4.27 (j) 8.16
3 7 17 1 7
4. 1300 5. 950 6. 3000 7. 11 000 1. 2. 3. (a) (b) (c) 1
20 20 20 20 10
8. 600 9. $8 000 000 10. $34 600 000 3 3 7
(d) (e) 4. $547.56 5. 714.3 g 6. 7. $65
28 5 24
11. 844 km 12. 0.73 13. 33 14. 3.248 15. 4.21 8. 179 cm 9. (a) 11.9 (b) 5.3 (c) 19 (d) 3.2 (e) 3.5
(f) 0.24 (g) 0.000 18 (h) 5720 (i) 0.0874 (j) 0.376
16. 1.7 17. 79 cents 18. 2.73 19. 1.1 20. 3.6 m
10. $52.50 11. 54.925 mL 12. 1152.125 g 13. $10.71
21. $281.93 22. 1.8 g 23. $3.20
14. 5.9% 15. 402.5 g 16. 41.175 m 17. $30.92
24. (a) 7.95 (b) 30.03 (c) 0.37 (d) 5.74 (e) 0.52 25. 0.2
18. 3.2 m 19. 573 20. $2898

Exercises 1.2
Problem
1. 1 2. - 11 3. - 56 4. 10 5. - 4
5
5 minutes after 1 o’clock.
6. - 1.2 7. - 7.51 8. - 35.52 9. 6.57 11
4
10. - 2 11. - 7 12. −23 13. 10 14. 1 Exercises 1.5
15
15. 5 16. 3 17. 1 18. 60 19. −20 20. 9 1
1. (a) 500 (b) 145 (c) (d) 3 (e) 2
64
Exercises 1.3 2. (a) 13.7 (b) 1.1 (c) 0.8 (d) 2.7 (e) - 2.6 (f) 0.5

16 51 1 4 3. (a) a 17 (b) y 0 = 1 (c) a - 4 (d) w (e) x 5 (f) p 10

1. (a) (b) (c) 5 (d) 11
25 1000 20 5 x 10
(g) y 6 (h) x 21 (i) 4x 10 (j) 81y - 8 (k) a (l)
2. o
(a) 0.4 (b) 1.875 (c) 0.416 oo
(d) 0.63 y 45
b3
1 3 1 97 (m) w 10 (n) p 5 (o) x -3 (p) a - 2 b 3 or
3. (a) (b) (c) (d) 1 a2
50 8 1000 1000 y 2

(q) x - 5 y 2 or
4. (a) 0.27 (b) 1.09 (c) 0.003 (d) 0.0623 x5
1 2 4. (a) x14 (b) a -7 (c) m4 (d) k10 (e) a -8 (f) x (g) mn2
5. (a) 35% (b) 33 % (c) 226 % (d) 0.1%
3 3
(h) p - 1 (i) 9x22 (j) x21
6. (a) 124% (b) 70% (c) 40.5% (d) 127.94%
13 7 21 a8 64a 3
7. (a) 0.52; (b) 0.07; (c) 0.168; 5. (a) p5q15 (b) (c) (d) 49a10b2 (e) 8m17
25 100 125 b 8
b 12
9 217 49 2k 23
(d) 1.09; 1 (e) 0.434; (f) 0.1225; (f) x4y10 (g) (h) 16y47 (i) a3 (j) 125x - 21 y 18
100 500 400 27
 ANSWERS 541

3 5 5
1 10 1 -
1 2
6. 4 7. 324 8. 2 9. (a) a3b (b) 5. (a) x 2 (b) x 2
(c) x 3 (d) x 3 (e) x 4
2 27 25
3 2 2 1
7 4 1 4 6. (a) x + x 2 + 2x 2 (b) a 3 - b 3 (c) p 2 + p - 1 + 2p 2
10. (a) pq r 2 2
(b) 11. 12. 13.
32 9 18 27 -
1
-
3
-
5
(d) x + x - 1 + 2 (e) x 2
- 3x 2
+x 2

1 1 1 5 22 49
1 1
14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 4
81 108 12 2 58 3888 7. (a) (b) (c)
3
a - 2b 3
^ y - 3 h2 7
] 6a + 1 g4
1 6
Exercises 1.6 (d) (e)
3 4 ^ x + y h5 7 9 ] 3x + 8 g2
1 1 1 1 1
1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 1
27 4 343 10 000 256
1 1 1 1 1 1 Exercises 1.8
(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) 1
32 81 7 81 64 9 1. (a) 3.8 # 10 3 (b) 1.23#10 6 (c) 6.19 # 10 4
1 1 1 1 (d) 1.2 #10 7 (e) 8.67 # 10 9 (f) 4.16 # 10 5
(n) (o) (p) (q) (r) 1
36 125 100 000 128
(g) 9 #10 2
(h) 1.376 # 10 4
(i) 2 # 10 7 (j) 8 #10 4
1 1
(s) (t)
64 64 2. (a) 5.7 # 10 - 2 (b) 5.5 # 10 - 5 (c) 4 # 10 - 3
1 11 1 (d) 6.2 #10 -4
(e) 2 #10 -6
(f) 8#10 - 8
2. (a) 1 (b) 16 (c) 1 (d) 1 (e) 1 (f) 125 (g) 1
2 25 3 -6 -1
(g) 7.6#10 (h) 2.3#10 (i) 8.5#10 - 3 (j) 7#10 - 11
3 1 13 19
(h) 49 (i) 3 (j) 32 (k) 2 (l) 1 (m) 1 (n) 1
8 3 36 81 3. (a) 36 000 (b) 27 800 000 (c) 9 250 (d) 6 330 000
5 7 16 (e) 400 000 (f) 0.072 3 (g) 0.000 097
(o) 1 (p) 16 (q) - 15 (r) - (s) 1 (t)
8 23 25 (h) 0.000 000 038 (i) 0.000 007 (j) 0.000 5
3. (a) m - 3 (b) x - 1 (c) p - 7 (d) d −9 (e) k −5 (f) x - 2
4. (a) 240 000 (b) 9 200 000 (c) 11 000 (d) 0.36
-4 1 z- 6 3t - 8 2x - 1
(g) 2x (h) 3y −2
(i) z - 6 or (j) (k) (e) 1.3 (f) 9.0 (g) 16 (h) 320 (i) 2900 (j) 9.1
2 2 5 7
5m -6 2y - 7
(l) (m) (n) ] 3x + 4 g- 2 (o) ] a + b g- 8 5. (a) 6.61 (b) 0.686 (c) 8.25 (d) 1.30
2 3
(p) ] x - 2 g- 1 (q) ^ 5p + 1 h- 3 (r) 2 ] 4t - 9 g- 5 6. 1.305 # 10 10 7. 6.51 # 10 - 10
]x + 1g - 11
5 ] a + 3b g -7
(s) (t)
4 9
Exercises 1.9
1 1 1 1 1 2 3
4. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
t5
x 6
y 3
n 8
w 10 x m 4
1. (a) 7 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 0 (e) 2 (f) 11 (g) 6 (h) 24
5 1 1 1 1 (i) 25 (j) 125 2. (a) 5 (b) −1 (c) 2 (d) 14 (e) 4
(h) (i) (j) (k) (l)
x7 8x 3 4n ] x + 1 g6 8y + z (f) −67 (g) 7 (h) 12 (i) −6 (j) 10 3. (a) 3 (b) 3
1 1 p (c) 1 (d) 3 (e) 1 4. (a) a (b) - a (c) 0 (d) 3a
(m) (n) (o) x5 (p) y10 (q)
]k - 3g 2
^ 3x + 2y h 9
2 (e) −3a (f) 0 (g) a + 1 (h) -a - 1 (i) x - 2
x-y 3x + y 7 (j) 2 - x
(r) ] a + b g2 (s) (t) e o
x+y 2w - z
5. (a) | a + b | = 6 |a | + | b |= 6 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
(b) | a + b | = 3 |a | + | b |= 3 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
Exercises 1.7 (c) | a + b | = 1 |a | + | b |= 5 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
1. (a) 9 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 2 (e) 7 (f) 10 (g) 2 (h) 8 (d) | a + b | = 1 |a | + | b |= 9 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
(i) 4 (j) 1 (k) 3 (l) 2 (m) 0 (n) 5 (o) 7 (p) 2 (e) | a + b | = 10 | a | + | b | = 10 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
1 1
(q) 4 (r) 27 (s) (t) 6. (a) x2 = | x | = 5 (b) x2 = | x | = 2 (c) x2 = | x | = 3
2 16
(d) x2 = | x | = 4 (e) x2 = | x | = 9
2. (a) 2.19 (b) 2.60 (c) 1.53 (d) 0.60 (e) 0.90 (f) 0.29
2 1 7. (a) x + 5 for x 2 - 5 and - x - 5 for x 1 - 5
3. (a) 3 y (b) 3 y 2 or _ 3 y i (c) (d) 2x + 5
x (b) b - 3 for b 2 3 and 3 - b for x 1 3
1 1 1 (c) a + 4 for a 2 - 4 and - a - 4 for a 1 - 4
(e) (f) 3 6q + r (g) or
3x - 1 5
] x + 7 g2 ^ 5 x + 7 h2 (d) 2y - 6 for y 2 3 and 6 - 2y for y 1 3
(e) 3x + 9 for x 2 - 3 and - 3x - 9 for x 1 - 3
1 1 3 1 1

4. (a) t 2 (b) y 5 (c) x 2 (d) ] 9 - x g 3 (e) ] 4s + 1 g 2 (f) 4 - x for x 1 4 and x - 4 for x 2 4

1 1
-
1
-
3 5 (g) 2k + 1 for k 2 - and - 2k - 1 for k 1 -
(f) ] 2t + 3 g 2
(g) ^ 5x - y h 2
(h) ] 3x + 1 g 2 2 2
2 2
-
2
1 -
1
-
1 (h) 5x - 2 for x 2 and - 5x + 2 for x 1
(i) ] x - 2 g 3
(j) ^ y + 7 h 2 (k) 5 ] x + 4 g 3 5 5
2 (i) a + b for a 2 - b and - a - b for a 1 - b
1 3
- -
3 (j) p - q for p 2 q and q - p for p 1 q
(m) _ x 2 + 2 i
2a 2
y - 1k
2 4
(l)
3 5
8. x = !3 9. !1 10. !1, x ! 2
542 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Test yourself 1 Chapter 2: Algebra and surds

9 157 Exercises 2.1

1. (a) (b) 0.14 (c) 0.625 (d) (e) 1.2%
20 200
1 1 1 1. 7x 2. 3a 3. z 4. 6a 5. 3b 6. −3r
(f) 73.3% 2. (a) (b) (c)
49 5 3
7. -y 8. −5x 9. 0 10. 3k 11. 9t 12. 10w
3. (a) 8.83 (b) 1.55 (c) 1.12 (d) 342 (e) 0.303 4. (a) 1
(b) 1 (c) 39 (d) 2 (e) - 10 (f) - 1 (g) 4 5. (a) x 9 13. - m 14. - x 15. 0 16. 5b 17. 11b 18. - 10x
8x 18 29
(b) 25y 6 (c) a 11 b 6 (d) (e) 1 6. (a) 19. 6x - 6y 20. a - 3b 21. 4xy + 2y 22. - 6ab 2
27 40
1 1 1 23. m 2 - 6m + 12 24. p 2 - 2p - 6 25. 8x + 3y
(b) 3 (c) 12 (d) 2 (e) 12 7. (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 19
7 2 2
1 1 26. - 2ab + 10b 27. 2bc - ac 28. 2a 5 - 9x 3 + 1
(d) (e) 4 (f) 3 (g) (h) 2 (i) 1 (j) 4
64 7
1 29. x 3 - 2xy 2 + 3x 2 y + 2y 3 30. 3x 3 + x 2 - 7x - 6
8. (a) a 5
(b) x y30 18
(c) p 9
(d) 16b 36
(e) 8x y 11
9. (a) n 2

1 1
Exercises 2.2
(b) x - 5 (c) ^ x + y h- 1 (d) ] x + 1 g 4
(e) ] a + b g 7
4 9 3
1 -3 - 1. 10b 2. 8xy 3. 10p 2 4. - 6wz
(f) 2x - 1 (g) x (h) x 3 (i) ] 5x + 3 g 7 (j) m 4

2
5. 15ab 6. 14xyz 7. 48abc 8. 12d 2
1 1 1
10. (a) (b) 4 n (c) x+1 (d) (e) 9. 12a3 10. - 27y3 11. 32x10
a5 ] 4t - 7 g4 x-y
1 1 12. 6a 2 b 3 13. - 10a 3 b 2 14. 21p 3 q 4
(f) 5 a + b (g) (h) 4 b 3 (i) 3 ] 2x + 3 g4 (j)
3
x x3 15. 5a 3 b 3 16. - 8h 10 17. k 3 p 3 18. 81t 12
11. | a + b | = 2 | a | +| b | = 8 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b | 19. - 14m 11
20. 24x y 6 3

1 7 1
12. 1 13. 14. 689 mL 15. (a) 6 h (b) (c)
192 12 8 Exercises 2.3
(d) 33.3% 16. $38 640 17. 70% 18. 6.3 # 10 23
y
1 1 7
1. 6x 2. 2 3. 4a 2 4. 8a 5. 4a 6. 7. 3p
19. (a) x 2 (b) y - 1 (c) ] x + 3 g 6 (d) ] 2x - 3 g- 11 (e) y 3 2
ab 4 1 -2
7 41 8. 9. 10. - 3x 3 11. 3a 12. 13.
20. (a) 1.3 # 10 - 5 (b) 1.23 # 10 11 21. (a) (b) 2 3y 3ab 2 qs
9 330
1 1 b 5 2 z 2
a b
4 7
b 6

22. (a) (b) (c) c m 23. 14 500 14. 15. 16. 6p 4 q 17. 18.
x 3
2a + 5 a 3c 2 d 2x 2 4c 2a

24. LHS = | -2 + - 5 | = 7, RHS = | -2 | + | -5 | = 7. x3 z3 a 13

19. - 20.
So | a + b | # | a | +| b | since 7 # 7. 3y 2b 6

Exercises 2.4
Challenge exercise 1
1. 2x - 8 2. 6h + 9 3. - 5a + 10 4. 2xy + 3x
278 11 51 o
1. 4 2. 1 3. 0.502, 51%, , 0. 5 5. x 2 - 2x 6. 6a 2 - 16ab 7. 2a 2 b + ab 2 8. 5n 2 - 20n
303 18 99
9. 3x3 y2 + 6x2 y3 10. 4k + 7 11. 2t - 17
1 1 3271
4. 53 % 5. 6. 3.04 # 10 14
7. 83% 8. 1
3 16 9990 12. 4y + 11y
2
13. - 5b - 6 14. 8 - 2x
9. 18 h 10. 1.98 15. - 3m + 1 16. 8h - 19 17. d - 6 18. a 2 - 2a + 4
11. LHS = 2 ^ 2 k - 1 h + 2 k + 1 19. 3x - 9x - 5
2
20. 2ab - 2a b + b 2
21. 4x - 1
= 2k+1 - 2 + 2k+1 22. - 7y + 4 23. 2 b 24. 5t - 6 25. 2a + 26
= 2:2 k + 1 - 2
= 2 ^ 2k+1 - 1 h Exercises 2.5
= RHS
` 2 ^ 2k - 1 h + 2k+1 = 2 ^ 2k+1 - 1 h 1. a 2 + 7a + 10 2. x 2 + 2x - 3 3. 2y 2 + 7y - 15
. o , 0,
12. −24 35 13. - 0.34, 2, 1. 5
3 2
14. 6 % 4. m 2 - 6m + 8 5. x 2 + 7x + 12 6. y 2 - 3y - 10
7 3
7. 2x 2 + x - 6 8. h 2 - 10h + 21 9. x 2 - 25
1 1
15. when x 2 - 1, when x 1 - 1 16. 0.73 10. 15a 2 - 17a + 4 11. 8y 2 + 6y - 9 12. xy + 7x - 4y - 28
x-1 1-x
17. 0.6% 18 4.54 19. 4.14 # 10 - 20 13. x 3 - 2x 2 + 3x - 6 14. n 2 - 4 15. 4x 2 - 9
16. 16 - 49y 2 17. a 2 - 4b 2 18. 9x 2 - 16y 2 19. x 2 - 9
20. | a + b | = | a | + | b | when a 2 0, b 2 0 or a 1 0, b 1 0;
| a + b | 1 | a | + | b | when a 2 0, b 1 0 or a 1 0, b 2 0; 20. y 2 - 36 21. 9a 2 - 1 22. 4z 2 - 49
` | a + b | # | a + b | for all a, b
 ANSWERS 543

23. x 2 - 2xy + 11x - 18y + 18 24. 2ab + 2b 2 - 7b - 6a + 3 Exercises 2.8

25. x + 8
3
26. a - 27 3
27. a + 18a + 81
2
1. ]x + 4g]2 + bg 2. ^ y - 3 h ] a + b g 3. ] x + 5 g ] x + 2 g
28. k - 8k + 16
2
29. x + 4x + 42
30. y - 14y + 492
4. ]m - 2g]m + 3g 5. ] d - c g ] a + b g 6. ] x + 1 g ^ x 2 + 3 h
31. 4x 2 + 12x + 9 32. 4t 2 - 4t + 1 7. ] 5a - 3 g ] b + 2 g 8. ^ 2y - x h ^ x + y h 9. ^ y + 1 h ] a + 1 g
33. 9a + 24ab + 16b
2 2
34. x - 10xy + 25y
2 2
10. ] x + 5 g ] x - 1 g 11. (y + 3) (1 + a) 12. (m - 2) (1 - 2y)
35. 4a + 4ab + b
2 2
36. a - b 2 2
37. a + 2ab + b
2 2
13. ^ x + 5y h ^ 2x - 3y h 14. ^ a + b h ] ab - 4 g
2

38. a - 2ab + b
2 2
39. a + b 3 3
40. a - b 3 3
15. ] 5 - x g ] x + 3 g 16. (x + 7) (x 3 - 4) 17. ] x - 3 g ^ 7 - y h
18. ] d + 3 g ] 4 - e g 19. ] x - 4 g ^ 3 + y h 20. ] a + 3 g ] 2 - b g
Exercises 2.6
21. (x - 3) (x 2 + 6) 22. ^ q - 3 h ^ p + q h
1. t + 8t + 16
2
2. z - 12z + 36
2
3. x - 2x + 1
2
23. ] x - 2 g ^ 3x 2 - 5 h 24. ] a - 3b g ] 4 + c g
4. y 2 + 16y + 64 5. q 2 + 6q + 9 6. k 2 - 14k + 49 25. ^ y + 7 h ] x - 4 g 26. (x - 4) (x 3 - 5)
7. n 2 + 2n + 1 8. 4b 2 + 20b + 25 9. 9 - 6x + x 2 27. (2x - 3) (2x + 4) = 2 (2x - 3) (x 2 + 2)
2

10. 9y - 6y + 1
2
11. x + 2xy + y
2 2
12. 9a - 6ab + b 2 2
28. 3 (a + 2b) (a + 3) 29. 5 (y - 3) (1 + 2x)
13. 16d + 40de + 25e
2 2
14. t - 16 2
15. x 2 - 9 30. ] r + 2 g ] rr - 3 g
16. p 2 - 1 17. r 2 - 36 18. x 2 - 100 19. 4a 2 - 9
20. x 2 - 25y 2 21. 16a 2 - 1 22. 49 - 9x 2 23. x 4 - 4 Exercises 2.9
4
24. x + 10x + 25
4 2
25. 9a b - 16c 2 2 2
26. x + 4 + 2 2
1. ]x + 3g]x + 1g 2. ^ y + 4 h ^ y + 3 h 3. ] m + 1 g2
x
1 4. ] t + 4 g2 5. ] z + 3 g ] z - 2 g 6. ] x + 1 g ] x - 6 g
27. a 2 - 28. x 2 - ^ y - 2 h2 = x 2 - y 2 + 4y - 4
a2 7. ]v - 3g]v - 5g 8. ] t - 3 g 2
9. ] x + 10 g ] x - 1 g
29. ] a + b g2 + 2 ] a + b g c + c 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 + 2ac + 2bc + c 2 10. ^ y - 7 h ^ y - 3 h 11. ] m - 6 g ] m - 3 g
30. ] x + 1 g2 - 2 ] x + 1 g y + y 2 = x 2 + 2x + 1 - 2xy - 2y + y 2 12. ^ y + 12 h ^ y - 3 h 13. ] x - 8 g ] x + 3 g
31. 12a 32. 32 - z 2
33. 9x + 8x - 3 2
14. ] a - 2 g 2
15. ] x - 2 g ] x + 16 g
34. x 2 + 3xy + y 2 - 2x 35. 14n 2 - 4 16. ^ y + 4 h ^ y - 9 h 17. ] n - 6 g ] n - 4 g 18. ] x - 5 g 2
36. x - 12x + 48x - 64
3 2
37. x 2
38. x - 2x y + y4 2 2 4
19. ^ p + 9 h ^ p - 1 h 20. ] k - 2 g ] k - 5 g 21. ] x + 4 g ] x - 3 g
39. 8a + 60a + 150a + 125
3 2
22. ] m - 7 g ] m + 1 g 23. ^ q + 10 h ^ q + 2 h
40. 4x + 16x + 15x - 4x - 4
4 3 2
24. ] d - 5 g ] d + 1 g 25. ] l - 9 g ] l - 2 g

Problem Exercises 2.10

a = 2, b = 7, c = 9, d = 4, e = 3, f = 8, g = 0, h = 6, i = 1 1. (2a + 1) (a + 5) 2. ^ 5y + 2 h ^ y + 1 h
3. (3x + 7) (x + 1) 4. (3x + 2) (x + 2) 5. (2b - 3) (b - 1)
Exercises 2.7
6. (7x - 2) (x - 1) 7. ^ 3y - 1 h ^ y + 2 h 8. ] 2x + 3 g ] x + 4 g
1. 2^ y + 3h 2. 5 ] x - 2 g 3. 3 ] m - 3 g 4. 2 ] 4x + 1 g 9. ^ 5p - 2 h ^ p + 3 h 10. ] 3x + 5 g ] 2x + 1 g
5. 6 ^ 4 - 3y h 6. x ] x + 2 g 7. m ] m - 3 g 8. 2y ^ y + 2 h 11. (2y + 1) (y - 6) 12. ] 5x - 1 g ] 2x + 1 g
9. 3a ] 5 - a g 10. ab ] b + 1 g 11. 2xy ] 2x - 1 g 13. (4t - 1) (2t - 3) 14. (3x + 4) (2x - 3)
12. 3mn ^ n 2 + 3 h 13. 2xy ] 4x - z g 14. a ] 6b + 3 - 2a g 15. ^ 6y - 1 h ^ y + 8 h 16. ] 4n - 3 g ] n - 2 g
15. x ^ 5x - 2 + y h 16. q 2 _ 3q 3 - 2 i 17. 5b 2 ] b + 3 g 17. ] 4t - 1 g ] 2t + 5 g 18. ^ 3q + 2 h ^ 4q + 5 h
18. 3a b ] 2b - a g 19. (m + 5) (x + 7)
2 2
20. ^ y - 1 h ^ 2 - y h 19. ] 4r - 1 g ] 2r + 6 g = 2 ] 4r - 1 g ] r + 3 g
21. (7 + y) (4 - 3x) 22. ] a - 2 g ] 6x + 5 g 20. ] 2x - 5 g ] 2x + 3 g 21. ^ 6y - 1 h ^ y - 2 h
23. ] 2t + 1 g ^ x - y h 24. ] 3x - 2 g ] a + 2b - 3c g 22. ^ 2p - 3 h ^ 3p + 2 h 23. (8x + 7) (x + 3)
25. 3x ] 2x + 3 g
2
26. 3q _ pq 2 - 2 i
3
27. 3ab ^ 5a 3 b 2 + 1 h 24. ] 3b - 4 g ] 4b - 9 g 25. (6x + 1) (x - 9)
28. 4x 2 ] x - 6 g 29. 5m 2 n ^ 7mn 3 - 5 h 30. 4ab 2 ^ 6ab 3 + 4 h 26. ] 3x + 5 g2 27. ^ 4y + 3 h2 28. ] 5k - 2 g2
31. 2rr ] r + h g 32. ] x - 3 g ] x + 2 g 33. (x + 4) (y 2 + 2) 29. ] 6a - 1 g2 30. ] 7m + 6 g2
34. - ] a + 1 g 35. (a 2 + 1) (4ab - 3)
544 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Exercises 2.11 Exercises 2.14

1. ^y - 1h 2
2. (x + 3) 2
3. (m + 5) 2
4. (t - 2) 2
1. 2 ] x + 3 g ] x - 3 g 2. 3 ^ p + 3 h ^ p - 4 h
5. (x - 6) 2
6. ] 2x + 3 g 2
7. ] 4b - 1 g 2
8. ] 3a + 2 g 2
3. 5 ^ y - 1 h _ y 2 + y + 1 i 4. 2ab ^ a + 2b) (2a - 1 h
9. ] 5x - 4 g2 10. ^ 7y + 1 h2 11. ^ 3y - 5 h2 12. ] 4k - 3 g2 5. 5 ] a - 1 g2 6. - ] 2x - 3 g ] x - 4 g 7. 3z ] z + 5 g ] z + 4 g
2
1 8. ab ] 3 + 2ab g ] 3 - 2ab g 9. x ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g
13. ] 5x + 1 g2 14. ] 9a - 2 g2 15. ] 7m + 6 g2 16. d t + n
2
10. 2 ] 3x - 2 g ] x + 2 g 11. ] m - 5 g ] 3 + n g 12. - 7 ] 2x + 1 g
2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2
17. d x - n 18. d 3y + n 19. c x + m 20. d 5k - n 13. ^ y + 5 h ^ y + 4 h ^ y - 4 h 14. ] x - 1 g ] x + 2 g ^ x 2 - 2x + 4 h
3 5 x k
15. ] x + 1 g ^ x 2 - x + 1 h ] x - 1 g ^ x 2 + x + 1 h
Exercises 2.12
16. x ] x + 2 g ] x - 5 g 17. ] x + 3 g (x - 3) 2
1. (a + 2) (a - 2) 2. (x + 3) (x - 3) 3. (y + 1) (y - 1)
18. y (2xy + 1) (2xy - 1) 19. 3 ] 2 - b g ^ 4 + 2b + b 2 h
4. ]x + 5g]x - 5g 5. (2x + 7) (2x - 7) 6. (4y + 3) (4y - 3)
20. 3 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 5 g 21. 3 ] x - 1 g2
7. (1 + 2z) (1 - 2z) 8. ] 5t + 1 g ] 5t - 1 g 9. ] 3t + 2 g ] 3t - 2 g
22. (x + 2) (x + 5) (x - 5) 23. z ] z + 3 g2
10. ] 3 + 4x g ] 3 - 4x g 11. (x + 2y) (x - 2y)
24. ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g ] 2x + 3 g ] 2x - 3 g
12. ^ 6x + y h ^ 6x - y h 13. ] 2a + 3b g ] 2a - 3b g
25. 2 ] x + 2 g ] x - 2 g ^ x + y h _ x 2 - xy + y 2 i
14. ^ x + 10y h ^ x - 10y h 15. ] 2a + 9b g ] 2a - 9b g
26. 4a (a + 3) (a - 3) 27. 5x ] 2 - x g ^ 4 + 2x + x 2 h
16. ^ x + 2 + y h ^ x + 2 - y h 17. (a + b - 3) (a - b + 1)
28. (a + 2) (a - 2) (a + 3) (a - 3) 29. 4k (k + 5) 2
1 1
18. ] z + w + 1 g ] z - w - 1 g 19. d x + n d x - n 30. 3 (x + 1) (x - 1) (x + 3)
2 2
y y
20. e + 1oe - 1 o 21. ^ x + 2y + 3 h ^ x - 2y + 1 h Exercises 2.15
3 3
1. x 2 + 4x + 4 = ] x + 2 g2 2. b 2 - 6b + 9 = ] b - 3 g2
22. (x 2 + 1) (x 2 - 1) = (x 2 + 1) (x + 1) (x - 1)
3. x 2 - 10x + 25 = ] x - 5 g2 4. y 2 + 8y + 16 = ^ y + 4 h2
23. _ 3x 3 + 2y i _ 3x 3 - 2y i 24. _ x 2 + 4y 2 i ^ x + 2y h ^ x - 2y h
5. m - 14m + 49 = ] m - 7 g
2 2
6. q 2 + 18x + 81 = ^ q + 9 h2
25. (a 4 + 1) (a 2 + 1) (a + 1) (a - 1)
7. x 2 + 2x + 1 = ] x + 1 g2 8. t 2 - 16t + 64 = ] t - 8 g2
Exercises 2.13 9. x 2 - 20x + 100 = ] x - 10 g2
1. (b - 2) (b 2 + 2b + 4) 2. ] x + 3 g ^ x 2 - 3x + 9 h 10. w 2 + 44w + 484 = ] w + 22 g2
3. ]t + 1g^t - t + 1h
2
4. (a - 4) (a + 4a + 16)
2
9 3 2
11. x 2 - 32x + 256 = ] x - 16 g2 12. y 2 + 3y + = dy + n
5. (1 - x) (1 + x + x ) 2
6. ^ 2 + 3y h _ 4 - 6y + 9y i 2 4 2

7. (y + 2z) (y - 2yz + 4z 2)
2
8. (x - 5y) (x 2 + 5xy + 25y 2) 49 7 2 1 1 2
13. x 2 - 7x + = dx - n 14. a 2 + a + = da + n
4 2 4 2
9. ^ 2x + 3y h _ 4x 2 - 6xy + 9y 2 i 10. ] ab - 1 g ^ a 2 b 2 + ab + 1 h
81 9 2 5y 25 5 2
x x 2 3x 15. x 2 + 9x + = dx + n 16. y 2 - + = dy - n
11. (10 + 2t) (100 - 20t + 4t 2) 12. d - 3ne + + 9o 4 2 2 16 4
2 4 2
10 1 100 10 1 11k 121 11 2
13. d + ne 2 - + o 17. k 2 - + = dk - n
a b a ab b 2 4
2 16
14. ^ x + 1 - y h _ x 2 + 2x + 1 + xy + y + y 2 i
18. x 2 + 6xy + 9y 2 = ^ x + 3y h2 19. a 2 - 4ab + 4b 2 = ] a - 2b g2
15. ^ 5xy + 6z h _ 25x 2 y 2 - 30xyz + 36z 2 i 16. - 9 ^ a 2 - a + 1 h
20. p 2 - 8pq + 16q 2 = ^ p - 4q h2
x x x 2
17. d 1 - ne1 + + o
3 3 9 Exercises 2.16
18. ^ x + y + 3 h _ y - 3y - xy + 9 + 6x + x i
2 2
4y + 1 4 x
19. ^ x + y - 1 h _ x 2 + 4x - xy + y 2 - 5y + 7 i 1. a+2 2. 2t - 1 3. 4. 5.
3 2d - 1 5x - 2
20. (2a + 6 - b) (4a 2 + 24a + 2ab + 6b + b 2 + 36) 1 2 ] b - 2a g s-1 b2 + b + 1
6. 7. 8. 9.
y-4 a-3 s+3 b+1
p+5 a+1 3+y
10. 11. 12. 13. x - 3
3 a+3 x + 2x + 4
2

p-2 a+b
14. 15.
4p - 2p + 1
2
2a - b
 ANSWERS 545

Exercises 2.17 Exercises 2.20

5x 13y + 3 a+8 4p + 3 x - 13 1. 3 5 2. 2 3. 6 3 4. 3 3 5. - 3 5 6. 3 6
1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
4 15 12 6 6 7. - 7 2 8. 8 5 9. - 4 2 10. 4 5 11. 2 12. 5 3
b ^ p - 2 h _ q2 - q + 1 i b 2 ^ x + 2y h 13. - 3 14. 2 15. 5 7 16. 2 17. 13 6
2. (a) (b) (c)
2a - 1 q+1 10 ] 2b - 1 g 18. - 9 10 19. 47 3 20. 5 2 - 2 3 21. 7-5 2
x 2 - xy + y 2 ]x - 3g]x - 1g 22. - 2 3 - 4 5 23. 7 6 + 3 5 24. - 2 - 2 3
(d) (e)
ab ]x - 5g]x - 2g
25. - 17 5 + 10 2
5 -x + 2 a+b+3 2x
3. (a) (b) (c) (d)
x x ]x - 1g a+b x+2 Exercise 2.21
^ p + qh^ p - qh + 1 p2 - q2 + 1 2]x - 1g 1. 21 2. 15 3. 3 6 4. 10 14 5. - 6 6 6. 30
(e) = (f)
p+q p+q ]x + 1g]x - 3g
7. - 12 55 8. 14 9. 60 10. 12 = 2 3
- 3x + 8 a+2 11. 2 48 = 8 3 12. 15 28 = 30 7
(g) (h)
]x + 2g]x - 2g ] a + 1 g2
13. 2 20 = 4 5 14. - 84 15. 2
2 _ 3y 2 + 14y + 13 i - ] 5x + 22 g
(i) (j) 16. 28 17. 30 18. - 2 105 19. 18
^y + 2h^y + 3h^y - 1h ]x + 4g]x - 4g]x + 3g
8
^y + 2h^y + 1h 20. 30 50 = 150 2 21. 2 6 22. 4 3 23. 1 24.
x2 ] x + 2 g 6
4. (a) (b)
8 _ y 2 - 3y + 9 i 15y 1 1 1 1
25. 2 3 26. 27. 28. 29.
3 10 2 5 3 5 2
x 2 + 10x - 24 3b 2 - 5b - 10
(c) (d) (e) x
2 ]x - 3g]x - 4g 2b ] b + 1 g 3 3 9 5 2 5
30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.
3x - 13 3 - 5x 2 2 2 2 5 2 2 3 7
5. (a) (b)
]x - 5g]x - 2g]x + 3g ]x + 2g]x - 2g

3p 2 + 5pq - 2q 2 a 2 - 2ab - b 2 + 1 Exercises 2.22

(c) (d)
pq ^ p + q h ^ p - q h ]a + bg]a - bg
1. (a) 10 + 6 (b) 2 6 - 15 (c) 12 + 8 15
y ^x + y + 1h (d) 5 14 - 2 21 (e) - 6 + 4 18 = - 6 + 12 2
(e)
^x + yh^x - yh (f) 5 33 + 3 21 (g) - 6 - 12 6 (h) 5 - 5 15
(i) 6 + 30 (j) 2 54 + 6 = 6 6 + 6
Exercises 2.18
(k) - 8 + 12 12 = - 8 + 24 3 (l) 210 - 14 15
1. (a) - 7.1 (b) - 6.9 (c) 48.1 (d) - 37.7 (e) 0.6
(m) 10 6 - 120 (n) - 10 - 2 2 (o) 4 3 - 12
(f) 2.3 (g) - 5.3 2. 47 3. - 7 4. 375 5. - 196
2. (a) 10 + 3 6 + 3 5 + 9 3
3
6. 5.5 7. 377 8. 284 9. - 40 10. 51.935 11. - 1 (b) 10 - 35 - 2 + 14
4
3 (c) 2 10 - 6 + 10 15 - 15 6
12. 22.4 13. 1838.8 14. 15. 15 16. 10
4 (d) 12 20 + 18 60 - 8 10 - 12 30 =
17. 12 = 2 3 18. 23.987 19. 352.47 20. 93 21. 4 24 5 + 36 15 - 8 10 - 12 30
(e) 52 - 13 10 (f) 15 - 15 + 18 10 - 6 6
Exercises 2.19 (g) 4 (h) - 1 (i) - 12 (j) 43 (k) 3 (l) - 241

1. (a) 2 3 (b) 3 7 (c) 2 6 (d) 5 2 (e) 6 2 (m) - 6 (n) 7 + 2 10 (o) 11 - 4 6 (p) 25 + 6 14

(f) 10 2 (g) 4 3 (h) 5 3 (i) 4 2 (j) 3 6 (q) 57 + 12 15 (r) 27 - 4 35

(k) 4 7 (l) 10 3 (m) 8 2 (n) 9 3 (o) 7 5 (s) 77 - 12 40 = 77 - 24 10 (t) 53 + 12 10

(p) 6 3 (q) 3 11 (r) 5 5 3. (a) 18 (b) 108 2 (c) 432 2 (d) 19 + 6 2 (e) 9

2. (a) 6 3 (b) 20 5 (c) 28 2 (d) 4 7 (e) 16 5 4. (a) a = 21, b = 80 (b) a = 19, b = - 7

(f) 8 14 (g) 72 5 (h) 30 2 (i) 14 10 (j) 24 5
5. (a) a - 1 (b) 2p - 1 - 2 p ^ p - 1 h
3. (a) 18 (b) 20 (c) 176 (d) 128 (e) 75
6. k = 25 7. 2x - 3y - 5 xy 8. a = 17, b = 240
(f) 160 (g) 117 (h) 98 (i) 363 (j) 1008
9. a = 107, b = - 42 10. 9 + 5 units 2
4. (a) x = 45 (b) x = 12 (c) x = 63 (d) x = 50
(e) x = 44 (f) x = 147 (g) x = 304 (h) x = 828
(i) x = 775 (j) x = 960
546 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Exercises 2.23 2 8
8. +
3+2 2 2
7 6 2 15 6 14 3 14
1. (a) (b) (c) (d) = 2 3-2 2 8 2
7 4 5 10 5 = # + #
3+2 2 3-2 2 2 2
3+ 6 12 - 5 2 5 + 2 10
(e) (f) (g) 2^3 - 2 2 h 8 2
3 2 5 = +
32 - ^ 2 2 h 2
2
3 14 - 4 7 8 5 + 3 10 4 15 - 2 10
(h) (i) (j) 6-4 2
14 20 35 = +4 2
9-4#2
-^ 6 + 7 3 h 6-4 2
2. (a) 4 3 - 4 2 = 4 ^ 3 - 2 h (b) = +4 2
47 1
- ^ 2 15 - 4 18 h - 2 ^ 15 - 6 2 h =6-4 2+4 2
(c) = =6
19 19
- ^ 19 - 8 3 h So rational
8 3 - 19
(d) = (e) 6 + 2 + 5 3 + 5 2
13 13 b+4 b+4
9. x = -^ 3 + 2h 10.
6 15 - 9 6 + 2 10 - 6 b-4
(f)
2
Test yourself 2
3. (a) 2 2 5x + 3y
(b) - ^ 2 + 6 - 3 2 + 3 3 h = - 2 - 6 + 3 2 - 3 3 1. (a) - 2y (b) a + 4 (c) - 6k 5 (d) (e) 3a - 8b
15
22 5 + 14 2
(c) (f) 6 2 (g) 4 5
39
(d) - 6 6 - 16 - 3 84 + 8 14 h
^ 2. (a) ] x + 6 g ] x - 6 g (b) ] a + 3 g ] a - 1 g (c) 4ab ] b - 2 g
10 (d) (y - 3) (5 + x) (e) 2 ^ 2n - p + 3 h
- 3 6 + 8 + 3 21 - 4 14
= (f) (2 - x) (4 + 2x + x 2)
5
(e) - 4 (f) 4 2 3. (a) 4b - 6 (b) 2x 2 + 5x - 3 (c) 4m + 17
20 12 + 19 6 + 25 3 - 6 19 6 + 65 3 - 6 (d) 16x - 24x + 9
2
(e) p 2 - 25 (f) - 1 - 7a
(g) =
15 15 (g) 2 6 - 5 3 (h) 3 3 - 6 + 21 - 2 7
6+9 2+2 3 4 6+9 3
(h) (i) 8 15
6 21 4. (a) (b)
b 2 ^ a 2 + 3a + 9 h ] m - 2 g2
15 30 - 30 5 - 4 3 28 - 2 6 - 7 3
(j) (k) 6 15 - 9
30 13 5. V = 157.464 6. (a) 17 (b)
17
2 15 + 2 10 - 2 6 - 3 - 5
(l)
2 4x + 5
1 1 7. 8. (a) 36 (b) - 2 (c) 2 (d) 216 (e) 2
4. (a) a = 45, b = 10 (b) a = 1, b = 8 (c) a = - , b = ]x + 3g]x - 2g
2 2 1
5 8 9. (a) (b) 8 10. d = 11.25
(d) a = - 1 , b = - (e) a = 5, b = 32 5
9 9 2 3 2+ 6
11. (a) (b)
5. 2-1 4 15 2
+
2+1 2
12. (a) 3 6 - 6 - 4 3 + 4 2 (b) 11 + 4 7
2-1 2-1 4 2
= # + # 13. (a) 3 (x - 3) (x + 3) (b) 6 ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g
2+1 2-1 2 2
^ 2 - 1h^ 2 - 1h 4 2 (c) 5 ^ y + 2 h _ y 2 - 2y + 4 i
= +
^ 2 h2 - 1 2 2 x3 1
14. (a) (b)
3y 4 3x - 1
2- 2- 2+1
= +2 2
2-1 15. (a) 99 (b) 24 3
3-2 2
= +2 2 16. (a) a 2 - b 2 (b) a 2 + 2ab + b 2 (c) a 2 - 2ab + b 2
1
=3-2 2+2 2 17. (a) ] a - b g2 (b) ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
=3
So rational 3 3+1 4b + 3a 3x - 11
18. 19. (a) (b)
2 ab 10
6. (a) 4 (b) 14 (c) 16
3 5 - 2 - 15 - 3 21 5 - 46 - 2
7. 20.
3 7
 ANSWERS 547

4
21. (a) 6 2 (b) - 8 6 (c) 2 3 (d) (e) 30a 2 b Chapter 3: Equations
3
m
(f) (g) 2x - 3y Exercises 3.1
3n 4
1. t = -5
2. z = - 5.6 3. y = 1 4. w = 6.7 5. x = 12
22. (a) 2 6 + 4 (b) 10 14 - 5 21 - 6 10 + 3 15 1
6. x = 4 7. y = 8. b = 35 9. n = - 16 10. r = 4
(c) 7 (d) 43 (e) 65 - 6 14 15
11. y = 9 12. k = 6 13. d = 2 14. x = 5 15. y = 15
3 7 6 5+1
23. (a) (b) (c) 16. x = 20 17. m = 20 18. x = 4 19. a = - 7 20. y = 3
7 15 2
2
21. b = - 4 22. x = 3 23. a = - 1 24. t = - 4
12 - 2 6 20 + 3 15 + 4 10 + 3 6 3
(d) (e)
15 53 1
25. x = 1.2 26. a = 1.6 27. b = 28. t = 39
8
x + 10 17a - 15 3 - 2x
24. (a) (b) (c)
10 21 (x + 1) (x - 1) 29. p = 5 30. x Z 4.41

1 15 - 6 - 15 3 - 15 2
(d) (e) Exercises 3.2
k-1 3
1 4 9 5
1. b =3 2. x = 35 3. y = 4 4. x = 1 5. k = 5
25. (a) n = 48 (b) n = 175 (c) n = 392 3 9 35 8
(d) n = 5547 (e) n = 1445 6. x = 36 7. t = 0.6 8. x = - 3 9. y = - 1.2 10. x = 69
11. w = 13 12. t = 30 13. x = 14 14. x = - 1
71
26. 3 27. (b), (c) 28. (d) 29. (a), (d) 30. (c)
121 15. x = - 0.4 16. p = 3 17. t = 8.2 18. x = - 9.5
31. (c) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (b) 19. q = 22 20. x = - 3 21. b = 0.8 22. a = - 0.375
2
23. x = 3 24. y = 1 25. t = - 1
Challenge exercise 2 3
1. (a) 2a 2 b - 8ab 2 + 6a 3 (b) y 4 - 4 Exercises 3.3
(c) 8x - 60x + 150x - 125
3 2

1. t = 8.5 2. l = 122 3. b = 8 4. a = 41 5. y = 4
17 3 + 2 5 + 20 1 2
2. 3. or 2
17 2 2 4 6. r = 6.68 7. x = 6.44 8. n = 15 9. y 1 = 3
3
b b2 b 2 10. h = 3.7 11. (a) BMI = 25.39 (b) w = 69.66
4. x2 + x + 2 = dx + n
a 4a 2 a
(c) h = 1.94 12. r = 0.072 13. x 1 = - 9 14. t = 2.14
5. (a) ] x + 4 g ] x + 9 g
15. x = ! 2 16. r = 2.12 17. r = 10.46 18. x = 1.19
(b) _ x 2 - 3y i _ x 2 + 2y i = (x + 3 y) (x - 3 y) _ x 2 + 2y i 19. x = 5.5 20. r = 3.3
(c) ] 5x + 7 g ^ 25x 2 - 35x + 49 h (d) ] b - 2 g ] a + 2 g ] a - 2 g
Exercises 3.4
y+1
6. 4x 2 + 12x + 9 = ] 2x + 3 g2 7. 8. 2 5 1. (a) x 2 3
2]x - 1g
]a + 1g 2
2 a 2 a
9. 10. d + nd - n -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
a2 - a + 1 x b x b
(b) y # 4
3x 3 - 6x 2 + 3x + 4xy - 6y
11.
]x - 3g]x + 3g]x - 2g -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
3x + 4
12. (a) 8x - 12x + 6x - 1
3 2
(b)
] 2x - 1 g2 2. (a) t 2 7 (b) x $ 3 (c) p 2 - 1 (d) x $ - 2 (e) y 2 - 9

13. x 3 - 7x 2 + 15x - 9 1
(f) a $ - 1 (g) y $ - 2 (h) x 1 - 2 (i) a # - 6
2
- 66 6 + 4 2 - 15 + 4 5 - 65 3
14. 3
13 (j) y 1 12 (k) b 1 - 18 (l) x 2 30 (m) x # 3
4
2x 1 1 2
15. x 2 + + = dx + n 16. x = 2 2 1
3 9 3 (n) m 2 14 (o) b $ 16 (p) r # - 9 (q) z 2 8
3 4
400 - 59 5 71 17 14
17. 18. (a) 3 (b) a = , b=- 4 2
10 121 23 23 (r) w 1 2 (s) x $ 35 (t) t $ - 9 (u) q 2 - 6
5 5
1 3 3 r
19. i = 1 20. r = = 2 1
2 4 r 4r (v) x 2 - 1 (w) b # - 11
3 4
21. s = 2 + 6 3
548 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3. (a) 1 1 x 1 7 3. (a) n = 27 (b) t = 16 (c) x = 32 (d) t = 8

(e) p = 243 (f) m = 625 (g) b = 216 (h) y = 27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(b) - 2 # p 1 5 (i) a = 128 (j) t = 81

1 1 1 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 4. (a) x = (b) a = (c) y = (d) x = !
5 2 2 7
(c) 1 1 x 1 4
2
(e) n = (f) a = 2 (g) x = ! 2 (h) b = 9
3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 1
(d) - 3 # y # 5 (i) x = ! (j) b = ! 1
3 2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 1 1
5. (a) x = (b) x = 6 (c) a = (d) k =
1 2 512 4 81 625
(e) 1 y 1 1
6 3 1 19
(e) x = ! (f) x = 4 (g) y = ! 8 (h) n = 7
8 32
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
127
(i) b = 8 (j) m = 1
Exercises 3.5 216

6. (a) n = 4 (b) y = 5 (c) m = 9 (d) x = 5 (e) m = 0

1. (a) x = ! 5 (b) y = ! 8 (c) - 4 1 a 1 4
(f) x = 3 (g) x = 2 (h) x = 2 (i) x = 1 (j) k = 2
(d) k $ 1, k # - 1 (e) x 2 6, x 1 - 6
(f) - 10 # p # 10 (g) x = 0 (h) a 2 14, a 1 - 14 7. (a) x = 2 (b) x = 1 (c) x = - 2 (d) n = 2 (e) x = 0
1
(i) - 12 1 y 1 12 (j) b $ 20, b # - 20 (f) x = 6 (g) y = (h) x = 2 (i) x = 2 (j) a = 0
3
2. (a) x = 5, - 9 (b) n = 4, -2 (c) a 2 2, a 1 - 2 1 1 1 1
8. (a) m = (b) x = (c) x = (d) k = -
5 2 3 3 2
(d) 4 # x # 6 (e) x = 3, -6 (f) x = 5, -4
7 2 3 1 2
1 (e) k = - (f) n = (g) x = 1 (h) n =
(g) - 3 1y 12 (h) x $ 9, x # - 6 (i) x = ! 12 3 4 2 3
2
1 2
(i) k = - (j) x = 1
(j) 2 # a # 10 6 3
1 1 1 1
3. (a) x = 1 (b) a = 3, - (c) b = 2 9. (a) x = - 1 (b) x = - 1 (c) k = - 4 (d) n = 3
4 3 3 3
2 2 1 2 1 7
(d) No solutions (e) y = - 2 (f) x = 7 (g) m = 5, 1 (e) x = - 2 (f) x = - (g) x = - 4 (h) x = - 1
7 3 2 3 2 11
1 3 4
(h) d = 2 , -1 (i) y = , -2 (j) No solutions (i) x = 1
4
(j) x = 18
2 4 5 5
1 1 3
4. (a) x = 2, - (b) y = 3, 2 (c) a = - 10, 1 1 3 3 1
2 3 5 10. (a) m = (b) k = - 2 (c) x = 2 (d) k = 1
4 4 8 2
1
(d) x = 4, -7 (e) d = 4, -5 1 1 4 1
3 (e) n = (f) n = - (g) x = (h) b = - 3
18 2 5 6
2 2
5. (a) t = 3, -1 (b) - 1 1t 13 1
5 5 (i) x = - 1 (j) m = 5
7

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Puzzle
1. All months have 28 days. Some months have more days
Exercises 3.6 as well. 2. 10 3. Bottle $1.05; cork 5 cents
1. (a) x = 3 (b) y = ! 8 (c) n = ! 2 (d) x = ! 2 5 4. 16 each time 5. Friday
(e) p = 10 (f) x = ! 5 (g) y = ! 3 (h) w = 2
(i) n = ! 4 (j) q = - 2 Exercises 3.7
1. y = 0, -1 2. b = 2, -1 3. p = 3, -5 4. t = 0, 5
2. (a) p = ! 6.71 (b) x = 4.64 (c) n = 2.99 (d) x = ! 5.92
5. x = -2, -7 6. q = !3 7. x = !1 8. a = 0, -3
(e) y = 1.89 (f) d = ! 2.55 (g) k = ! 4.47 (h) x = 2.22
(i) y = ! 3.81 (j) y = 3.01
 ANSWERS 549

1 1 1 2
9. x = 0, - 4 10. x = ! 11. x = -1, -1 12. y 1 - 1 , y 2 2 13. x # ,x $1
2 3 2 3

1 3 1 2 2 1 1
12. y = 1, -1 13. b = , 14. x = 5, -2 15. x = 0, 14. b 1 - 3, b 2 15. - 1 #x #-
2 4 2 3 5 2 3

1 16. - 4 # y # 3 17. x 1 - 4, x 2 4 18. - 1 # a # 1

16. x = 1, 2 17. x = 0, 5 18. y = - 1, 2 19. n = 3, 5
2 19. - 2 1 x 1 3 20. x # - 1, x $ 3 21. 0 1 x 1 2
20. x = 3, 4 21. m = - 6, 1 22. x = 0, -1, -2
1 4
23. y = 1, -5, -2 24. x = 5, -7 25. m = 8, -1 22. 1 # a # 1 23. y # - 2, y $
2 5
2 1 1
Exercises 3.8 24. m 1 - 1 , m 2 1 25. 1 # x # 1
3 2 3
1. (a) x = ! 5 - 2 (b) a = ! 7 + 3 (c) y = ! 23 + 4
(d) x = ! 13 - 1 (e) p = ! 44 - 7 = ! 2 11 - 7
Exercises 3.11
(f) x = ! 28 + 5 = ! 2 7 + 5 1. a = 1, b = 3 2. x = 2, y = 1 3. p = 2, q = - 1
(g) y = ! 88 - 10 = ! 2 22 - 10 = 2 ^ ! 22 - 5 h 4. x = 6, y = 17 5. x = - 10, y = 2 6. t = 3, v = 1
(h) x = ! 2 + 1 (i) n = ! 137 - 12 7. x = - 3, y = 2 8. x = - 64, y = - 39 9. x = 3, y = - 4
! 5+3 10. m = 2, n = 3 11. w 1 = - 1, w 2 = 5 12. a = 0, b = 4
(j) y =
2
13. p = - 4, q = 1 14. x 1 = 1, x 2 = - 1
2. (a) x = 3.45, -1.45 (b) x = - 4.59, -7.41
15. x = - 1, y = - 4 16. s = 2, t = - 1
(c) q = 0.0554, -18.1 (d) x = 4.45, - 0.449
17. a = - 2, b = 0 18. k = - 4, h = 1
(e) b = - 4.26, -11.7 (f) x = 17.7, 6.34
19. v 1 = - 2, v 2 = 4 20. x = 2, y Z 1.41
(g) r = 22.3, - 0.314 (h) x = - 0.683, -7.32
(i) a = 0.162, - 6.16 (j) y = 40.1, - 0.0749
Problem
Exercises 3.9
23 adults and 16 children.
1. (a) y = - 0.354, - 5.65 (b) x = 1, 1.5
(c) b = 3.54, - 2.54 (d) x = 1, - 0.5
Exercises 3.12
(e) x = - 0.553, 0.678 (f) n = 0.243, -8.24
1. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1
(g) m = - 2, - 5 (h) x = 0, 7 (i) x = 1, - 6
2. x = 0, y = 0 and x = - 2, y = 4
(j) y = 2.62, 0.382
3. x = 0, y = 3 and x = 3, y = 0
- 1 ! 17 5 ! 13 4. x = 4, y = - 3 and x = 3, y = - 4 5. x = - 1, y = - 3
2. (a) x = (b) x =
2 6 6. x = 3, y = 9 7. t = - 2, x = 4 and t = 1, x = 1
4 ! 28 8. m = - 4, n = 0 and m = 0, n = - 4
(c) q = = 2! 7
2
9. x = 1, y = 2 and x = - 1, y = - 2
- 12 ! 128 -3 ! 2 2 10. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1
(d) h = =
8 2
11. x = 2, y = 1 and x = - 1, y = - 2 12. x = 0, y = 1
8 ! 40 4 ! 10
(e) s = = 13. x = 1, y = 5 and x = 4, y = 11
6 3
1 1 1
14. x = , y = 4 and x = - 1, y = - 1 15. t = - , h =
- 11 ! 133 - 5 ! 73 4 2 4
(f) x = (g) d =
2 12 16. x = 2, y = 0
2 ! 32 1! 5 17. x = 0, y = 0 and x = - 2, y = - 8 and x = 3, y = 27
(h) x = =1!2 2 (i) t =
2 2 18. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1 and x = - 1, y = 1
7 ! 41 1 3 5 12
(j) x = 19. x = ,y =2 20. x = - ,y =-
4 2 4 13 13

Exercises 3.10
Exercises 3.13
1. -3 1 x 1 0 2. 0 1 y 1 4 3. n # 0, n $ 1
1. x = - 2, y = - 8, z = - 1 2. a = - 2, b = - 1, c = 2
4. x # - 2, x $ 2 5. n 1 - 1, n 2 1 6. - 5 # n # 3
3. a = - 4, b = 2, c = 7 4. a = 1, b = 2, c = - 3
7. c 1 - 1, c 2 2 8. - 4 # x # - 2 9. 4 1 x 1 5
5. x = 5, y = 0, z = - 2 6. x = 0, y = - 5, z = 4

1 1 7. p = - 3, q = 7, r = 4 8. x = 1, y = - 1, z = 2
10. b # - 2, b $ - 11. a 1 - 1, a 2
2 3 9. h = - 3, j = 2, k = - 4 10. a = 3, b = - 1, c = - 2
550 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Test yourself 3 (i) y = 40c (j) x = 80c 2. (a) 121c (b) 72c 29l
(c) 134c 48l 3. (a) 42c (b) 55c 37l (c) 73c 3l
1. (a) b = 10 (b) a = - 116 (c) x = - 7 (d) p # 4
4. (a) (i) 47c (ii) 137c (b) (i) 9c (ii) 99c (c) (i) 63c
2. (a) A = 1262.48 (b) P = 8558.59
(ii) 153c (d) (i) 35c (ii) 125c (e) (i) 52c (ii)142c
3. (a) x 2 - 8x + 16 = ] x - 4 g2 (b) k 2 + 4k + 4 = ] k + 2 g2 (f) (i) 15c7l (ii) 105c7l (g) (i) 47c36l (ii) 137c36l
(h) (i) 72c21l (ii)162c21l (i) (i) 26c11l (ii) 116c11l
1
4. (a) x = - 2, y = 5 (b) x = 4, y = 1 and x = - , y = - 8 (j) (i) 38c51l (ii) 128c51l 5. (a) x = 49c (b) 41c
2
(c) 131c 6. (a) y = 15c, x = z = 165c
1 (b) x = 142c, y = 48c, z = 28c
5. (a) x = 2 (b) y =
4
(c) a = 43c, b = 137c, c = 101c
1 1 (d) a = 97c, b = d = 41c, c = 42c
6. (a) b = 2, -1 (b) g = 2, (c) x $ 4, x # 3
3 4 (e) a = 68c, b = 152c, c = 28c (f) a = 10c, b = 150c
1
7. (a) A = 36 (b) b = 12 8. x = ,1
2 7. 8x - 10 + 2x - 10 + x + 10 + 7x + 10 = 360
9. -1 1 y # 3 (angle of revolution)
18x = 360
x = 20
10. (a) x = - 0.298, -6.70 (b) y = 4.16, -2.16
+ABE = 8x - 10
(c) n = 0.869, -1.54 = 8 (20) - 10
= 150c
1 +EBC = 2x - 10
11. (a) V = 764.5 (b) r = 2.9 12. x 2 71
4 = 2 (20) - 10
13. x 1 2, x 2 9 14. x = 2.4, y = 3.2 15. (a) V = 2100 = 30c
+ABE + +EBC = 150c + 30c
(b) r = 3.9 16. (a) ii (b) i (c) ii (d) iii (e) iii = 180c
` +ABC is a straight angle
17. a = 3, b = 2, c = - 4 +DBC = 7x + 10
= 7 (20) + 10
1
18. n 2 0, n 1 - 3 = 150c
3 +DBC + +EBC = 150c + 30c
19. x = - 4 20. x = - 2 21. (a) y 2 3 (b) - 3 # n # 0 = 180c
` +DBE is a straight angle
2
(c) x = 2 (d) x = 2 (e) x = 3, -1 (f) t $ 1, t # - 2 ` AC and DE are straight lines
5
(g) - 4 # x # 2 (h) x = - 3 (i) y 2 2, y 1 - 2 8. +DFB = 180c - (180 - x) c
5 1 (+AFB is a straight angle)
(j) x # - 1, x $ 1 (k) x = (l) - # b # 2 =x
6 2
` +AFC = x
1 3 (vertically opposite angles)
(m) No solutions (n) t = 2 , (o) - 1 1 x 1 3
3 5 +CFE = 180c - (x + 180c - 2x)
(p) m # - 3, m $ 2 (+AFB is a straight angle)
=x
` +AFC = +CFE
Challenge exercise 3 ` CD bisects +AFE
1. y =1 2. x 1 - a, x 2 a
9. +ABD + +DBC
3. a = 3, b = !2 4. x = 2.56, -1.56
= 110 - 3x + 3x + 70
5. ] x + 3 g ] x - 3 g ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 2x + 4 h; x = ! 3, 2 = 180c
6. x = 1, y = 2 and x = - 1, y = 0 So +ABC is a straight angle.
7. b = 4; x = ! 17 + 4 Z 8.12, - 0.123 8. x = ! 1 AC is a straight line.
1
9. -1 1 t 1 1 10. - 3 # x # 8 11. x = 10. +AEB + +BEC + +CED
4
= 50 - 8y + 5y - 20 + 3y + 60
12. r = 2.31 13. No solutions 14. x = ! b + a 2 + a = 90c
2 ^ 4 ! 10 h 3 So +AED is a right angle.
15. P = 2247.36 16. x = 17. y 1 -1, y 2
3 5
Exercises 4.2
Chapter 4: Geometry 1
1. (a) a = b = e = f = 148c , c = d = g = 32c
Exercises 4.1 (b) x = z = 70c , y = 110c
(c) x = 55c , y = 36c , z = 89c (d) y = 125c , x = z = 55c
1. (a) y = 47c (b) x = 39c (c) m = 145c (d) y = 60c
(e) n = e = g = a = c = z = x = 98c,
(e) b = 101c (f) x = 36c (g) a = 60c (h) x = 45c
o = m = h = f = b = d = y = w = 82c
 ANSWERS 551

(f) a = 95c , b = 85c , c = 32c 5. +ACB = 180c - 124c (DCB is a straight angle)
(g) a = 27c , b = 72c , c = 81c = 56c
+CBA + 68c = 124c (exterior angle of D)
(h) x = 56c , y = 124c , z = a = 116c , b = 64c
+CBA = 124c - 68c
(i) x = 61c (j) y = 37c = 56c
` +CBA = +ACB = 56c
2. (a) +CGF = 180c - 121c
(FGH is a straight angle) ` D ABC is isosceles
= 59c
` +BFG = +CGF = 59c 6. y = 38c

These are equal alternate angles. 7. (a) x = 64c (b) x = 64c , y = 57c (c) x = 63c
` AB < CD
(b) +BAC = 360c - 292c = 68c (d) a = 29c , b = 70c
(angle of revolution)

` +BAC + +DCA = 68c + 112c 8. +HJI = 180c - (35c + 25c) (angle sum of D HJI)

= 180c = 120c
+IJL = 180c - 120c (HJL is a straight angle)
These are supplementary cointerior angles.
= 60c
` AB < CD +JIL = 180c - (90c + 30c) (angle sum of D IKL)
= 60c
(c) +BCD = 180 - 76 (+BCE is a straight angle) +ILJ = 180 - (60c + 60c) (angle sum of D JIL)
= 104c = 60c
+ABC = +BCD = 104c Since +IJL = +JIL = +ILJ = 60c,
These are equal alternate angles. D IJL is equilateral
` AB ; CD +KJL = 180c - 60c (KJI is a straight angle)
= 120c
(d) +CEF = 180 - 128 (+CED is a straight angle) +JLK = 180c - (30c + 120c) (angle sum of D JKL)
= 52c = 30c
+CEF = +ABE = 52c ` +JLK = +JKL = 30°
These are equal corresponding angles.
` D JKL is isosceles
`AB ; CD
9. BC = BD
(e) +CFH = 180 - ] 23 + 115 g (+EFG is a straight angle) `+BDC = 46c (base angles of isosceles triangle)
= 42c +CBD = 180 - 2 # 46
= 88c
`+BFD = 42c (vertically opposite angles)
`+CBD = +BDE = 88c
+ABF + +BFD = 138c + 42c
These are equal alternate angles.
= 180c
These are supplementary cointerior angles. ` AB ; ED
` AB ; CD
10. +OQP = 180 - ] 75 + 73 g (angle sum of triangle)
= 32c
Exercises 4.3
` +MNO = +OQP = 32c
1. (a) x = 60c (b) y = 36c (c) m = 71c (d) x = 37c
These are equal alternate angles.
(e) x = 30c (f) x = 20c (g) x = 67c (h) a = 73c
` MN ; QP
(i) a = 75c , b = 27c , c = 46c
(j) a = 36c , b = 126c , c = 23c
Exercises 4.4
(k) x = 67c , y = z = 59c , w = 121c
1. (a) Yes
2. All angles are equal. Let them be x.
AB = EF = 5cm (given)
Then x + x + x = 180 (angle sum of D)
3x = 180 BC = DF = 6 cm (given)
x = 60 AC = DE = 8 cm (given)

So all angles in an equilateral triangle are 60c. ` D ABC / DDEF (SSS)

(b)Yes
3. ] 90 - x g c
XY = BC = 4.7 m (given)
4. +ACB = 50c (vertically opposite angles)
+ABC = 180c - (50c + 45c) (angle sum of D) +XYZ = +BCA = 110c (given)
= 85c
YZ = AC = 2.3 m (given)
` +DEC = +ABC = 85c
These are equal alternate angles. ` D XYZ / DABC (SAS)
` AB < DE (c) No
552 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(d) Yes (b) +ABC = +ADC (corresponding angles in congruent

triangles)
+PQR = +SUT = 49c (given)

+PRQ = +STU = 52c (given) 7. (a) OA = OC (equal radii)

QR = TU = 8 cm (given) OB is common

`DPQR / DSTU (AAS) +AOB = +COB = 90c (given)

(e) No `DOAB / DOBC (SAS)

(b) +OCB = +OBC (base angles of OBC, an isosceles

2. (a) AB = KL = 4 (given) right angled triangle)
+B = +L = 38c (given)
BC = JL = 5 (given) But +OCB + +OBC = 90c (angle sum of triangle)
` by SAS, D ABC / D JKL So +OCB = +OBC = 45c
(b) +Z = +B = 90c (given) Similarly +OBA = 45c
XY = AC = 7 (given)
` +OBA + +OBC = 45c + 45c = 90c
YZ = BC = 2 (given)
` by RHS, D XYZ / D ABC So +ABC is right angled

(c) MN = QR = 8 (given) 8. (a) +AEF = +BDC = 90c (given)

NO = PR = 8 (given)
MO = PQ = 5 (given) AF = BC (given)
` by SSS, D MNO / D PQR FE = CD (given)

(d) +Y = +T = 90c (given) `DAFE / DBCD (RHS)

+Z = +S = 35c (given)
(b) +AFE = +BCD (corresponding angles in
XY = TR = 1.3 (given)
congruent triangles)
` by AAS, D XYZ / D STR
9. (a) OA = OC (equal radii)
(e) BC = DE = 4 (given)
+C = +E = 90c (given) OB is common
AC = EF = 7 (given)
AB = BC (given)
` by SAS, D ABC / D DEF
`DOAB / DOBC (SSS)

3. (a) +B = +C (base angles of isosceles D) (b) +OBA = +OBC (corresponding angles in

+BDA = +CDA = 90c (given) congruent triangles)
AD is common
But +OBA + +OBC = 180c (ABC is a straight angle)
` by AAS, D ABD / D ACD
So +OBA = +OBC = 90c
(b) ` BD = DC (corresponding sides in congruent Ds)
` AD bisects BC OB is perpendicular to AC.

4. +ABD = +BDC (alternate angles, AB < CD) 10. (a) AD = BC (given)

+ADC = +BCD = 90c (given)
+ADB = +DBC (alternate angles, AD < BC)
DC is common
BD is common
` by AAS, D ABD / D CDB `DADC / DBCD (SAS)

` AD = BC (b) AC = BD (corresponding sides in congruent

(corresponding sides in congruent Ds) triangles)

5. (a) OA = OC (equal radii) Exercises 4.5

OB = OD (similarly) 1. (a) x = 15.1 (b) x = 4.4 (c) m = 6.6
+AOB = +COD (vertically opposite angles) (d) a = 76c , i = 23c , b = 81c (e) b = 4.5
`DAOB / DCOD (SAS) (f) a = 115c , x = 19c , y = 3.2 (g) p = 9.7

(b) AB = CD (corresponding sides in congruent 2. a = 1.81, b = 5.83

triangles)
3. +BAC = +EDC (alternate angles, AB < ED)
6. (a) AB = AD (given) +ABC = +DEC (similarly)
BC = DC (given) +ACB = +ECD (vertically opposite angles)

AC is common ` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, DABC ||| DCDE

`DABC / DADC (SSS)

 ANSWERS 553

4. +GFE = +EFD (given) Since three pairs of sides are in proportion,

GF 1.5 o D ABC ||| D ACD, x = 109c, y = 47c
= = 0.5
EF 2.7
EF 2.7 o 11. (a) x = 7.8 (b) m = 4.0, p = 7.2 (c) x = 6.5
= = 0.5
DF 4.86
(d) x = 6.2, y = 4.4 (e) x = 1.4, y = 9.2
GF EF
` =
EF DF AB AD AB AD
Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their 12. (a) = (b) =
BC DE AC AE
included angles are equal, then DDEF ||| DFGE AD AF AD AF
Also = Also =
DE FG AE AG
AB 1.3 AB AF AB AF
5. = = 0.714 ` = ` =
DE 1.82 BC FG AC AG
AC 4.2
= = 0.714 BD AD
DF 5.88 (c) =
CE AE
BC 4.9
= = 0.714 AD DF
EF 6.86 Also =
AE EG
AB AC BC
` = = BD DF
DE DF EF ` =
CE EG
Since three pairs of sides are in proportion,
D ABC ||| D DEF
13. a = 4.8, b = 6.9 14. y = 0.98 15. x = 3.19, y = 1.64
y = 41c
Exercises 4.6
6. (a) OA = OB (equal radii)
OC = OD (similarly) 1. (a) x = 6.4 (b) y = 6.6 (c) b = 5.7 (d) m = 6.6
OA OB
` =
OD OC 2. (a) p = 61 (b) t = 58 (c) x = 65 (d) y = 33
+AOB = +COD (vertically opposite angles)
Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their 3. s = 6.2 m 4. CE = 15.3 cm
included angles are equal, 3 OAB ||| 3 OCD
5. AB 2 = 81, CB 2 = 144, CA 2 = 225
(b) AB = 5.21 cm
AB 2 + CB 2 = 81 + 144
7. (a) +A is common = 225
= CA 2
+ABC = +ADE (corresponding angles, BC < DE)
+ACB = +AED (similarly) ` D ABC is right angled

` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, D ABC ||| D ADE 6. XY = YZ = 1

(b) x = 2.17, y = 2.25 ` D XYZ is isosceles
YZ 2 = XY 2 = 1, XZ 2 = 2
8. +ABF = +BEC (alternate angles, AB z CD) YZ 2 + XY 2 = 1 + 1
+CBE = +BFA (similarly, BC z AD) =2
` +C = +A (angle sum of Ds) = XZ 2
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, D ABF ||| DCEB ` D XYZ is right angled

9. +A is common 7. AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2
AD 2 2 = ^ 3 h + BC 2
2
1.2
= = 0.4
AB 3 4 = 3 + BC 2
AE 0.8 1 = BC 2
= = 0.4
AC 2 `1 = BC
AD AE AC =2
` =
AB AC =2#1
Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their = 2BC
included angles are equal, D AED ||| D ABC, m = 4.25
8. (a) AC = 5
AB 2 (b) AC 2 = 25, CD 2 = 144,
10. = = 0.769
CD 2.6 AD 2 = 169
BC 3
= = 0.769 AC 2 + CD 2 = 25 + 144
AC 3.9 = 169
AC 3.9
= = 0.769 = AD 2
AD 5.07
` D ACD has a right angle at +ACD
AB BC AC
` = = ` AC is perpendicular to DC
CD AC AD
554 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

x2 + y2 (d) a = 121c, b = 52c, i = 77c

9. AB = 3b 10. (e) x = 60c (f) x = 3, y = 7
x
11. d 2 = ] 20 - 3t g 2 + ] 15 - 2t g 2 6. +ADB = +CDB (BD bisects +ADC)
= 400 - 120t + 9t 2 + 225 - 60t + 4t 2 +CDB = +ABD (alternate angles, AB < DC)
= 13t 2 - 180t + 625 +ADB = +DBC (alternate angles, AD < BC)
` +ABD = +DBC
12. 1471 mm 13. 683 m 14. 12.6 m 15. 134.6 cm
` BD bisects +ABC
16. 4.3 m 17. 42.7 cm
18. 1.3 2 + 1.1 2 = 2.9 and 1.5 2 = 2.25 7. (a) AD = BC = 3.8 cm (given)
1.3 2 + 1.1 2 ! 1.5 2 so the triangle is not right angled AB = DC = 5.3 cm (given)
` the property is not a rectangle Since two pairs of opposite sides are equal, ABCD is a
parallelogram.
19. No. The diagonal of the boot is the longest available
(b) AB = DC = 7cm (given)
space and it is only 1.4 m.
AB < DC (given)
20. (a) BC 2 = 6 2 - 4 2 Since one pair of opposite sides is both equal and
= 20 parallel, ABCD is a parallelogram.
BC = 20
AO = 6 cm (equal radii)
(c) +X + +M = 54c + 126c
= 180c
So AC 2 = 6 2 - 4 2
These are supplementary cointerior angles.
= 20
` XY < MN
AC = 20
Since BC = AC, OC bisects AB Also, XM < YN (given)
(b) +OCA = +OCB = 90c (given) ` XMNY is a parallelogram
OA = OB (equal radii)
OC is common (d) AE = EC = 5 cm (given)
` DOAC / DOBC (RHS)
DE = EB = 6 cm (given)

So AC = BC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles) Since the diagonals bisect each other, ABCD is a
` OC bisects AB parallelogram.

Exercises 4.7 8. (a) x = 5 cm, i = 66c (b) a = 90c, b = 25c, c = 65c

(c) x = 3 cm, y = 5 cm (d) x = 58c, y = 39c
1. (a) x = 94c (b) y = 104c (c) x = 111c (d) x = 60c (e) x = 12 cm
(e) y = 72c (f) x = 102°, y = 51° (g) x = 43°, y = 47°
9. 6.4 cm 10. +ECB = 59c, +EDC = 31c, +ADE = 59c
2. D ABE is isosceles.
` +B = +E = 76c (base +s equal) 11. 4 2 cm 12. x = y = 57c
+CBE = +DEB = 180c - 76c
= 104c (straight +s) Exercises 4.8
+D + 62c + 104c + 104c = 360c (angle sum of quadrilateral)
+D + 270c = 360c 1. (a) 540c (b) 720c (c) 1080c (d) 1440c (e) 1800c
+D = 90c (f) 2880c 2. (a) 108c (b) 135c (c) 150c (d) 162c
` CD is perpendicular to AD` (e) 156c 3. (a) 60c (b) 36c (c) 45c (d) 24c

3. (a) +D = 180c - x 4. 128c34l 5. (a) 13 (b) 152c18l 6. 16 7. 3240c

(+A and +D cointerior angles, AB < DC)
+C = 180c - (180c - x) 8. 2340c 9. 168c23l
(+C and +D cointerior angles, AD < BC)
= 180c - 180c + x 10. Sum = 145n = (n - 2) # 180c
=x 145n = 180n - 360
`+A = +C = x = 35n
+B = 180c - x (+B and +C cointerior angles, AB < DC) 10.3 = n
`+B = +D = 180c - x But n must be a positive integer.
` no polygon has interior angles of 145c.
(b) Angle sum = x + x + 180c - x + 180c - x
= 360c 11. (a) 9 (b) 12 (c) 8 (d) 10 (e) 30

4. a = 150c , b = 74c 12. (a) ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.

AF = BC (equal sides)
5. (a) a = 5 m, b = 3 m, x = z = 108c, y = 72c FE = CD (equal sides)
(b) x = 53c, y = 56c, z = 71c +AFE = +BCD (equal interior angles)
(c) x = y = 5 cm, a = b = 68c ` D AFE / D BCD (SAS)
 ANSWERS 555

(b) S = ] n - 2 g # 180c 360

15. (a)
= (6 - 2) # 180c p
= 720c (b) Each interior angle:
720c 360
+AFE = 180 -
6 p
= 120c 180p 360
Since AF = FE, triangle AFE is isosceles. = -
p p
So +FEA = +FAE (base angles in isosceles triangle) 180p - 360
=
180 - 120c p
` +FEA = (angle sum of triangle)
2 180 ^ p - 2 h
= 30c =
p
+AED = 120 - 30c
= 90c Exercises 4.9
Similarly, +BDE = 90c
1. (a) 26.35 m 2 (b) 21.855 cm 2 (c) 18.75 mm 2 (d) 45 m 2
So +AED + +BDE = 180c (e) 57 cm 2 (f) 81 m 2 (g) 28.27 cm 2 2. 4.83 m 2
These are supplementary cointerior angles
`AE < BD 3. (a) 42.88 cm 2 (b) 29.5 m 2 (c) 32.5 cm 2 (d) 14.32 m 2
(e) 100.53 cm 2 4. (a) 25 m 2 (b) 101.85 cm 2
13. A regular octagon has equal sides and angles. (c) 29.4 m 2 (d) 10.39 cm 2 (e) 45 cm 2
AH = AB (equal sides)
GH = BC (equal sides) 5. 7 51 + 98 = 7 ^ 51 + 14 h cm 2 6. 22.97 cm 2
+AHG = +ABC (equal interior angles)
` D AHG / D ABC (SAS) 7. $621.08 8. (a) 161.665 m 2 (b) 89 m 2 (c) 10.5 m
So AG = AC
9. (a) 48 cm (b) 27 cm 10. 12w units 2
(corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
S = ] n - 2 g # 180c
= (8 - 2) # 180c Test yourself 4
= 1080c
1080c 1. (a) x = 43c, y = 137c, z = 147c (b) x = 36c
` +AHG = (c) a = 79c, b = 101c, c = 48c (d) x = 120c
8
= 135c (e) r = 7.2 cm (f) x = 5.6 cm, y = 8.5 cm (g) i = 45c
+HGA = +HAG (base angles in isosceles triangle)
2. +AGF = i (vertically opposite +HGB)
180 - 135c
`+HAG = (angle sum of triangle)
2 So +AGF = +CFE = i
= 22c30l These are equal corresponding +s.
+GAC = 135 - 2 # 22c30l ` AB < CD
= 90c
We can similarly prove all interior angles are 90c and 3. 118.28 cm2
adjacent sides equal.
So ACEG is a square. 4. (a) +DAE = +BAC (common)
+ADE = +ABC (corresponding angles, DE < BC)
] 5 - 2 g # 180c +AED = +ACB (similarly)
14. +EDC = ` D ABC and D ADE are similar (AAA)
5
= 108c (b) x = 3.1 cm, y = 5.2 cm
ED = CD (equal sides in regular pentagon)
So EDC is an isosceles triangle. 5. 162c 6. 1020.7 cm3 7. 36 m
`+DEC = +ECD (base angles in isosceles triangle)
8. (a) AB = AD (adjacent sides in kite)
180 - 108c BC = DC
+DEC = (angle sum of triangle) (similarly)
2
= 36c AC is common
` Δ ABC and Δ ADC are congruent (SSS)
+AEC = 108 - 36c
= 72c (b) AO = CO (equal radii)
Similarly, using triangle ABC, we can prove that BO = DO (similarly)
+EAC = 72c +AOB = +COD (vertically opposite angles)
So EAC is an isosceles triangle.
` Δ AOB and Δ COD are congruent (SAS)
(Alternatively you could prove EDC and ABC congruent
triangles and then AC = EC are corresponding sides in 9. 73.5 cm2
congruent triangles.)
10. 6 2 + ^ 2 7 h = 36 + 28 = 64 = 8 2
2

` ΔABC is right angled (Pythagoras)

556 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

AF AD Challenge exercise 4
11. = (equal ratios on intercepts)
AG AE
1. 94c 2. x = 75c , y = 46c , z = 29c 3. 1620c, 32c 44l
AD AB
= (similarly)
AE AC
AF AB 4. +BAD = +DBC (given)
` = +ABD = +BDC (alternate angles, AB < DC)
AG AC
` +ADB = +DCB (angle sum of D)

12. (a) AB = AC (given) ` since 3 pairs of angles are equal,

+B = +C (base +s of isosceles D) D ABD <; D BCD
BD = DC (AD bisects BC, given) d = 6.74 cm
` D ABD / D ACD ] SAS g
(b) +ADB = +ADC (corresponding +s in congruent Ds)
5. AB = DC (given)
But + ADB + +ADC = 180c (straight +)
+A + +D = 131c + 49c
= 180c
So +ADB = +ADC = 90c
+A and +D are supplementary cointerior angles
So AD and BC are perpendicular. ` AB < DC
Since one pair of opposite sides are both parallel and
13. +ACB = 68c (base +s of isosceles D)
equal, ABCD is a parallelogram.
+CAD = 68c - 34c (exterior + of D)
= 34c
` ˚+CAD = +ADC = 34c 6. 27.36 m 2
So Δ ACD is isosceles ^ base +s equal h
7.
14.

+DAC = +ACB (alternate +s, AD < BC)

+BAC = +ACD (alternate +s, AB < DC) Let ABCD be a square with diagonals AC and BD and
+D = 90c
AC is common
AD = DC (adjacent sides of square)
` D ABC / D ADC (AAS) ` D ADC is isosceles
` AB = DC (corresponding sides in congruent Ds) `+DAC = +DCA (base angles of isosceles D)
Similarly, AD = BC +DAC + +DCA = 90° (angle sum of D)
` opposite sides are equal ` +DAC = +DCA = 45°
Similarly, +BAC = +BCA = 45°
15. (a) 24 cm2 (b) 5 cm 16. 9 (other angles can be proved similarly)

17. +BFG + +FGD = 109c - 3x + 3x + 71c 8.

= 180c
These are supplementary cointerior +s.
` AB < CD

18. 57 cm2

19. +ACB = 180c - ] +A + +B g (+sum of D)

= 180c - x - y
+ACD = 180c - +ACB (straight +)
z = 180c - (180c - x - y)
= 180c - 180c + x + y
=x+y Let ABCD be a kite
AD = AB (given)
20. (a) +A = +E ^ given h DC = BC (given)
AC 2.97
= = 1.1 AC is common
EF 2.7
AB 3.96 ` by SSS, D ADC / D ABC
= = 1.1 ` +DAC = +BAC
DE 3.6
(corresponding angles in congruent Ds)
AC AB
` = AD = AB (given)
EF DE
+DAE = +BAE (found)
So Δ ABC and Δ DEF are similar (two sides in proportion, AE is common
included +s equal).

(b) x = 4.3 cm
 ANSWERS 557

` by SAS, D ADE / D ABE 18. r = 1.55 19. x 2 1

` +DEA = +BEA (corresponding angles in congruent Ds)
But +DEA + +BEA = 180c (DEB is a straight angle)
` +DEA = +BEA = 90c
` the diagonals are perpendicular 7 4 ! 12 1
20. 21. x = =2! 3 22.
15 2 49
9. +MNY + 84c = (15c + 112c) (exterior angle of D MNZ)
` +MNY = 43c 23. x = 4, y = 11 or x = -1, y = - 4 24. x = 2, y = -1
+XYZ + 69c = 112c (exterior angle of D XYZ)
` +XYZ = 43c
25. 7 26. 7.02 cm 27. ] 2x - 1 g ^ 4x 2 + 2x + 1 h
` +MNY = +XYZ = 43c
These are equal corresponding angles. 6 15 + 2 6
` MN < XY 28. 29. 7 30. $643.08 31. 1.1
43
10. x = 2.12 m 11. (a) 6 m 2 (b) 10 + 2 5 = 2 ^ 5 + 5 h m 32. -2 10 + 3 5 - 2 2 + 3 33. $83.57

12. x = 28.7 cm, y = 3.8 cm 13. x = 7.40 m, y = 4.19 m

34. x = 22c, y = 29c, w = z = 90c 35. 56.7 cm 2
14. (a) AB = BC (adjacent sides in square)
+ABE = +CBE = 45 b 10 2 1
36. a - 21 b 10 = 37. x 2 6, x 1 -2 38.
(diagonals in square make 45c with sides) a 21 5 8
EB is common. 1 1
39. - x - 7 40. x = 41. x # -3, x $ 3 42.
` by SAS, D ABE / DCBE 4 6
` AE = CE (corresponding sides in congruent Ds)
43. Given diagonal AC in rhombus ABCD:
Since AB = BC and AE = CE, ABCE is a kite.
AB = BC (adjacent sides in rhombus)
+DAC = +ACB (alternate +s, AD < BC)
+BAC = +ACB (base +s of isosceles D ABC)
` +DAC = +BAC
` diagonal AC bisects the angle it meets.
Similarly, diagonal BD bisects the angle it meets.
54
44. ] x + 3 g-1 45. x 3 + 6x 2 + 12x + 8 46. 47. x = 53c
2 17

(b) BD = x2 + x2 48. x = 98c, y = 41c 49.

1
= 2x 2 3x + 2
= 2x x-3
1 50. (a) 12x - 8y (b) 2 31 (c) (d) 3 2 + 1
DE = BD x 2 - 3x + 9
2
- ]x + 5g 11 3 y7
2x (e) (f) (g) x - 14 y 7 z -11 = 14 11
= units ]x + 1g]x - 1g 6 x z
2
3 1
(h) (i) 8 5 (j) 13
5a ] a + b g ] 1 + 2b g 2
Practice assessment task set 1
4 2
51. x = 2.7, y = 3.1 52. x = 25 53. r = cm
1. p =9 2. 2 ^ 5 + y h ^ x - y h 3. (a) x - 1 (b) x 3 3
r

25 + 5 2 54. 17.3 cm
4. 6y - 10 5. 6. x 3 + 2x 2 - 16x + 3
23
55. Let +DEA = x
2 2 Then +EAD = x (base +s of isosceles D)
7. x= 8.
7 x-3 +CDA = x + x (exterior + of DEAD)
= 2x
9. +ABC = +EDC = 90° (given) ` +ABC = 2x (opposite +s of < gram are equal)
+ACB = +ECD (vertically opposite angles) ` +ABC = 2+DEA
AB = ED (given)
` by AAS D ABC / DEDC 2
56. 57. 5% 58. 2.2 # 10 8 kmh -1 59. k = 20
` AC = EC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles) 5
` D ACE is isosceles
60. 9xy y 61. 147c 16l 62. 5.57 m 2
-2
10. 231.3 11. - 3 12. 135c 13. 7.33 # 10
63. (a) 5 ] a + 2b - 2 g ^ a 2 - 4a - 2ab + 4b 2 + 4b + 4 h
14. 3 10 - 4 15. 3.04 16. x + 3 17. x = 1.78, -0.281
(b) ] 3a + 4b g ] a - 6b + 2c g
558 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1 3 Exercises 5.3
64. - 1 #x 15
8 4 2
1. (a) x-intercept , y-intercept -2
65. BC < AD (ABCD is a < gram) 3
(b) x-intercept -10, y-intercept 4
BC < FE (BCEF is a < gram)
(c) x-intercept 12, y-intercept 4
` AD < FE
(d) x-intercepts 0, -3, y-intercept 0
Also BC = AD ^ opposite sides of < gram h
(e) x-intercepts !2, y-intercept -4
BC = FE ^ similarly h
(f) x-intercepts -2, -3, y-intercept 6
` AD = FE
(g) x-intercepts 3, 5, y-intercept 15
Since AD and FE are both parallel and equal, AFED is a
parallelogram. (h) x-intercept - 3 5 , y-intercept 5
(i) x-intercept -3, no y-intercept
66. b = 11.95 m 67. (a) 34 cm (b) 30 cm2 (j) x-intercept !3, y-intercept 9

18 3 + 31 2 - 25 5 2. f ] -x g = ] -x g 2- 2
68. 69. 20 70. 32 m
75 = x2 - 2
= f (x)
71. BD bisects AC ` even function
So AD = DC
+BDC = +BDA = 90c (given) 3. (a) f ^ x 2 h = x 6 + 1 (b) 7 f ] x g A 2 = x 6 + 2x 3 + 1
BD is common (c) f ] - x g = - x + 1
3
(d) Neither odd nor even
` DBAD / DBCD (SAS)
4. g ] - x g = ] - x g8 + 3 ] - x g4 - 2 ] - x g 2
` AB = CB (corresponding sides in congruent
= x 8 + 3x 4 - 2x 2
triangles)
= g (x)
So triangle ABC is isosceles
` even function
x2 + y2
72. 73. (b) 74. (c) 75. (a) 76. (b) 77. (b) 5. f ] - x g = - x = -f ] x g
2 ` odd function
78. (d) 79. (d)
6. f ] - x g = ] - x g2 - 1 7. f ] - x g = 4 ] - x g - ] - x g 3
= x2 - 1 = - 4x + x 3
Chapter 5: Functions and graphs = f (x) = - ^ 4x - x 3 h
` even function = - f ]xg
Exercises 5.1 ` odd function

1. Yes 2. No 3. No 4. Yes 5. Yes 6. Yes 7. No 8. f ] -x g = ] -x g 4 + ] -x g 2

= x4 + x2
8. Yes 9. Yes 10. No 11. Yes 12. No 13. Yes = f ]xg
` even function
14. No 15. Yes f ]xg - f ]- xg = 0
Exercises 5.2 9. (a) Odd (b) Neither (c) Even (d) Neither (e) Neither
1. f ] 1 g = 4, f ] -3 g = 0 2. h ] 0 g = -2, h ] 2 g = 2, h ] -4 g = 14 10. (a) Even values i.e. n = 2, 4, 6, f
(b) Odd values i.e. n = 1, 3, 5, f
3. f ] 5 g = -25, f ] -1 g = -1, f ] 3 g = -9, f ] -2 g = -4 4. 14
11. (a) No value of n
5. -35 6. x = 9 7. x = !5 8. x = -3 9. z = 1, -4
(b) Yes, when n is odd (1, 3, 5, …)
10. f ^ p h = 2p - 9, f ] x + h g = 2x + 2h - 9
12. (a) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0 (iii) Even
11. g ] x - 1 g = x 2 + 2 12. f ] k g = ] k - 1 g ^ k 2 + k + 1 h (b) (i) x 1 2 (ii) x 2 2 (iii) Neither

13. t = -1; t = 2, -4 14. 0 (c) (i) -2 1 x 1 2 (ii) x 1 -2, x 2 2 (iii) Neither

(d) (i) All real x ! 0 (ii) None (iii) Odd
15. f ] 5 g = 125, f ] 1 g = 1, f ] -1 g = -1
(e) (i) None (ii) All real x (iii) Neither
16. f ] 2 g - f ] -2 g + f ] -1 g = 0 - 4 + 1 = -3
Exercises 5.4
17. 10 18. 7 19. -28 1. (a) x-intercept 2, y-intercept -2
1
20. (a) 3 (b) x - 3 = 3 - 3 = 0 (b) x-intercept -1 , y-intercept 3
2
Denominator cannot be 0 so the function doesn’t exist 1
(c) x-intercept , y-intercept 1
for x = 3. (c) 4 2
(d) x-intercept -3, y-intercept 3
21. f ] x + h g - f ] x g = 2xh + h 2 - 5h 22. 4x + 2h + 1 2 1
(e) x-intercept , y-intercept -
3 3
23. 5] x - c g 24. 3k 2 + 5 25. (a) 2 (b) 0 (c) n 4 + n 2 + 2
 ANSWERS 559

2. (a) (e) y
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1 1
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1 -1 21 2 3 4

-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5
-5
(f) y
(b) y
5
5 4
4 3
3 2
2 1
x
1 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
x -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -2
-1
-3
-2
-4
-3 -5
-4
-5 (g) y

(c) y 5
4
5 3
4 2
3 - 1
2
3
2 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
1 -1
x -2
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -3
-1
-2 -4
-5
-3
-4
(h) y
-5
5
(d) y
4
5 3
4 2
3 1
2 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
1 -1
x -2
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -3
-1
-2 -4
-3 -5
-4
-5
560 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(i) y Exercises 5.5

5 1. (a) x-intercepts 0, -2, y-intercept 0

(b) x-intercepts 0, 3, y-intercept 0
4
(c) x-intercepts !1, y-intercept -1
3
(d) x-intercepts -1, 2, y-intercept -2
2 (e) x-intercepts 1, 8, y-intercept 8
1
x 2. (a) y
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
6
-2 5
-3 4
-4 3
-5 2
1
(j) y x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
5
-2
4
-3
3 -4
2 -5
1
(b) y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 111 2 3 4
-1 2 6
-2 5
-3 4
-4 3
-5 2
1
3. (a) " all real x ,, " all real y , (b) " all real x ,, " y: y = 2 , x
(c) ! x: x = -4 +, " all real y , (d) ! x: x = 2 +, " all real y , -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
(e) ! all real x +, " y: y = 3 ,
-2
4. (a) Odd (b) Even (c) Neither (d) Odd (e) Odd -3
-4
5. y -5

5 (c) y
4 6
3 5
2 4
1 3
x 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 111 2 3 4 1
-1 2
x
-2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-3
-2
-4 -3
-5 -4
-5

(3, -1)
 ANSWERS 561

(d) y (h) y

6 5
5 4
4 3
3 2
2 1
1 x
x -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -2
-2 -3
-3 -4
-4 -5
-5 -6

(e) y (i) y

6 5
5 4
4 3
3 2
2 1
1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1112 2 3 4 5
x -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -2
-1
-2 -3
-3 -4
-4 -5
-5 -6

(f) y (j) y

12 5
10 4
8 3
6 2
4 1
2 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -2
-2
-4 -3
-6 -4
-8 -5
-10 -6

(g) y 3. (a) (i) x-intercepts 3, 4, y-intercept 12 (ii) {all real x},

1
( y: y $ - 2
5 4
4 (b) (i) x-intercepts 0, -4, y-intercept 0 (ii) {all real x},
3 " y: y $ -4 ,
2 (c) (i) x-intercepts -2, 4, y-intercept -8 (ii) {all real x},
1 " y: y $ - 9 ,
x (d) (i) x-intercept 3, y-intercept 9 (ii) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 ,
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 (e) (i) x-intercepts ! 2, y-intercept 4 (ii) {all real x},
-2 " y: y # 4 ,
-3
-4 4. (a) {all real x}, " y: y $ -5 , (b) {all real x}, " y: y $ - 9 ,
-5
-6
562 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

1 (c) y
(c) {all real x}, ( y: y $ -2 2 (d) {all real x}, " y: y # 0 ,
4
5
(e) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 ,
4
5. (a) 0 # y # 9 (b) 0 # y # 4 (c) -1 # y # 24 3
1 2
(d) -4 # y # 21 (e) -18 # y # 2
4 1
6. (a) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0 (b) (i) x 1 0 (ii) x 2 0
(c) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0 (d) (i) x 1 2 (ii) x 2 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
(e) (i) x 2 -5 (ii) x 1 -5 -2
7. f ] -x g = - ] -x g 2 -3
= -x2 -4
= f (x) -5
` even
(d) y
8. (a) Even (b) Even (c) Even (d) Neither
(e) Neither (f) Even (g) Neither 5
(h) Neither (i) Neither (j) Neither 4
3
Exercises 5.6 2
1. (a) x-intercept 0, y-intercept 0 1
(b) No x-intercepts, y-intercept 7 x
(c) x-intercepts ! 2, y-intercept -2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
(d) x-intercept 0, y-intercept 0
-2
(e) x-intercepts ! 3, y-intercept 3
(f) x-intercept -6, y-intercept 6 -3
2 -4
(g) x-intercept , y-intercept 2
3 -5
4
(h) x-intercept - , y-intercept 4
5
(e) y
1
(i) x-intercept , y-intercept 1
7
5
(j) No x-intercepts, y-intercept 9
4
2. (a) y 3
2
5
1
4
x
3 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
2 -2
1 -3
x -4
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -5
-2
(f) y
-3
-4 5
-5 4

(b) y 3
2
5
1
4
x
3 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
2
-2
1
x -3
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -4
-1
-2 -5
-3
-4
-5
 ANSWERS 563

(g) y 3. (a) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 ,

(b) {all real x}, " y: y $ -8 ,
5
(c) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 ,
4 (d) {all real x}, " y: y $ -3 ,
3 (e) {all real x}, " y: y # 0 ,
2
4. (a) (i) x 2 2 (ii) x 1 2 (b) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0
1
1 1
x (c) (i) x 2 1 (ii) x 1 1 (d) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 2 2
-1 (e) (i) x 1 0 (ii) x 2 0
-2
-3 5. (a) 0 # y # 2 (b) - 8 # y # -4 (c) 0 # y # 6
-4 (d) 0 # y # 11 (e) -1 # y # 0
-5
6. (a) x 2 -3 (b) x 1 0 (c) x 2 9 (d) x 2 2
y (e) x 1 -2
(h)
7. (a) x = !3 (b) x 2 1, x 1 -1 (c) -2 # x # 2
5
4 (d) x = -1, -3 (e) x = 3 (f) x = 1, 2 (g) -3 1 x 1 5

3 (h) - 4 # x # 2 (i) x 2 4, x 1 0
(j) x # 2, x $ 4
2 1
(k) - 4 # x # 1 (l) x # 0, x $ 1 (m) x = 2, -
2
1
(n) No solutions (o) x = 0 (p) x = 1 (q) x = 0, -2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 1
-1 (r) No solutions (s) x = (t) x = 0, 6
3
-2
-3 Exercises 5.7
-4 1. (a) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) no y-intercept
-5
(iii) y
(i) y
5
5
4
4
3
3
2 2
1 1
x x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-2
-3
-4 -3
-5 -4
(j) y -5
(b) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0}
5
(ii) no y-intercept
4
(iii) y
3
2 2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 1
-1
-2
-3 x
-2 -1 1 2
-4
-5 -1

-2
564 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(c) (i) {all real x: x ! -1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) 1 (iii) y

(iii) y 5

2 4
3

1 2
1

x x
-2 -1 1 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-1
-3
-4
-2
-5
1
(d) (i) {all real x: x ! 2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -1
2 (g) (i) {all real x: x ! 1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -4
(iii) y
(iii) y
5
4 5

3 4

2 3

1 2

x 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-2 -1
-3 -2

-4 -3

-5 -4

1 -5
(e) (i) {all real x: x ! -2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii)
6
(h) (i) {all real x: x ! -1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -2
(iii) y
(iii) y
2
5

1 4
3
x 2
-2 -1 1 2
1
-1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-2
2 -3
(f) (i) {all real x: x ! 3}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii)
3
-4
-5
 ANSWERS 565

1 2 Exercises 5.8
(i) (i) ' all real x: x ! 1, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -
2 3
1. (a) (i) y

(iii) y

2 3

x
-3 3
x
1
-2 -1 2 1 2
2
-
3
-1
-3

-2
(ii) ! x: -3 # x # 3 +, " y: -3 # y # 3 ,

(j) (i) {all real x: x ! -2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -3 y

(b) (i)

(iii) y
4
5
4
3
2
x
1 -4 4

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-4
-3
-4
-5 (ii) ! x: -4 # x # 4 +, " y: -4 # y # 4 ,

y
(c) (i)
2
2. f ] -x g =
-x
2 5
=-
x 4
= - f (x)
` odd function 3
2
(2, 1)
1 1 1 1 1
3. (a) # y # 1 (b) # y # 1 (c) -2 # y # -
9 3 2 2
x
3
(d) # y # 3 (e) - 2 # y # -
1 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
7 8
-2
4. (a) 1 # x # 3 (b) 1 # x # 4 (c) - 6 # x # 0
-3
(d) 1 # x # 4 (e) 1 # x # 2 -4
-5
566 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(ii) ! x: 0 # x # 4 +, " y: -1 # y # 3 , (iii) ! x: -5 # x # 5 +, " y: -5 # y # 0 ,

(d) (i) y (b) (i) Above x-axis

(ii) y
5
4
3
1
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 x
-1 1
-2
-3
-4
(iii) ! x: -1 # x # 1 +, " y: 0 # y # 1 ,
-5
(c) (i) Above x-axis

(ii) ! x: -4 # x # 2 +, " y: -3 # y # 3 , (ii) y

(e) (i) y

6
5
4
3
2 x
-6 6
1
(-2, 1)
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 (iii) ! x: -6 # x # 6 +, " y: 0 # y # 6 ,
-1
(d) (i) Below x-axis
-2

(ii) y

(ii) ! x: -3 # x # -1 +, " y : 0 # y # 2 ,

2. (a) (i) Below x-axis

(ii)
y x
-8 8

-8

x (iii) ! x: -8 # x # 8 +, " y: -8 # y # 0 ,
-5 5

-5
 ANSWERS 567

(e) (i) Below x-axis 6. (a) {y: - 9 # y # 3}

(b) {y: 0 # y # 9} (c) {y: -8 # y # 1}
(ii) y 1
(d) ' y: # y # 1 1 (e) {y: 0 # y # 4}
5
(f) {y: -1 # y # 15} (g) {y: -1 # y # 0}

(h) " y: - 1 # y # 8 , (i) {y: - 4 # y # 21}

1
(j) ' y: - 6 # y # 6 1
4

x 7. (a) {all real x: x ! -1}

- 7 7 (b) x-intercept: y = 0
3
0=
x+1
0=3
This is impossible so there is no x-intercept
- 7 (c) {all real y: y ! 0}

8. (a) {all real x: x ! 0} (b) {all real y: y ! !1}

(iii) " x: - 7 # x # 7 ,, # y: - 7 # y # 0 -
9. (a) y

3. (a) Radius 10, centre (0, 0) (b) Radius 5 , centre (0, 0) 25

(c) Radius 4, centre (4, 5) (d) Radius 7, centre (5, -6)
20
(e) Radius 9, centre (0, 3)
15
4. (a) x 2 + y 2 = 16 10
(b) x - 6x + y - 4y - 12 = 0
2 2
5
(c) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 10y + 17 = 0 x
(d) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 6y - 23 = 0 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-5
(e) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0
-10
(f) x 2 + y 2 + 4y + 3 = 0
(g) x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 4y - 29 = 0 -15
(h) x 2 + 6x + y 2 + 8y - 56 = 0
(b) y
(i) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 1 = 0
(j) x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 14y + 62 = 0
8
Exercises 5.9 6

1. (a) {all real x}, {all real y} (b) {all real x}, {y: y = -4} 4
(c) {x: x = 3}, {all real y} (d) {all real x}, {y: y $ -1} 2
1
(e) {all real x}, {all real y} (f) {all real x}, ' y: y # 12 1 x
4 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
(g) {x: -8 # x # 8}, {y: -8 # y # 8} -2
(h) {all real t: t ! 4}, {all real f (t): f (t) ! 0} -4
(i) {all real z: z ! 0}, {all real g ^ z h: g ^ z h ! 5}
-6
(j) {all real x}, {y: y $ 0}
-8
2. (a) {x: x $ 0}, {y: y $ 0} (b) {x: x $ 2}, {y: y $ 0}
(c) {all real x}, {y: y $ 0} (d) {all real x}, {y: y $ -2} (c) y
1
(e) ' x: x $ -2 1, {y: y # 0} 25
2
(f) {all real x}, {y: y # 5} (g) {all real x}, {y: y 2 0} 20
(h) {all real x}, {y: y 1 0} 15
(i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 1} 10
(j) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 2} 5
3. (a) x = 0, 5 (b) x = -3, 1, 2 (c) x = 0, 2, 4 x
(d) x = 0, ! 4 (e) x = !7 4. (a) -1 # x # 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-5
(b) {x: -1 # x # 1}
-10

5. (a) {x: x # - 1, x $ 2} (b) {t: t # - 6, t $ 0} -15

568 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(d) y (g) y

8
6 3
4
2
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-2
-1 1
-4 -1
-6
-8

10. (a) " x: x $ 1 , " y: y $ 0 ,

(b) y

(e) y
2

8 1

6 x
1 2 3
4 -1

2
11. y
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-2
6
-4 5
-6 4
3
-8
2
1
x
-1 -1 1

(f) y
12. (a) (i) {all real x}, {all real y} (ii) All x (iii) None
(b) (i) {all real x}, " y: y 2 -2 , (ii) x 2 0 (iii) x 1 0
(c) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) None
10
(iii) All x ! 0
(d) (i) {all real x}, {all real y} (ii) All x (iii) None
(e) (i) {all real x}, " y: y 2 0 , (ii) All x (iii) None

13. (a) - 2 # x # 2 (b) (i) {x: - 2 # x # 2}, { y: 0 # y # 2}

x (ii) {x: - 2 # x # 2}, { y: - 2 # y # 0}
-10 10

Exercises 5.10
1. (a) 21 (b) -10 (c) 8 (d) 3 (e) 3 (f) 75 (g) 0
1
-10 (h) - 6 (i) (j) 1 (k) - 7 (l) x 2 - 3x
4
(m) 2x 3 + 3x - 5 (n) 3c 2
 ANSWERS 569

2. (a) Continuous (b) Discontinuous at x = - 1 (b) y

(c) Continuous (d) Continuous (e) Discontinuous at
x = !2 6

3. (a) 5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3

(b) -4

(c) y

6
5
4
3
2
1
x
(c) -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4

(d) y

6
5
4

Exercises 5.11 3
2
1. (a) y 1
x
6 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
5
-2
4
-3
3
-4
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
570 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(e) y (h) y

6 6
y = x +1
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
3x - y - 6 = 0
-5
(f) y -6

6 y
(i)
5
4 y = 2x -3 6
3 5
2 4
1 3
x 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x + 2y - 2 = 0
-1 1
-2 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-3 -1
-2
-3
(g) y -4
-5
6
-6
5
4
(j) y
3
x+y = 1
2
6
1
5
x
4
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 3
-2 2
-3 1
-4 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
1
-5 x=
2
-6
 ANSWERS 571

2. (a) x 2 -3 (b) y $ -2 (c) y $ x + 1 (d) y 2 x 2 - 4 (d) y

x
(e) y $ 2
5
3. (a) y y=x2
4

5 3

4 2
y = x2 - 1
3 1
x
2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
1
-2
x
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -4
-2 -5
-3
-4 (e) y
-5
8

y 6
(b)
4
2
3 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-2
-4
-6
x y = x3
-3 3 -8

4. (a) y 1 3x - 2
(b) y 2 x 2 + 2
-3
(c) x 2 + y 2 1 49
(d) x 2 + y 2 2 81
(e) x 1 5, y 2 2

(c) y
5. (a) y

5
1 4
3
2
1
x x
-1 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2

-1
572 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(b) y (c) y

5 6

4 5

3 4 y = 3x – 5

2 3

1 2
x 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-2 -1
-2
(c) y -3

5 -4

4 -5

3 -6

2
(d) y
1
x 6
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 y=x+1
-2 4
3
6. (a) y 2

6 1
5 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
4 -1
3 -2 y=3–x
2 -3
1 -4
x -5
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 -6
-2
-3 (e) y
-4

(b) y 3

6
5 y=1
4
3 x
-3 3
2
y=x -3
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-3
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
 ANSWERS 573

(f) y (i) y

2 1

1
1
x x
-2 -1 2 -1 1

-2 -1

x=–1

(g) y
(j) y

5 6
y=4
4 5
x - y = -1
3 4
2 y = x2 3
1 2
x x-y=2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 x
-2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-3 -2
-4 -3
-5 -4
-5

(h) y -6

8 y = x3
x = -2 7. (a) y
6
y = x2
4 y=3 5
2 4
x 3
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-2 2
-4 1
-6 x
-8 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
574 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(b) y (e) y

8 y = x3
6 2
4
1
y=1 2
x x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-2
-1
-4 y= 1
x+2
-6 -2

-8

8. (a)
y y
(c)

y = x2
y=5
2 5
4
3
2
x 1
-2 1 2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-2 -3
x=2
x=1 -4
-5
(d) y

(b) y

2 6
5
4
1
3
x
-1 1 2 3 4 2
2 1
y= x
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-2
-1
y = -1
-2
-3
x=3
-4
-5
y=x-2 -6
 ANSWERS 575

(c) y Test yourself 5

y = 2x + 1 1. (a) f ] - 2 g = 6 (b) f ] a g = a 2 - 3a - 4 (c) x = 4, -1

6
2. (a)
5
4
3
2 2x - 3y = 6
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
(b)
-3
-4
-5
-6

(d) y

(c)

y=2

x (d)
-3 3

-3
x = -3
(e)

(e) y

6
5
y = |x|
4
(f)
3
y=3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3 x=2
576 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(g) 9.

(h)

10.

1
3. (a) Domain: all real x; range: y $ - 6
4
(b) Domain: all real x; range: all real y
(c) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: - 1 # y # 1
(d) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: 0 # y # 1
11. (a) y # 3 (b) y 2 x + 2 (c) y $ - x 2, y # 0
(e) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: - 1 # y # 0
(f) Domain: all real x ! 0; range: all real y ! 0 12. (a) Domain: all real x ! 3, range: all real y ! 0
(g) Domain: all real x; range: all real y
(h) Domain: all real x; range: y $ 0 (b)

4. 15 5. (a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 9 (d) 3 (e) 2

6.

13. (a)

7.

(b) (i) x = 2, -4 (ii) - 4 1 x 1 2 (iii) x 2 2, x 1 - 4

2 1
14. (a) 2 (b) x = 3 (c) 1
3 3

8. 15. (a) x-intercept -10, y-intercept 4

(b) x-intercepts - 2, 7, y-intercept -14

16. (a) i (b) iii (c) ii (d) i (e) iii

 ANSWERS 577

2 1 3.
17. (a) 4 (b) (c) - 1 (d) 3
5 2

18.

4.

19. (a) Domain: x $ 2, range: y $ 0

(b)

5. f ] 3 g = 9, f ] -4 g = 16, f ] 0 g = 1

20. (a) f ( x) = x 4 + 3 x 2 - 1
f (- x) = ] - x g4 + 3 ] - x g2 - 1
= x 4 + 3x 2 - 1
= f (x)
So f ] x g is even.
(b) f (x) = x 3 - x
f (- x) = ] - x g3 - (- x)
= - x3 + x
= - (x 3 - x)
= - f (x)
So f ] x g is odd.

Challenge exercise 5
2 6. Domain: all real x ! ! 1; range: y # - 1, y 2 0
1. b=- ,3
3
7.
2.
578 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

8. Domain: x $ 0; range: y $ 0 9. x = 0, 3, - 2 1
16. (a) RHS = 2 +
x+3
10. 2]x + 3g 1
= +
x+3 x+3
2x + 6 + 1
=
x+3
2x + 7
=
x+3
= LHS
2x + 7 1
` =2+
x+3 x+3
(b) Domain: all real x ! - 3; range: all real y ! 2
(c)

11. h ] 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g = - 3 + 0 - ] -1 g = - 2

17.

12.

18.

13.

19. Domain: x $ 3; range: y $ 0 20. Domain: - 2 # x # 2

21.

14. f ^ (-a) 2 h = 2 (-a 2) - 1

= 2a 2 - 1
= f (a 2)

1 ! 41
15. x =
4
 ANSWERS 579

Chapter 6: Trigonometry 5. (a) 0.635 (b) 0.697 (c) 0.339 (d) 0.928 (e) 1.393

Exercises 6.1 6. (a) 17c 20l (b) 34c 20l (c) 34c 12l
(d) 46c 34l (e) 79c 10l
5 12 12
1. cos i = , sin i = , tan i =
13 13 5
Exercises 6.3
4 3 5
2. sin b = , cot b = , sec b = 1. (a) x = 6.3 (b) y = 5.6 (c) b = 3.9 (d) x = 5.6
5 4 3
(e) m = 2.9 (f) x = 13.5 (g) y = 10.0 (h) p = 3.3
7 7 5 (i) x = 5.1 (j) t = 28.3 (k) x = 3.3 cm (l) x = 2.9 cm
3. sin b = , tan b = , cos b =
74 5 74 (m) x = 20.7 cm (n) x = 20.5 mm (o) y = 4.4 m
(p) k = 20.6 cm (q) h = 17.3 m (r) d = 1.2 m
5 56 9
4. cos x = , tan x = , cosec x = (s) x = 17.4 cm (t) b = 163.2 m
9 5 56
3 4 2. 1.6 m 3. 20.3 cm 4. 13.9 m
5. cos i = , sin i =
5 5
5. (a) 18.4 cm (b) 13.8 cm 6. 10 cm and 10.5 cm
5 3 5
6. tan i = , sec i = , sin i = 7. 47.4 mm 8. 20.3 m 9. (a) 7.4 cm (b) 6.6 cm
2 2 3
(c) 9.0 cm
35 1
7. cos i = , tan i =
6 35 10. (a) 6.8 cm (b) 6.5 cm 11. 38 cm

51 51
8. tan i = , sin i = Exercises 6.4
7 10
1. (a) x = 39c 48l (b) a = 35c 06l (c) i = 37c 59l
9. (a) 2(b) 45c (d) a = 50c 37l (e) a = 38c 54l (f) b = 50c 42l
1 1 (g) x = 44c 50l (h) i = 30c 51l (i) a = 29c 43l
(c) sin 45c = , cos 45c = , tan 45c = 1
2 2 (j) i = 45c 37l (k) a = 57c 43l (l) i = 43c 22l
(m) i = 37c 38l (n) i = 64c 37l (o) b = 66c 16l
1 3 1
10. (a) 3 (b) sin 30c = , cos 30c = , tan 30c = (p) a = 29c 56l (q) i = 54c 37l (r) a = 35c 58l
2 2 3 (s) i = 59° 2l (t) c = 56c 59l
3 1
(c) sin 60c = , cos 60c = , tan 60c = 3 2. 37c 57l 3. 22c 14l 4. 36c52l 5. 50c
2 2

11. sin 67c = cos 23c = 0.92 12. sec 82c = cosec 8c = 7.19 6. (a) 11.4 cm (b) 37c 52l 7. a = 31c 58l, b = 45c 44l

13. tan 48c = cot 42c = 1.11 14. (a) 2 cos 61c or 2 sin 29c 8. (a) 13 m (b) 65c 17l 9. (a) 11c 19l (b) 26 cm
(b) 0 (c) 0 (d) 1 (e) 2
10. 4.96 cm and 17.3 cm 11. (a) 12.9 m (b) 56c 34l
15. x = 80c 16. y = 22c 17. p = 31c 18. b = 25c
Exercises 6.5
19. t = 20c 20. k = 15c
1. (a) North
Exercises 6.2

1. (a) 47c (b) 82c (c) 19c (d) 77c (e) 52c

2. (a) 47c 13l (b) 81c 46l (c) 19c 26l

(d) 76c 37l (e) 52c 30l

3. (a) 77.75c (b) 65.5c (c) 24.85c 100c

Beach
(d) 68.35c (e) 82.517c house
Boat
4. (a) 59c 32l (b) 72c 14l (c) 85c 53l
(d) 46c 54l (e) 73c 13l
580 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(b) North (f) North

Farmhouse
Jamie

12c

Campsite Dam
(g) North
320c

(c) North

House 160c

Jetty
200c

Mohammed
(h) North

Seagull

(d) North
Alistair

Mine shaft
80c
Town

50c
(i) North
Bus stop Yvonne

(e) North

Plane School
349c

B Hill
285c
 ANSWERS 581

(j) North 3 1 1
6. (a) 1st (b) 7. (a) 1 (b) (c) - 3 (d)
2 2 2
1 1 3 1 3 1
(e) - (f) - (g) (h) - (i) - (j) -
2 2 2 3 2 2

1 3 3 3
8. (a) - (b) - (c) 3 (d) - (e) -
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
Boat ramp (f) - 3 (g) (h) - (i) (j) -
2 3 2 2
Island
280c 9. (a) -
3
(b) 3 (c)
3
(d)
1
(e) -
1
(f) 3
2 2 2 2

1 1 1
2. (a) 248c (b) 145c (c) 080c (d) 337c (e) 180c (g) (h) (i) −1 (j)
2 2 2
3. 080c 4. 210c 5. 160c 6. 10.4 m
3 4
10. sin i = - , cos i = -
7. 21 m 8. 126.9 m 9. 72c48l 5 5

33 4
10. (a) 1056.5 km (b) 2265.8 km (c) 245c 11. cos i = - , tan i = -
7 33
11. 83.1 m 12. 1.8 km 13. 12 m 14. 242c 15. 035c 8 89
12. cos x = , cosec x = -
89 5
16. 9.2 m 17. 171 m 18. 9.8 km 19. 51c 41l 20. 2.6 m
5 2 21
21. 9c21l 22. 1931.9 km 23. 34.6 m 24. 149c 13. cosec x = - , cot x = - , tan x = -
21 21 2
25. 198 m 26. 4.8 km 27. 9.2 m 28. 217c 7 74 5 74
14. cos x = - , sin x = -
74 74
29. (a) 1.2 km (b) 7.2 km 30. (a) 13.1 m (b) 50c26l
4 9
15. tan i = - , sec i =
Exercises 6.6 65 65

3+1 4 3 2 3 55 8 8
1. (a) (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4 (e) (f) 16. tan x = , sec x = - , cosec x = -
2 3 3 3 3 55

1 6+ 2 2 ^ 3 + 1h 3 91 3
(g) 1 (h) = (i) 3 17. (a) sin x = (b) cos x = - , tan x = -
4 4 4 10 10 91

(j) - ^ 2 + 3 h (k) 0 (l) 1 (m) 2 ^ 2 - 1 h (n) 6 5 61 61

18. cot a = - , sec a = , cosec a = -
6 5 6
1 1 2 2- 3
(o) 1 (p) 3 - 2 2 (q) 2 3 (r) - (s) 6 (t)
3 2 3 2 51 7
19. sin i = , cot i = -
10 51
3 2 9 3
2. (a) x = (b) y = (c) p = 2 3
2 2 20. (a) sin i (b) cos x (c) tan b (d) - sin a (e) - tan i
10 3 (f) - sin i (g) cos a (h) - tan x
3. 60c 4. 2m 5. 3m 6. m
3
Exercises 6.8
5^3 + 3 h
7. (a) 6 2 m (b) 4 m 8. 0.9 m 9. m
3 1. (a) i = 20c 29l, 159c 31l (b) i = 120c, 240c
(c) i = 135c, 315c (d) i = 60c, 120c (e) i = 150c, 330c
10. 100 3 m
(f) i = 30c, 330c
(g) i = 30c, 120c, 210c, 300c ] 0c # 2i # 720c g
Exercises 6.7
(h) i = 70c, 110c, 190c, 230c, 310c, 350c
] 0c # 3i # 1080c g
1. (a) 1st, 4th (b) 1st, 3rd (c) 1st, 2nd (d) 2nd, 4th
(i) i = 30c, 150c, 210c, 330c
(e) 3rd, 4th (f) 2nd, 3rd (g) 3rd
(j) i = 15c, 45c, 75c, 105c, 135c, 165c, 195c, 225c,
(h) 3rd (i) 2nd (j) 4th
255c, 285c, 315c, 345c
1 1
2. (a) 3rd (b) - 3. (a) 4th (b) - 2. (a) i = !79c 13l (b) i = 30c, 150c (c) i = 45c, -135c
2 2
(d) i = - 60c, -120c (e) i = 150c, -30c
1 (f) i = !30c, !150c
4. (a) 2nd (b) - 3 5. (a) 2nd (b)
2 (g) i = 22c 30l, 112c 30l, -67c 30l, -157c 30l
582 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(h) i = !15c, !45c, !75c, !105c, !135c, !165c 17.

(i) i = 135c, -45c (j) i = !30c, !60c, !120c, !150c

3.

Exercises 6.9
4. -1 1. (a) cos i (b) - tan i (c) cos i (d) tan i (e) - sec a

5. 2. (a) sin i (b) sec i (c) cosec x (d) cos2 x (e) sin a
(f) cosec x
2
(g) sec x
2
(h) tan i (i) 5 cosec 2 i
2

(j) sin2 x (k) 1 (l) sin i cos i

3. (a) LHS = cos 2 x - 1

= 1 - sin 2 x - 1
= - sin 2 x
= RHS
So cos 2 x - 1 = -sin 2 x
(b) LHS = sec i + tan i
1 sin i
= +
cos i cos i
6. x = 0c, 180c, 360c 7. - 1 8. 1 1 + sin i
=
cos i
9. x = 0c, 360c
= RHS
1 + sin i
10. So sec i + tan i =
cos i
(c) LHS = 3 + 3 tan 2 a
= 3 (1 + tan 2 a )
= 3 sec 2 a
3
=
cos 2 a
3
=
1 - sin 2 a
= RHS
3
11. 0 12. x = 270c 13. x = 0c, 180c, 360c So 3 + 3 tan 2 a =
1 - sin 2 a
14. x = 0c, 180c, 360c 15. x = -270c, 90c (d) LHS = sec 2 x - tan 2 x
= tan 2 x + 1 - tan 2 x
16. =1
= cosec 2 x - cot 2 x
= RHS
So sec 2 x - tan 2 x = cosec 2 x - cot 2 x
(e) LHS = ] sin x - cos x g 3
= ] sin x - cos x g ] sin x - cos x g 2
= ] sin x - cos x g ^ sin 2 x - 2 sin x cos x + cos 2 x h
= ] sin x - cos x g ] 1 - 2 sin x cos x g
= sin x - 2 sin 2 x cos x - cos x + 2 sin x cos 2 x
= RHS
So ] sin x - cos x g 3 = sin x - 2 sin 2 x cos x - cos x
+ 2 sin x cos 2 x
 ANSWERS 583

1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i
(f) RHS = sec b
sin i cos i RHS =
cos 2 i + 2 sin i tan b + cot b
= sec b
sin i cos i =
cos 2 i 2 sin i sin b cos b
= + +
sin i cos i sin i cos i cos b sin b
cos i 2 sec b
= + =
sin i cos i sin 2 b + cos 2 b
= cot i + 2 sec i
sin b cos b
= LHS
sec b
1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i =
So cot i + 2 sec i = 1
sin i cos i
sin b cos b
(g) LHS = cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i cos b sin b
= sec b #
= sin 2 i cot i 1
cos i 1 cos b sin b
= sin 2 i # = #
sin i cos b 1
= sin i cos i = sin b
= RHS
LHS = RHS
So cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i = sin i cos i
1 + cot b
So - cos b = sin b
(h) LHS = ] cosec x + cot x g ] cosec x - cot x g cosec b
= cosec 2 x - cot 2 x
= 1 + cot 2 x - cot 2 x 4. LHS = x 2 + y 2
=1 = ] 2 cos i g 2 + ] 2 sin i g 2
= RHS = 4 cos 2 i + 4 sin 2 i
So ] cosec x + cot x g ] cosec x - cot x g = 1 = 4 (cos 2 i + sin 2 i)
= 4 ]1g
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i =4
(i) LHS =
cos 2 i = RHS
1 sin 2 i cos 2 i So x 2 + y 2 = 4
= -
cos i
2
cos 2 i
5. LHS = x 2 + y 2
= sec i - sin i
2 2

= ] 9 cos i g 2 + ] 9 sin i g 2
= tan 2 i + 1 - (1 - cos 2 i)
= 81 cos 2 i + 81 sin 2 i
= tan 2 i + 1 - 1 + cos 2 i
= 81 (cos 2 i + sin 2 i)
= tan 2 i + cos 2 i
= 81 ] 1 g
= RHS
= 81
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i = RHS
So = tan 2 i + cos 2 i
cos 2 i So x 2 + y 2 = 81

1 + cot b
(j) LHS = - cos b Exercises 6.10
cosec b
1 + cot b - cos b cosec b 1. (a) x = 8.9 (b) y = 9.4 cm (c) a = 10.0
=
cosec b (d) b = 10.7 m (e) d = 8.0
1
1 + cot b - cos b #
sin b 2. (a) i = 51c 50l (b) a = 61c 23l (c) x = 43c 03l
=
cosec b (d) a = 87c 04l (e) i = 150c 56l
1 + cot b - cot b
= 3. 126c 56l 4. (a) 13.5 mm (b) 25 mm
cosec b
1
= 5. (a) 1.8 m (b) 2.7 m 6. 5.7 cm
cosec b
= sin b 7. (a) 10.3 m (b) 9.4 m 8. (a) 60c 22l (b) 57c 9l

9. (a) 14.1 cm (b) 15.6 cm

10. (a) 54.7 mm (b) 35.1 mm
584 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Exercises 6.11 2 cos 2 i

5. LHS =
1. (a) m = 5.8 (b) b = 10.4 m (c) h = 7.4 cm 1 - sin i
2 ^ 1 - sin 2 i h
(d) n = 16.4 (e) y = 9.3 =
1 - sin i
2. (a) i = 54c 19l (b) i = 60c 27l (c) x = 57c 42l 2 ] 1 + sin i g ] 1 - sin i g
=
1 - sin i
(d) b = 131c 31l (e) i = 73c 49l = 2 (1 + sin i)
= 2 + 2 sin i
3. 32.94 mm 4. 11.2 cm and 12.9 cm
= RHS
5. (a) 11.9 cm (b) 44c 11l (c) 82c 13l 2 cos 2 i
So = 2 + 2 sin i
1 - sin i
6. +XYZ = +XZY = 66c 10l, +YXZ = 47c 40l
1 3
6. b = 40c 7. (a) (b) - (c) - 3
7. (a) 18.1 mm (b) 80c49l 8. (a) 6.2 cm (b) 12.7 cm 2 2

9. 12.9 cm 10. (i) 11 cm (ii) 30c 8. x = 120c, 240c

9.
Exercises 6.12
1. 12.5 cm and 4.7 cm 2. (a) 040c (b) 305c 3. 16.4 m

4. 103c 5. 1.97 m 6. 11c

7. (a) 1.21 km (b) 1 minute 8. 32 m 9. 107 m

5.8 sin 42c 29l
10. (a) AC = (b) i = 74c 50l x = 90c, 270c
sin 101c 36l
11. h = 8.5 12. 7.7 km 13. 5.7 km and 5.4 km 10. 122 km 11. 5 3 12. (a) 6.3 cm (b) 8.7 m

14. 1841 km 15. 35.8 m 16. 89c 52l 17. 9.9 km 13. (a) i = 65c 5l (b) i = 84c 16l (c) i = 39c 47l

18. 163.5 km 19. 64.1 m 20. 3269 km 14. 65.3 cm 2 15. (a) x = !60c, !120c
(b) x = 15c, 105c, -75c, -165c
21. (a) 11.3 cm (b) 44c 40l 22. 141c
(c) x = 0c, !180c, 30c, -150c
23. (a) 11.6 cm (b) 73c 14l
3 4
16. sin i = - , cot i = 17. (a) 209c (b) 029c
24. (a) 265.5 km (b) 346c 33l 5 3
20 sin 39c
25. (a) 35c 5l (b) (i) 4.5 m (ii) 0.55 m 18. (a) AD = (b) 8.5 m 19. 2951 km
sin 99c

Exercises 6.13 Challenge exercise 6

1. (a) 7.5 cm 2 (b) 32.3 units 2 (c) 9.9 mm 2
1. 92c 58l 2. 50.2 km 3. x = 12.7 cm
(d) 30.2 units 2 (e) 6.3 cm 2
25.3 sin 39c 53l
4. (a) AC = (b) h = 25.2 cm 5. 4.1 km
15 3 2 sin 41c 21l
2. m 3. 7.5 cm 2
4. 15.5 cm 2
5. 34.8 cm 2

2
1
6. - cos x 7. 16 3 cm 2 8.
6. 1.2 m 2 7. 42 cm 2 8. 247.7 mm 2 2

9. (a) 7.8 cm (b) 180.8 cm 2 9. x = 22c 30l, 112c 30l, 202c 30l, 292c 30l 10. i = 75c 45l

10. (a) 5.6 cm (b) 18.5 cm 2 (c) 19.1 cm 2 11. 5.4 m 12. i = 110c, 230c 13. 6.43 km

56 cos i ] sin i + cos i g

14. - 15. 31 m 16. LHS =
Test yourself 6 9 1 - sin 2 i
] sin i + cos i g
5 3 = cos i
1. cos i = , sin i = cos 2 i
34 34 sin i + cos i
=
2. (a) cos x (b) 2 (c) cosec A cos i
= tan i + 1
3. (a) 0.64 (b) 1.84 (c) 0.95 = RHS
17. x 2 + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0
4. (a) i = 46c 3l (b) i = 73c 23l (c) i = 35c 32l
 ANSWERS 585

Chapter 7: Linear functions 8. AC = BD = 125 , midpoint AC = midpoint

Exercises 7.1 1
BD = d 4, - n ; rectangle 9. ^ - 8, 13 h
2
1. (a) 5 (b) 10 (c) 13 2. (a) 13 (b) 65
1 1 1 1
(c) 85 (d) 52 = 2 13 10. (a) X = d - , 3 n , Y = d , n , Z = ^ 1, 1 h
2 2 2 2

3. (a) 9.85 (b) 6.71 (c) 16.55 4. 12 units 34

(b) XY = 10 , BC = 40 = 2 10 ; XZ = ,
2
5. Two sides = 34 , 1 side = 128
2
AC = 34 ; YZ = , AB = 2
6. Show AB = BC = 85 2

7. Show points are 17 units from ^ 7, -3 h 11. x 2 + y 2 = 4 12. x 2 + y 2 = 1

8. Radius = 3 units, equation x 2 + y 2 = 9 Exercises 7.3

9. Distance of all points from ^ 0, 0 h is 11 , equation
1 1 2 2 1
1. (a) 2 (b) 1 (c) - 1 (d) - 2 (e) (f) -
x + y = 11
2 2
10. a = 3 11. a = ! 6 - 2 3 3 5 3 8
1 2 1
12. All 3 sides are 2 units. 13. a = 10, - 2 (g) - 4 (h) - (i) 2 (j) - 2 2. y 1 = 21
2 3 4
14. MQ = NP = 37 , QP = MN = 20 , so parallelogram 3
3. x = 1.8 4. x = 9 5. (a) Show m 1 = m 2 =
5
15. BD = AC = 98 16. (a) AB = AC = 40 , BC = 4 (b) Lines are parallel.
(b) OC = OB = 2 17. 2 101 18. 61 units y

19. AB = 29 , BC = 116 , AC = 145 (3, 4)

AB + BC = 29 + 116
2 2 4
= 145 3
= AC 2 (7, 2)
2
So triangle ABC is right angled (Pythagoras’ theorem) (-2, 1)
1
20. XY = 65 , YZ = 130 , XZ = 65
Since XY = YZ, triangle XYZ is isosceles. -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
(2, -1)
XY 2 + XZ 2 = 65 + 65 -2
= 130
= YZ 2
So triangle XYZ is right angled. (Pythagoras’ theorem) 6. Gradient of AB = gradient of CD = 1
1
2
Problem
Gradient of BC = gradient of AD = 0
30.2 1
7. Gradient of AB = gradient of CD = -1
3
Exercises 7.2 3
Gradient of BC = gradient of AD =
1. (a) ^ 2, 4 h (b) ^ 1, -1 h (c) ^ - 2, 1 h (d) ^ - 3, 2 h 4
1
1 1 Gradient of AC = - 5 ,
(e) ^ -1, 1 h (f) ^ - 3, 2 h (g) d 3, n (h) d 1 , 1 n 2
2 2 1
1 1 1 gradient of BD = -
(i) d , 2 n (j) d 0, 5 n 2
2 2 2
8. Gradient of AC = 1, gradient of BD = -1
2. (a) a = 9, b = - 3 (b) a = - 5, b = 6
9. (a) Show AB 2 + BC 2 = AC 2
(c) a = -1, b = - 2 (d) a = -1, b = - 2
5
(e) a = 6, b = 1 (b) Gradient of AB = ,
4
3 + ]-3g -4 + 4 4
3. = 0, =0 4. P = Q = ^ 2, -1 h gradient of BC = -
2 2 5

^ 4, 3 h 6. x = 3 is the vertical line through 1

5. 10. (a) F = ^ 1, - 2 h, G = d 4, n
midpoint ^ 3, 2 h. 2
5
1 1 (b) Gradient of FG = gradient of BC =
7. Midpoint of AC = midpoint of BD = d 2 , 3 n . 6
2 2
Diagonals bisect each other
586 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

11. 4x - 3y - 11 = 0 12. Gradient of ^ 2, - 4 h and 2. (a) x - y + 1 = 0 (b) x - 3y + 16 = 0 (c) x + y - 5 = 0

^ 3, -1 h = gradient of ^ 3, -1 h and ^ 5, 5 h = 3 (d) x + 2y + 5 = 0 (e) x - 2y + 4 = 0

13. 1 14. 0.93 15. 21 16. 50c 12l 17. 108c 26l (f) x + 3y - 1 = 0 (g) 3x + 4y + 13 = 0

1 3. m 1 = m 2 = 3 so parallel
18. (a) 3 (b) (c) - 3
3
1
-5 - ] -2 g 4. m1 m2 = - # 5 = - 1 so perpendicular
19. m = 5
7-4
1
-3 5. m 1 = m 2 = 1
= 5
3
= -1 6. m1 # m2 = -
7 3
# = -1 7. k = -
2
8. m 1 = m 2 = 4
m = tan i 3 7 3
-1 = tan i
5
` i = 180c - 45c ^ 2nd quadrant h 9. AB < CD _ m 1 = m 2 = 3 i and BC < AD d m 1 = m 2 = - n
8
= 135c
1
2^ 3 + 3h 10. Gradient of AC: m 1 = , gradient of BD: m 2 = - 2,
20. x = 2
3 1
m 1 # m 2 = # - 2 = -1
2
Exercises 7.4
11. (a) y = - x (b) 5x - y - 8 = 0 (c) 2x + y + 2 = 0
1. (a) (i) 3 (ii) 5 (b) (i) 2 (ii) 1 (c) (i) 6 (ii) -7
(d) 2x - 3y + 16 = 0 12. 7x + 6y - 24 = 0
(d) (i) -1 (ii) 0 (e) (i) - 4 (ii) 3 (f) (i) 1 (ii) - 2
(g) (i) - 2 (ii) 6 (h) (i) -1 (ii) 1 (i) (i) 9 (ii) 0 13. x + y - 3 = 0 14. 2x - y - 5 = 0

(j) (i) 5 (ii) - 2 2. (a) (i) - 2 (ii) 3 (b) (i) - 5 (ii) - 6 15. 2x - 3y + 18 = 0
1
(c) (i) 6 (ii) -1 (d) (i) 1 (ii) 4 (e) (i) - 2 (ii)
2 Exercises 7.7
1 1 4
(f) (i) 3 (ii) 1 (g) (i) - (ii) - 2 (h) (i) - (ii) 2 1. (a) ^ 2, - 4 h (b) ^ -1, - 3 h (c) ^ 4, 4 h (d) ^ 0, - 2 h
2 3 5
1 1 2 2 (e) ^ 5, -1 h (f) ^ -1, 1 h (g) ^ 3, 7 h (h) ^ 4, 0 h (i) ^ 41, 26 h
(i) (i) 3 (ii) - (j) (i) 1 (ii) 3. (a) 4 (b) - 2
2 2 3 3 1 7
1 1 (j) d , - n 2. Substitute ^ 3, - 4 h into both lines
(c) 0 (d) - 2 (e) -1 (f) - 3 (g) 2 (h) - (i) 1 19 19
4 2
1 2 1 1 2 3 3. ^ 2, 5 h, ^ 4, 1 h and ^ -1, -1 h 4. All lines intersect
(j) 1 (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) -
4 3 2 5 7 5 at ^ 2, -3 h
1 1 1 3
(p) - (q) 15 (r) - 1 (s) (t) - 5. All lines meet at ^ - 5, 0 h 6. 11x + 6y = 0
14 2 6 8
7. 5x + 6y - 27 = 0 8. 4x + 7y + 23 = 0
Exercises 7.5
9. x+y-1=0 10. 2x + y - 2 = 0
1. (a) y = 4x - 1 (b) y = - 3x + 4 (c) y = 5x 11. x + y - 3 = 0 12. x - 2y - 3 = 0
(d) y = 4x + 20 (e) 3x + y - 3 = 0 (f) 4x - 3y - 12 = 0 13. x - y + 1 = 0 14. x - 3y + 2 = 0
(g) y = x - 1 (h) y = x + 5 2. x + y - 8 = 0 15. 3x + y - 7 = 0 16. x + 5y + 13 = 0
3. (a) 4x - 3y + 7 = 0 (b) 3x - 4y + 4 = 0 17. 27x - 5y - 76 = 0 18. 3x - y - 14 = 0
(c) 4x - 5y + 13 = 0 (d) 3x + 4y - 25 = 0 19. 2x - y - 1 = 0 20. 3x - y - 11 = 0
(e) x - 2y + 2 = 0 4. 4x + y - 8 = 0 5. (a) y = 3 21. 5x - y + 17 = 0
(b) x = -1 6. y = - 2x 7. 3x - 4y - 12 = 0 Exercises 7.8
8. 2x + y - 3 = 0 9. x = - 4 10. 3x + 8y - 15 = 0 3 8
1. (a) 2.6 (b) 1 (c) 2.5 (d) 2.4 (e)
13 13
Exercises 7.6
2. (a) 3.48 (b) 1.30 (c) 0.384 (d) 5.09 (e) 1.66
1 3 1 5 1
1. (a) - 3 (b) (c) (d) 1 (e) 1 (f) - (g)
3 4 2 6 3 7 13 4 205 5 26 14 13
3. (a) (b) 5 (c) (d) (e)
13 205 13 13
1 1 1
(h) (i) (j) 4. d1 = d2 = d3 = 1
3 3 5
 ANSWERS 587

14 -3 13. Solving simultaneously, x - y - 4 = 0 and

5. A: d = , B: d =
5 5 2x + y + 1 = 0 have point of intersection ^ 1, - 3 h .
Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line Substitute ^ 1, - 3 h in 5x - 3y - 14 = 0:
13 5 LHS = 5 # 1 - 3 # - 3 - 14 = 0 = RHS
6. ^ 2, - 3 h: d = , ^ 9, 2 h: d =
10 10
` point lies on 5x - 3y - 14 = 0:
Same signs so points lie on the same side of the line
Substitute ^ 1, - 3 h in 3x - 2y - 9 = 0:
1
7. ^ - 3, 2 h : d = - 4 , ^ 4 , 1 h : d = 2 LHS = 3 # 1 - 2 # - 3 - 9 = 0 = RHS
5
Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line ` point lies on 3x - 2y - 9 = 0:
` lines are concurrent
8. d 1 = d 2 = 2 so the point is equidistant from both lines
4
14. - 0.499 15. c = -13, - 65 16. y = 3 17. x = 1
55 9 5
9. ^ 8, - 3 h: d = , ^ 1, 1 h: d =
37 37 -8 2
18. ^ - 2, 1 h: d = , ^ 6, 3 h: d =
13 13
Same signs so points lie on same side of the line
Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line
-6 7
10. ^ - 3, 2 h: d = , ^ 4, 1 h: d =
5 5 19. x - y - 4 = 0 20. 3x - 7y - 14 = 0

Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line

Challenge exercise 7
8 5
11. d 1 = d 2 = 4 so same distance 12. units
5 1. k = -2 2. x - 3 y - 3 3 = 0 3. 10x 2 + 10y 2 = 81

2 1 1 4. Show AC and BD have the same midpoint ^ 1, 2 h and

13. 1 14. 4.2 15. x = 9 or -17 16. b = 3 or -1
3 4 12 m AC # m BD = -1

2 1 5. Show distance of all points from ^ 0, 0 h is 3; radius 3;

17. m = - 1 or -18
3 3 equation x 2 + y 2 = 9
18. Show distance between ^ 0, 0 h and the line is 5
4 13
6. 7. +OBA = 45c; a = b (sides of isosceles D)
19. Show distance between ^ 0, 0 h and the line is greater than 1 13

4 1 2 10 13 5 26 34 12 13
20. (a) ^ 3, -1 h, d 3 , n, ^ - 2, 2 h (b) , , 8. 9. 113c12l 10. 2x + 3y + 13 = 0
7 7 5 5 119 13

11. BC = AC = 18 , AB = 6, so D is isosceles; 12. ^ 3, - 5 h

Test yourself 7
m BC # m AC = -1, so D is right angled.
1 13. a = 2, b = 3 14. 2x + 5y + 14 = 0
1. 6.4 units 2. d 2 , - 2 n
2
15. 3x +y + 3 - 2 3 =0 16. x - y + 6 = 0
1 1 3
3. (a) - 1 (b) 2 (c) (d)
5 3 5

4. (a) 7x - y - 11 = 0 (b) 5x + y - 6 = 0 (c) 3x + 2y = 0

Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus
(d) 3x + 5y - 14 = 0 (e) x - 3y - 3 = 0
Exercises 8.1
6 5
5. units
5 1.
1
6. m 1 = - , m 2 = 4 so m 1 m 2 = -1
4
` lines are perpendicular.
7. x-intercept 5, y-intercept - 2
1 5
8. (a) 2x + y - 1 = 0 (b) (c) units
2 2
9. m 1 = m 2 = 5, so lines are parallel 10. 3x - 4y = 0

11. ^ -1, 1 h 12. a = 6, b = 1

588 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. 8.

9.

3.

10.
4.

Exercises 8.2
5.
1. Yes, x = 0 2. Yes, x = x 1 3. No 4. Yes, x = 0

5. Yes, x = x 1, x = x 2 6. Yes, x = 0 7. Yes, x = - 3

8. Yes, x = 2 9. Yes, x = - 2, 3 10. Yes, -1 # x 1 0

11. Yes, x = 90c, 270c 12. Yes, x = 0 13. No 14. No

15. Yes, x = !3

Exercises 8.3
6.
1. (a) 3 (b) -7 (c) 3 (d) 8 (e) 2 (f) - 3 (g) 2
(h) -1 (i) 10 (j) -1

2. (a) x 2 - 2x - 4 (b) 2x 3 + x - 1 (c) - 7x - 1

(d) 4x 4 - x 2 (e) - 4x + 3 (f) 2x 2 + 6 (g) - 2x
(h) 4x 2 (i) 3x - 1 (j) x 2 - 2x + 9

Exercises 8.4
1. (a) 4.06 (b) 3.994 (c) 4

7. 2. (a) 13.61 (b) 13.0601 (c) 12.9401 (d) 13 3. 6

4. (a) f ] x + h g = x 2 + 2xh + h 2
(b) f (x + h) - f (x) = x + 2xh + h - x
2 2 2

= 2xh + h 2

f ]x + hg - f ]xg 2xh + h 2
(c) =
h h
h ] 2x + h g
=
h
= 2x + h
 ANSWERS 589

f ]x + hg - f ]xg 13. (a) 0.252 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.2498

(d) f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
14. (a) - 0.04008 (b) - 0.03992 (c) - 0.04 15. -1
= lim (2x + h)
h "0
= 2x
Exercises 8.5
5. (a) f (x + h) = 2 ] x + h g2 - 7 (x + h) + 3
1. (a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 2x + 3 (d) 10x - 1 (e) 3x 2 + 4x - 7
= 2 (x 2 + 2xh + h 2) - 7x - 7h + 3
(f) 6x 2 - 14x + 7 (g) 12x 3 - 4x + 5
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3
(h) 6x 5 - 25x 4 - 8x 3 (i) 10x 4 - 12x 2 + 2x - 2
(b) f (x + h) - f (x) = (2x + 4xh + 2h - 7x - 7h + 3)
2 2 (j) 40x 9 - 63x 8
- (2x - 7x + 3)
2

= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3 2. (a) 4x + 1 (b) 8x - 12 (c) 2x (d) 16x 3 - 24x

- 2x 2 + 7x - 3 (e) 6x 2 + 6x - 3
= 4xh + 2h 2 - 7h
x 8x 7 1
3. (a) -1 (b) 2x 3 - x 2 (c) - 6x 5 (d) 4x (e)
(c) f ] x + h g - f ] x g 4xh + 2h - 7h2 3 3 4
=
h h (f) 2x 2 - 2x + 2
h ] 4x + 2h - 7 g
=
h 4. f l] x g = 16x - 7 5. - 56
= 4x + 2h - 7
dy ds
(d) f l] x g = 4x - 7 6. = 60x 9 - 40x 7 + 35x 4 - 3 7. = 10t - 20
dx dt
6. (a) f ] 2 g = 11 (b) f ] 2 + h g = h 2 + 5h + 11
dv dh
(c) f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g = h 2 + 5h 8. gl] x g = - 20x - 5 9. = 30t 10. = 40 - 4t
dt dt
(d) f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g h 2 + 5h
= dV
h h 11. = 4rr 2 12. 3 13. (a) 5 (b) - 5 (c) x = 4
dr
h ]h + 5 g
=
h 14. (a) 12 (b) x = ! 2 15. 18
=h+5
(e) f l] 2 g = 5
Exercises 8.6
7. (a) f ] -1 g = -7
1. (a) 72 (b) -13 (c) 11 (d) -18 (e) 18 (f) 27
(b) f ] -1 + h g - f ] -1 g = 4h 3 - 12h 2 + 12h (c) 12
(g) 11 (h) 136 (i) - 4 (j) 149
8. (a) f ] 3 g = 8 (b) f ] 3 + h g - f ] 3 g = 6h + h 2 (c) f l] 3 g = 6
1 1 1 1 1
2. (a) - (b) (c) (d) - (e)
9. (a) f l] 1 g = - 13 (b) 17 26 25 20 43 10

1 1 1 1 1
10. (a) y = x 2 + 2x (f) (g) - (h) (i) - (j) -
7 71 20 8 5
Substitute _ x + dx, y + dy i:
1 1
3. (a) (i) 6 (ii) - (b) (i) 8 (ii) -
y + dy = ] x + dx g2 + 2 (x + dx) 6 8
= x 2 + 2 xd x + d x 2 + 2 x + 2 d x 1 1
Since y = x 2 + 2x (c) (i) 24 (ii) - (d) (i) - 8 (ii)
24 8
d y = 2x d x + d x 2 + 2 d x
1
dy 2x d x + d x 2 + 2d x (e) (i) 11 (ii) -
(b) = 11
dx dx
d x ] 2x + d x + 2 g 4. (a) 27x - y - 47 = 0 (b) 7x - y - 1 = 0
=
dx (c) 4x + y + 17 = 0 (d) 36x - y - 47 = 0
= 2x + dx + 2
(e) 44t - v - 82 = 0
dy
(c) = 2x + 2 5. (a) x + 24y - 555 = 0 (b) x - 8y + 58 = 0
dx
(c) x - 17y - 516 = 0 (d) x - 45y + 3153 = 0
11. (a) 2 (b) 5 (c) -12 (d) 15 (e) - 9 (e) x + 2y - 9 = 0
dy
12. (a) f l] x g = 2x (b) = 2x + 5 6. (a) (i) 7x - y + 4 = 0 (ii) x + 7y - 78 = 0
dx
(b) (i) 10x - y + 36 = 0 (ii) x + 10y - 57 = 0
dy (c) (i) 10x + y - 6 = 0 (ii) x - 10y - 41 = 0
(c) f l] x g = 8x - 4 (d) = 10x - 1
dx (d) (i) 2x + y + 2 = 0 (ii) x - 2y - 19 = 0
dy (e) (i) 2x - y + 2 = 0 (ii) x + 2y - 9 = 0
(e) = 3x 2 (f) f l] x g = 6x 2 + 5
dx
7. x = !3 8. (1, 2) and (-1, 0) 9. (- 5, -7)
dy
(g) = 3x - 4 x + 3
2
(h) f l] x g = - 6x 2
dx
590 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

3 15
10. (0, 1) 11. (1, 2) 12. d - 1 , - 4 n x 4 - 3x
4 16 (k) - + 2-x =
2 2-x 2 2-x
13. (a) (1, -1) (b) 6x - y - 7 = 0
- 2 ] 5x + 3 g 5 11
(l) + =-
14. 10t - h - 7 = 0 15. 4x - 2y - 19 = 0 ] 2x - 1 g2 2x - 1 ] 2x - 1 g2

Exercises 8.7 1 8
2. 26 3. 1264 4. 7+ = 5. 176
7 7
1
1 -2
1. (a) - 3x - 4 (b) 1.4x 0.4 (c) 1.2x - 0.8 (d) x
2 6. 10x - y - 9 = 0 7. 69x - y - 129 = 0
1 2 1 3
- - - -
(e) x 2
+ 3x - 2 (f) x 3
(g) 6x 4
(h) x 2

- 6 ! 30
8. x= 9. 34x - y + 29 = 0
1 5 1 10 15 3
2. (a) - (b) (c) (d) - (e)
x2 2 x 6 6 x5 x6 x4 Exercises 8.10
1 3 3 x 2
(f) - (g) - (h) (i) - -2 15 x 4 - 12x 2 x 2 ^ x 2 - 12 h
2 x3 x7 2 3x 2 1. (a) (b) (c) =
] 2x - 1 g2 ] x + 5 g2 ^x - 4h
2 2
^ x 2 - 4 h2
1 12
(j) - - 16 - x + 14x
2
- x + 14 11
2x 3 x5 (d) (e) = (f)
] 5x + 1 g2 x4 x3 ] x + 3 g2

3.
1
4. −3 5.
1
6. −3 7. 2x + 3 x + 1 - 2x 2 -6 - 34 -14
(g) (h) (i) (j)
27 32 ^ 2x 2 - x h2 ] x - 2 g2 ] 4x - 3 g2 ] 3x + 1 g2

8.
1
9. 3x + 16y - 8 = 0 10. x - y + 9 = 0 - 3x 2 - 6x - 7 4x 2 - 12x 4x ] x - 3 g
(k) (l) =
8 ^ 3x 2 - 7 h 2
] 2x - 3 g2 ] 2x - 3 g2
1 1 - 18x 2x 3 + 12x 2 2x 2 ] x + 6 g
11. (a) - (b) - 12. x + 16y - 16 = 0 13. (9, 3) (m) (n) =
2 x3 16 ^x - 5h
2 2
] x+4 g2
] x + 4 g2
2x 3 + 9x 2 + 7 3x 2 + 8x - 5
2 2 (o) (p)
14. x = 4 15. d 5, n, d - 5, - n ] x + 3 g2 ] 3x + 4 g2
5 5 1 1
-
2 2
x 4 - 2x 3 - 4x 2 - 1 2]x + 5g - x ]x + 5g
(q) (r)
Exercises 8.8 ^ x 2 - x - 1 h2 x+5

1. (a) 4 ] x + 3 g3 (b) 6 ] 2x - 1 g2 (c) 70x ^ 5x 2 - 4 h

6 6 ] 5x + 1 g ] 2x - 9 g2 - 5 ] 2x - 9 g3 ] 2x - 9 g2 ] 20x + 51 g
(s) =
(d) 48 ] 8x + 3 g (e) - 5 ] 1 - x g (f) 135 ] 5x + 9 g8
5 4 ] 5x + 1 g 2
] 5x + 1 g2
(g) 4 ] x - 4 g (h) 4 ^ 6x 2 + 3 h ^ 2x 3 + 3x h
3
] 7x + 2 g4 - 28 ] x - 1 g ] 7x + 2 g3 - 21x + 30
^ h 7 (t) =
(i) 8 ] 2x + 5 g x + 5x - 1
2
1 ] 7x + 2 g8 ] 7x + 2 g5
3 -
(j) 6 ^ 6x 5 - 4x h ^ x 6 - 2x 2 + 3 h (k) ] 3x - 1 g 2
5

2 15 ] 2x - 5 g3 ] 3x + 4 g4 - 6 ] 3x + 4 g5 ] 2x - 5 g2
-4 5 -
2
(u)
(l) 2 ] 4 - x g- 3 (m) - 6x ^ x 2 - 9 h (n) ] 5x + 4 g 3 ] 2x - 5 g6
3
1 ]
3 3x + 4 4x - 33 g
g4
]
3^ 2 -
3 =
3x - 14x + 1 h ^ x 3 - 7x 2 + x h
4
(o) (p) ] 2x - 5 g4
4 2 3x + 4
3x + 1
5 8x 2
(q) - (r) - (s) - 3 x+1 -2 x+1 3x + 5
] 5x - 2 g2 ^ x 2 + 1 h5 3
7 - 3x (v) =
x+1 2 ] x + 1 g3
5 3 27
(t) - (u) - (v) - 2x - 3
2 ] 4 + x g3 4 ] 3x - 1 g3 2 ] 2x + 7 g10
2 x-1 -2 x-1 - 2x + 1
^ 4x 3 - 9 x 2 + 3 h 16 3 4x + 1 5 (w) =
(w) - (x) (y) ] 2x - 3 g2 2 x - 1 ] 2x - 3 g2
^ x 4 - 3x 3 + 3x h2 3 4 4 ] 7 - x g9
x ] x - 9 g2

2. 9 3. 40 4. (4, 1) 5. x = 2, -1
1
6. 8x + y + 7 = 0 x2 + 1 - 2 ] x - 9 g x2 + 1 - x 2 - 9x - 2
2 (x) =
] x - 9 g4 x2 + 1 ] x - 9 g3

Exercises 8.9 1 5
2. 3. - 1 4. x = 0, 1 5. x = - 9, 3
1. (a) 8x 3 + 9x 2 (b) 12x - 1 (c) 30x + 21 8 9
(d) 72x 5 - 16x 3 (e) 30x 4 - 4x 6. x - 18y + 8 = 0 7. 17x - 25y - 19 = 0
(f) x ] 5x + 2 g ] x + 1 g2 (g) 8 ] 9x - 1 g ] 3x - 2 g4
(h) 3x 3 ] 16 - 7x g ] 4 - x g 2 (i) ] 10x + 13 g ] 2x + 5 g3
(j) 10x ^ x 3 + 5x 2 - 3 h ^ x 2 + 1 h + ^ 3x 2 + 10x h ^ x 2 + 1 h
4 5

^
= x 13x + 60x + 3x - 20 x + 1
3 2 h ^ 2 h 4
 ANSWERS 591

ds 1
Test yourself 8 17. 9 18. 12x + y - 4 = 0 19. = u + at, t =
dt 5
7
1. (a) 20.
10

Challenge exercise 8

13
1. f ] 1 g = - 3, f l] 1 g = - 36 2. -
18
dx
3. = 8t 3 + 300t 2; t = 0, - 37.5
dt
4. 2x + y = 0, 3x - y - 3 = 0, 6x - y + 12 = 0
(b) 5. ^ 2, 2 h, ^ - 2, -14 h, x + 12y - 26 = 0, x + 12y + 170 = 0

3
6.
4

7. 5 ] 5x + 1 g3 ] x - 9 g4 + 15 ] x - 9 g5 ] 5x + 1 g2
= 10 ] 5x + 1 g2 ] x - 9 g4 (4x - 13)

2 ] 4x - 9 g4 - 16 ] 2x + 1 g ] 4x - 9 g3
8.
] 4x - 9 g8
- 2 ] 12x + 17 g
=
] 4x - 9 g5
dy dy
2. = 10x - 3 3. (a) = 42x 5 - 9x 2 + 2x - 8 - 6 ! 204 - 3 ! 51
dx dx 9. x= = 10. 2x + y - 25 = 0
12 6
dy 11 dy
(b) = (c) = 9 (2x + 4) (x 2 + 4x - 2)8 1 1 1 1 1 ! 13
dx ] 2x + 1 g2 dx 11. a = - 12. P = d - 2 , 6 n 13. x = ,
27 4 16 3 3
dy
(d) = 40x ] 2x - 1 g3 + 5 ] 2x - 1 g4 = 5 ] 2x - 1 g3 (10x - 1)
dx 1
14. 15. 3x - y + 5 = 0, Q = ^ 0, 5 h, PQ = 10
dy 5 x3 dy 10 2
(e) = (f) =- 11 3 3 o
dx 2 dx x3 16. n = 8 17. e 1 , , 12x - 12 3 y + 31 = 0
12 2
dv 1 1 3
4. = 4t - 3 5. (a) 1 (b) 20 6. 10 7. 42 18. x = , -1 , 1 19. (a) x = 90c, 270c
dt 2 2 5
8. (a) x = - 2 (b) x = 1 (c) x = 2 (b) y
dy 5
9. (a) f l] x g = 32 ] 4x + 9 g3 (b) =-
dx ] x - 3 g2
dy dy 4
(c) = ] 9x - 1 g ] 3x - 1 g (d) =-
dx dx x2
1
(e) f l] x g =
5 5 x4 1
x
90c 180c 270c 360c
10. y

3 ] 4 - 5x g
20. ^ - 4, -73 h 21. 3x - 9y - 14 = 0 22.
4x 4 3x - 2

23. (a) 16x + 32y + 1 = 0, 4x - 2y - 1 = 0

1
(b) m 1 $ m 2 = - # 2
2
= -1
dS So perpendicular
11. 9x - y - 7 = 0 12. (2, 3) 13. = 8rr
dr
14. (- 2, 71), (5, - 272) 15. 4x - y - 6 = 0 16. 3525
592 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

5 22
24. x = 0, 2, 6 25. a = - 14, b = 7 26. 14.
22
1 dV 8r 3
27. p = 1 28. = 29. k = 4 30. x - y - 4 = 0
2 dr 3
1
31. 4x - y - 13 = 0 32. - 33. a = -1, b = 2, c = 4
48
34. S = 8rr - 8r + 2rrh
- ] 5x + 6 g
35. (a) 6x 2 - 5 ] 3x - 1 g ] 3x - 5 g3 (b)
] x - 3 g4 2x + 1

4 ! 13
36. x =
6
15.
37. (a) x + 7y - 80 = 0
1 1
(b) Q = d - 4 , 12 n
7 49

Practice assessment task set 2

1. - 0.77 2. 1 3. 5x + 2y - 1 = 0 4. ^ 2, - 2 h

5. - 0.309 6. (a) 3 cm 2 (b) AC = 13 cm, BD = 1 cm

16. sin 4 i 17. 2 units 18. x - 8y + 15 = 0
3 8 1
7. m 1 m 2 = # - = -1; A = d -1, 1 n 8. x = 15c 2
4 6 2 19. i = 120c, 240c 20. - 1 21. 2 22. a = 115c 56l
3
7 2
9. 23. y = 16.5 24. 3x + y - 5 = 0 25. 1 1x 13
12 3
10. 26. 7 27. x = 3 28. - 3

29. Show perpendicular distance from ^ 0, 0 h to the line is

2 units, or solving simultaneous equations gives only
one solution.

30. (a) g ] 2 g = 1, g ] - 3 g = - 6

(b)

11.

1
31. 3x 2 - 4x 32. - 33. 17.5 m
2

34. x = - 2, y = -17 35. (a) AB = 7.0 m (b) 27.8 m2

36. 3 cos i 37. (a) 2x - y + 4 = 0 (b) P ^ - 2, 0 h, Q ^ 0, 4 h

2
(c) 4 units

38. 127 m 39. 15 units2 40. f (- x) = ] - x g6 - ] - x g2 - 3

1
12. 45c 49’ 13. Domain: all real x ! ; range: all = x6 - x2 - 3
2 = f (x)
real y ! 0
41. 16x 2 ^ 2x 2 + 1 h + ^ 2x 2 + 1 h = ^ 18x 2 + 1 h ^ 2x 2 + 1 h
3 4 3
 ANSWERS 593

1 3 9. Minimum value 3.75, no solutions

42. - 4 #y#9 43. -
3 x2
10. Minimum value 0, 1 solution
44. (a) 3x - y - 4 = 0 (b) x - y - 2 = 0
11. (a) x = -3; (-3, -12) (b) x = -4; (-4, 17)
(c) x + 3y + 10 = 0 (d) R = ^ -10, 0 h
1 1 1 1 1 1
8 (c) x = 1 ; d 1 , 3 n (d) x = -1 ; d -1 , -13 n
45. units 46. Domain: all x ! - 4; range: all y ! 0 4 4 8 4 4 4
13
(e) x = -3; ^ -3, -23 h
1 -3
47. 48. 4.9 km 49. 8x - 7 - 10x
2x - 7 12. (a) (i) x = -1 (ii) -3 (iii) (-1, -3)

- ] 17 + 2x g (b) (i) x = 1 (ii) 1 (iii) (1, 1)

5 -17 - 2x
50. 51. 2x - 3 52. =
] x + 1 g2 x 2 + 5x x 2 + 5x 13. (a) Minimum (-1, 0)
53. x + 6y - 56 = 0 54. f ] - 2 g = - 45, f l] - 2 g = 48 (b) Minimum (4, -23)
(c) Minimum (-2, -7)
55. a = 2, b = - 9 56. 7x - 5y + 9 = 0 (d) Minimum (1, -1)
(e) Minimum (2, -11)
57. 47x - y + 109 = 0 58. x = - 0.25 1 1
(f) Minimum d - , -3 n
4 8
1 (g) Maximum (-1, 6)
59. (a) domain: x $ range: y $ 0
2
(h) Maximum (2, 11)
(b) domain: all real x ! -7 range: all real y ! 0
1 3
(i) Maximum d , 7 n
(c) domain: - 2 # x # 2 range: - 2 # y # 0 2 4
1 (j) Maximum (1, -3)
60. (a) (1, 1) (b) 2 13 units (c) - 1
2
(d) 3x + 2y - 5 = 0 14. (a) (i) -2 (ii) Minimum 0
(iii) y
61. (a) 62. (b), (d) 63. (a) 64. (c) 65. (c)
5
4
3
Chapter 9: The quadratic function
2
Exercises 9.1 1
1. Axis of symmetry x = - 1, minimum value - 1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-1
-2
-3

(b) (i) -1, 3 (ii) Minimum -4

(iii) y

5
4
3
2
2. Axis of symmetry x = - 1.5, minimum value - 7.5
1
3. Axis of symmetry x = - 1.5, minimum value - 0.25 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
4. Axis of symmetry x = 0, minimum value - 4 -1

3 3 7 -2
5. Axis of symmetry x = , minimum point d , n
8 8 16 -3
6. Axis of symmetry x = 1, maximum value -6 -4

7. Axis of symmetry x = - 1, maximum point ^ - 1, 7 h -5

8. Minimum value -1, 2 solutions

594 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(c) (i) 5.83, 0.17 (ii) Minimum -8 (iii) y

(iii) y
5

10 4
8 3
6 2
4
1
2
x
x -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-2
2
-4 -2 3
-6 -2 1 -3
12
-8 -4
-10
-5
-6
(d) (i) -2, 0 (ii) Minimum -1

(iii) y
(g) (i) 1.65, -3.65 (ii) Maximum 7

5 (iii) y
4
7
3
6
2
5
1
4
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
2
-2
-3 1
x
(e) (i) ! 3 (ii) Minimum -18 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1

(iii) y -2
-3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 1
-2 (h) (i) 1.3, -2.3 (ii) Maximum 3
4
-4 y
(iii)
-6
-8 5
-10 4 1
3
4
-12 3
-14 2
-16 1
-18 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
(f) (i) -1,
2
(ii) Minimum - 2
1 -1
3 12
-2
-3
 ANSWERS 595

1 3
(i) (i) 0.56, -3.56 (ii) Minimum 4 16. (a) None (b) 6
4 4

(iii) y (c) y

5 41
4 14
4
12
3
10
2 8
1 6
x 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 2
-2 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-3 -1
-2
-3
(j) (i) 2.87, -0.87 (ii) Maximum 7

(iii) y 7
17. (a) - 3 (b) None
8
7
(c) y
6
5
2
4
1
3
x
2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-2
1
-4
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -6
-1
-8
-2
-3 -10
-12
-14
15. (a) 4 (b) None -16

(c) -18
y

7 18. (a) y
6
8
5
6
4
3 4

2 2

1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -2
-2 -3
-3
(b) x 1 2, x 2 3 (c) 2 # x # 3
596 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

19. y 22. y

8 2

6 1
x
4 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
2
-2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -3
-2
-4
-4 -5
-6 -6

Graph is always above the x-axis so y 2 0 for all x -7

` 3x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x
Graph is always below the x-axis so y 1 0 for all x
20. y
` - 5x 2 + 4x -1 1 0 for all x

8 Exercises 9.2
6 1. x 1 -3, x 2 3 2. - 1 # n # 0 3. a # 0, a $ 2
4
4. x 1 - 2, x 2 2 5. 0 # y # 6 6. 0 1 t 1 2
2
7. x 1 - 4, x 2 2 8. p # - 3, p $ - 1 9. m 1 2, m 2 4
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 1
-2 10. x # - 3, x $ 2 11. 1 1 h 1 2 12. - 4 # x # 5
2
-4 1
13. - 2 #k #7 14. q 1 3, q 2 6 15. All real x
2
-6
16. n # - 4, n $ 3 17. - 3 1 x 1 5 18. - 6 # t # 2
1
19. y 1 - , y 2 5 20. x # - 2, x $ 4
Graph is always above the x-axis so y 2 0 for all x 3
` x 2 + x + 2 2 0 for all x

y Exercises 9.3
21.
1. (a) 20 (b) -47 (c) -12 (d) 49 (e) 9 (f) -16 (g) 0
4 (h) 64 (i) 17 (j) 0
2
2. (a) 17 unequal real irrational roots
x (b) -39 no real roots (c) 1 unequal real rational roots
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-2 (d) 0 equal real rational roots
(e) 33 unequal real irrational roots
-4
(f) -16 no real roots (g) 49 unequal real rational roots
-6 (h) -116 no real roots (i) 1 unequal real rational roots
-8 (j) 48 unequal real irrational roots

-10 7 1
3. p = 1 4. k = ! 2 5. b # - 6. p 2 2 7. k 2 - 2
8 12
-12
8. a =320
-14 b 2 - 4ac = ] - 1 g2 - 4 ] 3 g ] 7 g
-16 = - 83
10
-18 So 3x 2 - x + 7 2 0 for all x

Graph is always below the x-axis so y 1 0 for all x 9. k # - 5, k $ 3 10. 0 1 k 1 4 11. m 1 - 3, m 2 3

` - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x 1 1
12. k # - 1, k $ 1 13. p 1 - 14. 0 # b # 2
3 2
 ANSWERS 597

15. p # - 2, p $ 6 2. m = 2, p = - 5, q = 2

16. Solving simultaneously: 3. x 2 - 4x + 5 = x ] x - 2 g - 2 ] x + 1 g + 3 + 4

y = 2x + 6 (1) 4. RHS = a ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g + b ] x - 2 g + c
y =x +3
2
(2) = 1 ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g + 1 ] x - 2 g + 17
Substitute (2) in (1): = x 2 + 3x - 2x - 6 + x - 2 + 17
= x 2 + 2x + 9
x 2 + 3 = 2x + 6
= RHS
x 2 - 2x - 3 = 0
` true
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 2 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] - 3 g
= 16 5. A = 1, B = 5 , C = - 6 6. a = 2, b = 1, c = - 1
20
So there are 2 points of intersection 7. K = 1, L = 6, M = 7.5 8. 12 ] x + 5 g + ] 2x - 3 g2 - 65 - 2

17. 3x + y - 4 = 0 (1) 9. a = 0, b = - 4, c = - 21
y = x 2 + 5x + 3 (2)
From (1): 10. (a) y = x 2 - x - 5 (b) y = x 2 - 3x
y = - 3x + 4 (3) (c) y = 2x 2 - 3x + 7 (d) y = x 2 + 4x - 9
Substitute (2) in (3):
(e) y = - x - 2x + 1
2

x 2 + 5x + 3 = - 3x + 4
x 2 + 8x - 1 = 0
Exercises 9.5
b 2 - 4ac = 8 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] - 1 g
= 68
1. (a) a + b = - 2, ab = 1
20
(b) a + b = 1.5, ab = - 3
So there are 2 points of intersection
(c) a + b = 0.2, ab = - 1.8
(d) a + b = - 7, ab = 1
18. y = - x - 4 (1)
2
y = x2 (2) (e) a + b = 2 , ab = 1
3
Substitute (2) in (1):
x2 = - x - 4 2. (a) 3 (b) - 6 (c) - 0.5 (d) 21
x2 + x + 4 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = 1 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g 3. (a) x 2 + 3x - 10 = 0 (b) x 2 - 4x - 21 = 0
= - 15 (c) x 2 + 5x + 4 = 0 (d) x 2 - 8x + 11 = 0
10 (e) x 2 - 2x - 27 = 0
So there are no points of intersection
4. m = 0.5 5. k = - 32 6. b = 4 7. k = 1 8. p = 13
19. y = 5x - 2 (1)
9. k = -5 10. m = ! 3 11. k = - 1 12. n = - 1, 3
y = x 2 + 3x - 1 (2)
Substitute (2) in (1):
13. p = 2, r = - 7 14. b = - 6, c = 8 15. a = 0, b = - 1
x 2 + 3x - 1 = 5 x - 2
x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0 1
16. ab = 1 ` b =
a
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 2 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 1 g
=0 17. (a) k = - 1 (b) k = - 1, 0 (c) k = - 1.8 (d) k = 3
So there is 1 point of intersection (e) k # - 1, k $ 0
` the line is a tangent to the parabola
18. (a) p = ! 2 3 (b) p # - 2 3 , p $ 2 3
1
20. p = 3
4 3 3
(c) p = !
21. (c) and (d) 2

Exercises 9.4 19. (a) k = 2 (b) k = - 3 (c) k = 2

1. (a) a = 1, b = 2, c = -6 3 - 10 3 + 10
20. (a) m = 1 (b) m 1 ,m2
(b) a = 2, b = -11, c = 15 2 2
(c) a = 1, b = 1, c = - 2 (c) m = - 3
(d) a = 1, b = 7, c = 18
(e) a = 3, b = -11, c = -16
(f) a = 4, b = 17, c = 11 Exercises 9.6
(g) a = 2, b = -12, c = -9 1. (a) x = -1, - 4 (b) y = 2, 5 (c) x = - 4, 2
(h) a = 3, b = - 8, c = 2 (d) n = - 1, 4 (e) a = - 3, 5 (f) p = 3, 4 (g) x = 2, - 4
(i) a = - 1, b = 10, c = - 24 (h) k = 5, 12 (i) t = 6, - 4 (j) b = -12, - 4
(j) a = - 2, b = 0, c = - 1
598 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. (a) x = - 2, 3 (b) x = 2, 3 (c) x = 4, 5 (d) x = 3, 5 10. 3 ] x - 2 g2 + 12 ] x + 3 g - 41 11. x = 30c , 150c , 270c

1
(e) x = 1 , 4 1
2 12. (a) k = 3 (b) k = 1 (c) k = 3 (d) k = 3 (e) k = 2
4
1! 5
3. (a) x = ! 3 (b) y = ! 2, ! 2 (c) x =
2 1 9
13. x = - , 3 14. m 1 - 15. x = 0, 2
(d) x = 1.37, - 4.37, 0.79, - 3.79 (e) a = - 2, - 2 ! 6 2 16

4. (a) x = 0, 3 (b) p = 1 (c) x = 1 (d) x = 1 (e) x = 1, 3 16. (a) i (b) i (c) iii (d) i (e) ii

5. x = ! 1, !2 6. x = - 1 17. (a) iii (b) i (c) i (d) ii

1
7. x = ! 2.19, !0.46, !1.93, !0.52 18. For reciprocal roots b =
a
(a) x = 0c , 90c , 180c , 360c (b) x = 90c , 180c , 270c c
8. ab =
a
(c) x = 90c , 210c , 330c (d) x = 60c , 90c , 270c , 300c
1 k
(e) x = 0c , 180c , 270c , 360c a =
a k
LHS = RHS = 1
9. (a) x = 0c , 45c , 180c , 225c , 360c
(b) x = 0c , 180c , 360c ∴ roots are reciprocals for all x.
(c) x = 0c , 30c , 150c , 180c , 360c 19. (a) x 2 + 3x - 28 = 0 (b) x 2 - 10x + 18 = 0
(d) x = 45c , 60c ,135c , 120c , 225c , 240c , 315c , 300c
(e) x = 30c , 60c , 120c , 150c , 210c , 240c , 300c , 330c 20. x = 1, 3

2
10. x+3+ =5
x+3 Challenge exercise 9
2
(x + 3) # (x + 3) + # (x + 3) = 5 # (x + 3) 1. D = ] k - 4 g2 $ 0 and a perfect square ∴ real,
]x + 3g
] x + 3 g2 + 2 = 5 ] x + 3 g rational roots
] x + 3 g2 - 5 ] x + 3 g + 2 = 0
2. y = x 2 - 5x + 4 3. a = 4, b = - 3, c = 7 4. x = ! 2
Let u = x + 3
u 2 - 5u + 2 = 0 5. 11 6. n = - 2.3375 7. p 2 0.75 8. Show D = 0
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 5 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 2 g
9. x = !1
= 17
20
10. A = 2, B = - 19, C = 67 or A = - 2, B = 13, C = - 61
So u has 2 real irrational roots.
4x + 1 3 1
` x + 3 and so x has 2 real irrational roots 11. = +
x2 - x - 2 x-2 x+1

Test yourself 9 1 - 21 1 + 21
12. k # ,k$
1. (a) 0 # x # 3 (b) n 1 - 3, n 2 3 (c) - 2 # y # 2 2 2

a = 1, b = - 9, c = 14 3. (a) x = 2 (b) - 3 3! 5
2. 13. x = 30c , 90c , 150c 14. x = 1,
2
4. a =120 15. x = 60c , 90c , 270c , 300c 16. - 23
D = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -2 g 2 -4 # 1 # 7
= - 24 Chapter 10: Locus and the parabola
10
` positive definite Exercises 10.1
2 1 1. A circle 2. A straight line parallel to the ladder.
5. (a) 6 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 18 (e) 30 6. x = 1 ,
3 3
7. (a) iv (b) ii (c) iii (d) ii (e) i 3. An arc 4. A (parabolic) arc 5. A spiral

8. a = -1 1 0 6. The straight line - 2 1 x 1 2 or | x | 1 2

D = b 2 - 4ac
= 3 2 - 4 # (-1) # (- 4) 7. A circle, centre the origin, radius 2 (equation
= -7 x2 + y2 = 4 i
10
8. lines y = !1 9. lines x = !5 10. line y = 2
` - 4 + 3x - x 2 1 0 for all x
11. Circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 (centre origin, radius 1)
1 1
9. (a) x = - (b) 6
4 8
12. Circle, centre ^ 1, -2 h, radius 4 13. y = -5
 ANSWERS 599

14. Circle, centre (1, 1), radius 3 15. x = -7 16. x = 3 4. x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 4y - 8 = 0 5. x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 48 = 0

17. y = !8 18. x = !4 6. x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 16y + 69 = 0

19. Circle, centre ^ -2, 4 h, radius 6 7. x 2 - 10x + y 2 + 4y + 27 = 0 8. x 2 + y 2 - 9 = 0

20. Circle, centre ^ -4, 5 h, radius 1 9. x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 10y + 25 = 0

Exercises 10.2 10. x 2 + 12x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
1. x +y =1
2 2
2. x + 2x + y + 2y - 79 = 0
2 2

11. x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 6y + 22 = 0 12. x 2 + y 2 + 6y + 1 = 0
3. x - 10x + y + 4y + 25 = 0
2 2
4. 8x - 6y + 13 = 0
13. (a) Radius 3, centre (2, 1) (b) Radius 5, centre (−4, 2)
5. 12x - 26y - 1 = 0 6. y = ! x (c) Radius 1, centre (0, 1) (d) Radius 6, centre (5, −3)
(e) Radius 1, centre (−1, 1) (f) Radius 6, centre (6, 0)
7. 3x 2 - 32x + 3y 2 - 50y + 251 = 0 (g) Radius 5, centre (−3, 4) (h) Radius 8, centre (−10, 2)
(i) Radius 5, centre (7, −1) (j) Radius 10 , centre (−1, −2)
8. 5x 2 - 102x + 5y 2 + 58y - 154 = 0
14. Centre ^ 3, -1 h , radius 4 15. Centre ^ 2, 5 h , radius 5
9. x 2 - 4x + 20y - 36 = 0 10. x 2 - 20y = 0
16. Centre ^ - 1, -6 h , radius 7 17. Centre (4, 7), radius 8
11. y 2 + 8x - 32 = 0 12. x 2 - 2x + 8y - 7 = 0
1 1
18. Centre d - 1 , 1 n , radius 2
13. x 2 + 12y = 0 14. x 2 - 5x + y 2 - 2y - 11 = 0 2 2
19.
15. x 2 + 3x + y 2 - y - 4 = 0

16. x 2 + x + y 2 - 2y - 17 = 0

17. 2x 2 + 4x + 2y 2 - 6y + 47 = 0

18. 2x 2 + 2x + 2y 2 + 4y + 27 = 0

19. 3x + 4y + 25 = 0, 3x + 4y - 15 = 0

20. 12x - 5y - 14 = 0, 12x - 5y + 12 = 0

21. x - 2y - 3 ! 5 5 = 0
20. Show perpendicular distance from the line to ^ 4, -2 h is
22. x - 7y + 9 = 0, 7x + y - 5 = 0
5 units, or solve simultaneous equations.
23. 7x - 4y - 30 = 0, 32x + 56y - 35 = 0 21. (a) Both circles have centre ^ 1, -2 h
(b) 1 unit
24. xy - 16x - 7y + 40 = 0
22. x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 2y - 23 = 0 23. 34 units
25. x 2 - 6x - 3y 2 - 12y + 9 = 0
24. (a) 5 units (b) 3 units and 2 units
Problem
(c) XY is the sum of the radii. The circles touch each
12x + 5y - 40 = 0, 12x + 5y + 38 = 0 other at a single point, ^ 0, 1 h .

Exercises 10.3 25. Perpendicular distance from centre ^ 0, 0 h to the line is

1. (a) Radius 10, centre (0, 0) (b) Radius 5 , centre (0, 0) equal to the radius 2 units; perpendicular distance from
(c) Radius 4, centre (4, 5) (d) Radius 7, centre (5, −6) centre ^ -1, 2 h to the line is equal to the radius 3 units.
(e) Radius 9, centre (0, 3)
26. (a) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0
2. (a) x + y = 16 (b) x - 6x + y - 4y - 12 = 0
2 2 2 2 (b) ^ 2, 7 h, ^ -1, -2 h (c) Z = ^ -1, 8 h
(c) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 10y + 17 = 0 1
(d) m zx # m yx = - # 3
(d) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 6y - 23 = 0 3
(e) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0 = -1
(f) x 2 + y 2 + 4y + 3 = 0 (g) x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 4y - 29 = 0 ` +ZXY = 90c
(h) x 2 + 6x + y 2 + 8y - 56 = 0 (i) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 1 = 0
27. (a) 4 units (b) x 2 - 4x + y 2 + 10y + 13 = 0
(j) x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 14y + 62 = 0

3. x 2 - 18x + y 2 + 8y + 96 = 0
600 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Exercises 10.4 Exercises 10.5

1. (a) x = 20y
2
(b) x = 36y
2
(c) x = 4y
2
(d) x = 16y
2
1. (a) y 2 = 8x (b) y 2 = 20x (c) y 2 = 56x (d) y 2 = 36x
(e) x 2 = 40y (f) x 2 = 12y (g) x 2 = 24y (h) x 2 = 44y (e) y 2 = 32x (f) y 2 = 24x (g) y 2 = 28x (h) y 2 = 12x
(i) y 2 = 16x (j) y 2 = 4x
(i) x = 8y
2
(j) x = 48y
2

2. (a) y 2 = -36x (b) y 2 = - 16x (c) y 2 = -40x

2. (a) x 2 = -4y (b) x 2 = -12y (c) x 2 = -16y
(d) y 2 = -24x (e) y 2 = - 8x (f) y 2 = -48x
(d) x 2 = -28y (e) x 2 = -24y (f) x 2 = -36y (g) y 2 = - 44x (h) y 2 = -20x (i) y 2 = -12x
(g) x 2 = -32y (h) x 2 = -8y (i) x 2 = -60y (j) y 2 = -28x
(j) x = -52y
2
3. (a) (i) (2, 0) (ii) x = -2 (b) (i) (3, 0) (ii) x = -3
3. (a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) y = -1 (b) (i) (0, 7) (ii) y = -7 (c) (i) (4, 0) (ii) x = -4 (d) (i) (1, 0) (ii) x = -1
(c) (i) (0, 4) (ii) y = -4 (d) (i) (0, 9) (ii) y = -9 (e) (i) (7, 0) (ii) x = -7 (f) (i) (8, 0) (ii) x = -8
(e) (i) (0, 10) (ii) y = -10 (f) (i) (0, 11) (ii) y = -11 (g) (i) (6, 0) (ii) x = -6 (h) (i) (9, 0) (ii) x = -9
1 1 1 1 1 1
(g) (i) (0, 3) (ii) y = -3 (h) (i) c (0, 1 m (ii) y = -1 (i) (i) c , 0 m (ii) x = - (j) (i) c 4 , 0 m (ii) x = -4
2 2 4 4 2 2
1 1 3 4. (a) (i) (−2, 0) (ii) x = 2 (b) (i) (−3, 0) (ii) x = 3
(i) (i) c 0, 2 m (ii) y = -2 (j) (i) c 0, 3 m
2 2 4 (c) (i) (−7, 0) (ii) x = 7 (d) (i) (−1, 0) (ii) x = 1
3 (e) (i) (−6, 0) (ii) x = 6 (f) (i) (−13, 0) (ii) x = 13
(ii) y = -3
4 1 1
(g) (i) (−15, 0) (ii) x = 15 (h) (i) c - , 0 m (ii) x =
2 2
4. (a) (i) (0, −1) (ii) y = 1 (b) (i) (0, −6) (ii) y = 6 1 1 1 1
(c) (i) (0, −2) (ii) y = 2 (d) (i) (0, −12) (ii) y = 12 (i) (i) c - 6 , 0 m (ii) x = 6 (j) (i) c - 1 , 0 m (ii) x = 1
2 2 4 4
(e) (i) (0, −5) (ii) y = 5 (f) (i) (0, −4) (ii) y = 4
(g) (i) (0, −8) (ii) y = 8 (h) (i) (0, −10) (ii) y = 10 5. (a) y 2 = 20x (b) y 2 = 4x (c) y 2 = -16x (d) y 2 = 12x
1 1 1 1 1
(i) (i) c 0, - m (ii) y = (j) (i) c 0, -5 m (ii) y = 5 (e) y 2 = !36x (f) y 2 = !8x (g) y 2 = 12x (h) y 2 = x
2 2 2 2 2
6. (a) Focus ^ 2, 0 h, directrix x = - 2, focal length 2
5. (a) x 2 = 28y (b) x 2 = 44y (c) x 2 = -24y
(b) Focus ^ 1, 0 h, directrix x = - 1, focal length 1
(d) x 2 = 8y (e) x 2 = !12y (f) x 2 = !32y
1 (c) Focus ^ -3, 0 h, directrix x = 3, focal length 3
(g) x 2 = 32y (h) x 2 = y
7 1 1 1
(d) Focus d 1 , 0 n, directrix x = - 1 , focal length 1
6. (a) Focus ^ 0, 2 h, directrix y = -2, focal length 2 2 2 2
(b) Focus ^ 0, 6 h, directrix y = -6, focal length 6 1 1 1
(e) Focus d -1 , 0 n, directrix x = 1 , focal length 1
(c) Focus ^ 0, -3 h, directrix y = 3, focal length 3 4 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
(d) Focus d 0, n, directrix y = - , focal length (f) Focus d , 0 n, directrix x = - , focal length
2 2 2 12 12 12
3 3 3 7. x = 4 (latus rectum) 8. 12, ^ 3, 6 h, ^ 3, -6 h
(e) Focus d 0, -1 n, directrix y = 1 , focal length 1
4 4 4
1 1 1 9. ^ 9, - 6 h, ^ 81, 18 h
(f) Focus d 0, n, directrix y = - , focal length
8 8 8 1 5
10. (a) 5x - 12y - 25 = 0 (b) d - 5, - 4 n (c) 10 units2
1 3 6 12
7. y =2 8. ^ 4, 4 h 9. X = d -1 , - n 2
2 8 (d) 4 units (e) 11.7 units2
13
10. ^ 4, -2 h and ^ -4, -2 h ; 8 units
1 Exercises 10.6
11. (a) x 2 = - 12y (b) y = 3 (c) 33 units
3 1. (a) ] x - 3 g2 = 8 ^ y + 3 h (b) ] x - 5 g2 = 4 ^ y + 6 h
12. (a) Substitute the point into the equation. (c) ] x - 1 g = 4 ^ y + 3 h (d) ] x - 4 g2 = -12 ^ y - 3 h
2

3 (e) ] x - 6 g2 = 8 ^ y + 7 h (f) ] x + 7 g2 = -16 ^ y - 3 h

(b) 3x + 4y - 3 = 0 (c) d 2, - n
4
(g) ] x - 2 g2 = -4 ^ y - 5 h (h) ] x + 9 g2 = 12 ^ y + 6 h
13. (a) x - 4y + 2 = 0 (b) ^ 0, 1 h does not lie on the line (i) ] x + 1 g2 = 8 ^ y + 1 h (j) ] x - 3 g2 = - 4 ^ y - 2 h
(c) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
(d) Substitute ^ 0, 1 h into the equation of the circle. 2. (a) ^ y - 4 h2 = 4 ] x + 4 g (b) ^ y - 1 h2 = 8 ] x + 2 g
(c) ^ y + 2 h2 = 12 ] x + 1 g (d) ^ y - 10 h2 = - 4 ] x - 29 g
14. (a) Substitute Q into the equation of the parabola.
(b) _ q 2 - 1 i x - 2qy + 2aq = 0 (e) ^ y + 3 h2 = - 16 ] x - 1 g (f) ^ y - 6 h2 = 8 ] x + 4 g
(c) Equation of latus rectum is y = a. Solving with (g) ^ y + 5 h = - 24 ] x - 2 g (h) ^ y + 12 h2 = 4 ] x + 36 g
2

x 2 = 4ay gives two endpoints A ^ -2a, a h, B ^ 2a, a h . (i) ^ y - 2 h2 = - 20 ] x - 1 g (j) ^ y + 4 h2 = - 8 ] x - 2 g

Length of AB = 4a.
 ANSWERS 601

3. (a) x 2 + 2x - 8y + 9 = 0 (b) x 2 + 8x - 4y + 16 = 0 3 1
(b) d -1, -8 n, y = -9
(c) x - 4x - 8y - 12 = 0
2
(d) x 2 - 6x - 8y + 41 = 0 4 4
(e) x 2 + 4x - 16y + 20 = 0 (f) x 2 + 2x + 16y + 1 = 0 24. x 2 + 4x + 8y - 20 = 0 25. 0.3 m
(g) x - 8x + 20y - 24 = 0
2
(h) x + 10x + 8y + 1 = 0
2

(i) x 2 + 6x + 12y + 45 = 0 (j) x 2 + 4y + 24 = 0 Exercises 10.7

1 1
(k) y - 6y - 12x - 3 = 0
2
(l) y - 8y - 4x + 8 = 0
2
1. m= 2. m = -4 3. m = -1 4. m =
3 2
(m) y 2 - 8x + 32 = 0 (n) y 2 + 4y - 16x - 12 = 0 dy
5. =x 6. x - y - 2 = 0 7. x - 2y + 12 = 0
(o) y + 2y - 8x - 7 = 0
2
(p) y + 8y + 12x + 4 = 0
2 dx
(q) y 2 - 2y + 4x - 11 = 0 (r) y 2 - 6y + 16x + 25 = 0 8. x + y - 6 = 0, x - y - 18 = 0

(s) y - 4y + 2x + 5 = 0
2
(t) y - 2y + 2x - 6 = 0
2
9. x - 2y - 2 = 0, 2x + y - 9 = 0

4. (a) (i) (3, −2) (ii) y = -4 (b) (i) (1, 1) (ii) y = - 3 7 1

10. 4x + y - 8 = 0, M = d 1 , n
(c) (i) (−2, 0) (ii) y = -2 (d) (i) (4, 2) (ii) y = - 4 8 2
(e) (i) (−5, −1) (ii) y = -5 (f) (i) (3, 1) (ii) y = 3 11. x + y - 9 = 0, P = ^ - 18, 27 h
(g) (i) (−1, 0) (ii) y = 4 (h) (i) (2, 0) (ii) y = 2
12. Q = ^ 33, 60.5 h
(i) (i) (4, −2) (ii) y = 4 (j) (i) (−2, −3) (ii) y = 5
13. x + 4y + 144 = 0, 4x + 2y + 9 = 0, ^ 18, -40.5 h ; show
5. (a) (i) (0, −1) (ii) x = -2 (b) (i) (2, 4) (ii) x = - 4 the point lies on the parabola by substituting it into the
(c) (i) (0, 3) (ii) x = -4 (d) (i) (3, −2) (ii) x = -5 equation of the parabola
(e) (i) (7, 1) (ii) x = -5 (f) (i) (1, −5) (ii) x = 5
(g) (i) (11, −7) (ii) x = 13 (h) (i) (−3, 6) (ii) x = 7 14. x - y - 4 = 0, R = ^ 4, 0 h
1 1
(i) (i) (−7, 2) (ii) x = 9 (j) (i) c -10 , -3 m (ii) x = 9 15. (a) Substitute P into the equation of the parabola
2 2
(b) x + py - 2p - p 3 = 0
6. x 2 - 12y + 36 = 0
(c) Substitute ^ 0, 1 h into the equation of the normal.
7. x 2 + 4x - 8y - 4 = 0, x 2 + 4x + 8y + 12 = 0 0 + p - 2p - p 3 = 0
0 = p3 + p
8. x 2 - 2x - 4y - 19 = 0 9. y 2 - 12y + 12x + 12 = 0 = p (p 2 + 1)
Since p ! 0, p + 1 = 0
2

10. x 2 - 2x - 16y + 1 = 0 11. x 2 - 2x - 28y + 29 = 0

Test yourself 10
12. y 2 + 4y + 24x - 44 = 0 13. y 2 - 6y - 32x + 9 = 0
1. 8x + 6y - 29 = 0 2. x 2 - 4x - 8y - 4 = 0
14. x - 6x + 8y - 15 = 0
2
15. y + 2y - 16x + 49 = 0
2

3. Centre ^ 3, 1 h, radius 4 4. (a) ^ 1, - 3 h (b) ^ 4, - 3 h

16. x 2 + 6x + 4y - 7 = 0 17. x 2 - 4x - 12y - 8 = 0
5. x 2 + y 2 = 25 6. (a) y = 2 (b) ^ 0, - 2 h
18. y + 2y + 16x - 95 = 0
2

7. x 2 + x + y 2 - 3y - 10 = 0 8. x 2 - 8x + 16y - 16 = 0
19. (a) Vertex ^ - 2, 1 h, focus ^ - 2, 3 h, directrix y = -1
9. (a) (i) ^ 1, 1 h (ii) ^ 1, 2 h (b) y = 0
(b) Vertex ^ 3, 2 h, focus ^ 3, 5 h, directrix y = -1
(c) Vertex ^ 1, -1 h, focus ^ 1, - 2 h, directrix y = 0 10. 2x + 3y + 6 = 0 11. 14 units
(d) Vertex ^ 3, 4 h, focus ^ 7, 4 h, directrix x = -1
(e) Vertex ^ 0, - 2 h, focus ^ 6, - 2 h, directrix x = -6 12. y 2 = - 24x 13. x 2 - 8y + 16 = 0

(f) Vertex ^ - 5, 0 h, focus ^ - 7, 0 h, directrix x = -3 14. 4x - 3y - 16 = 0, 4x - 3y + 14 = 0

20. Vertex ^ - 1, 4 h, focus ^ -1, -3 h , directrix y = 11, axis 1

15. y = x, y = - x 16. y 2 = 20x 17. (a) - (b) 2
x = - 1, maximum value 4 2
1
18. (a) x - 4y + 72 = 0 (b) d 9, 20 n
21. x 2 - 4x - 8y + 12 = 0 or x 2 - 4x + 8y - 36 = 0 4

23 9 19. Sub ^ 0, 4 h : LHS = 7 # 0 - 3 # 4 + 12 = 0 = RHS

22. (a) 8x 2 + 9y - 72 = 0 (b) d 0, 7 n, y = 8
32 32 2
20. d , -7 n
23. (a) 9
21. (a) x - y - 3 = 0 (b) R = ^ 0, -3 h
(c) F = ^ 0, 3 h FP = FR = 6
602 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Challenge exercise 10 8. 3x - 4y - 14 = 0, 3x - 4y + 16 = 0

1. (a) 8x + 6y - 29 = 0 9. Vertex ^ - 4, -17 h , focus ^ - 4, -16.75 h

(b) Midpoint of AB lies on line; m 1 m 2 = -1
10. x = 0, 3 11. x + 2y + 2 = 0 12. b $ -2
2. (a) x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0
(b) Put y = 0 into equation 13. x 2 + y 2 = 16, circle centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius 4
1
3. d 2 , -3 n 14. x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 6y - 12 = 0
2

4. (a) 4x - 2y + 9 = 0; x + 2y - 24 = 0 15. x 2 - 3x + y 2 - 6y - 17 = 0
(b) m 1 m 2 = - 1 (c) X = ^ 3, 10.5 h
16. - 0.75 17. 5x 2 - 54x + 5y 2 + 20y - 79 = 0
(d) 3x - 4y + 8 = 0; focus ^ 0, 2 h lies on the line
18. a = 2, b = 1, c = 0
5. ^ 0, 0 h
x
19. -
6. (a) 2x - 4y - 1 = 0; 2x + y + 4 = 0 9 - x2
(b) Point lies on line y = - 1
20. x 2 - 4x - 16y + 20 = 0
7. y = - 2 x + 4x - 2
2
8. 3x + y + 2 = 0
21. AC = BC and CD = CE (given)
9. AC BC
` =
CD CE
+ACB = +ECD (vertically opposite angles)
` since two sides are in proportion and their included
angles are equal, ΔABC is similar to ΔCDE
y = 5.3 cm

22. x - y - 4 = 0

23. x 2 + 2x - 16y - 15 = 0 24. x = 0, 2

25. a 10
D = b 2 - 4ac
= 1 2 - 4 (- 1) (- 9)
= - 35
10
10. (a) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 10y + 21 = 0
Since a 1 0 and D 1 0, - x 2 + x - 9 1 0 for all x
(b) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y - 5 h2 = 8; centre ^ -2, 5 h;
radius = 8 =2 2 26. 8 (3x - 1) (2x + 5) 3 + 3 (2x + 5) 4 = ] 30x + 7 g (2x + 5) 3

2 3 27. sec x cosec x

11. -
3
28. Centre ^ -5, 3 h, radius 2
12. (a) y 2 + 4y - 16x + 52 = 0 (b) 2x - y - 6 = 0
29. a 2 0
13. 4 2 units 14. x 2 + y 2 - 2y - 2 = 0 D = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -1 g2 - 4 (1) (3)
15. 696 mm from the vertex = -11
10
16. 141x + 127y + 32 = 0; 219x + 23y + 58 = 0
Since a 2 0 and D 1 0, x 2 - x + 3 2 0 for all x

30. k = 1 31. 3x + 2y - 9 = 0
Practice assessment task set 3
32. (a) 217 km (b) 153c
1. m ≤ 2, m ≥ 3 2. 4x + 3y - 16 = 0
33. a = 3, b = - 18, c = - 34 34. x 2 4, x 1 3
3. Centre ^ - 3, 5 h, radius 7
35. i = 95c 44’
2 1 1
4. (a) (b) - (c) 1
3 3 9
36. T = 361 ^ 2 0 and a perfect square h
5. Focus ^ 0, -2 h, directrix y = 2
37. x + 2y + 9 = 0 38. k # 3
6. x = - 5 or - 6 7. k = - 1
 ANSWERS 603

3 6 - 10 + 3 3 - 5 63. k = -2
1
39. 5x - 4y - 41 = 0 40.
22 2
64. x 1 - 2, x 2 2
41. x = 4.9 cm, y = 11.1 cm 42. x = 1 43. 8.25 units
128 65. Radius 3; x 2 + y 2 = 9
44. 4.5 m 45. 46. x = 60°, 120°, 240°, 300°
2187
1 1 66. a = 3, b = -14, c = 9
47. 2x + 3y - 3 = 0 48. y = 1 , - 49. 162c
3 2
67. Domain: all real x; range: y $ - 3
50. x = 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°
1 1 68. +ACB = +ECD ^ vertically opposite angles h
51. x = - 1, y = 2 or x = - , y = 4 +ABC = +CED (alternate angles AB||ED)
4 4
1 AC = CD ^ given h
52. ] a - 2b g ^ a 2 + 2ab + 4b 2 h 53. x = 43 54. - ` by AAS, DABC / DCDE
31
55. 1.8 units 56. tan i 69. 46 m2 70. x + y - 3 = 0

57. 8x ] 2x + 5 g (x - 1) + 2 (x - 1)
2 3 2 4
71. x 2 - 12x + 36 = ] x - 6 g2
= 2 (x 2 - 1) 3 (9x 2 + 20x - 1)
1 72. y $ 2.5, y # - 6.5
58. 59. x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 3y - 25 = 0
4
73. (a) 9x - y + 16 = 0 (b) x + 9y + 20 = 0
60. Focus (2, 1), directrix y = 5
(c) Q = ^ - 20, 0 h
61. x - 2y - 36 = 0 1 1
74. (a) x - 8y + 129 = 0 (b) R = d 7 , 17 n
8 64
62. Distance from centre ^ 0, 0 h to line is
75. a = 1, b = - 3, c = -1
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
d=
a2 + b2 76. (c) 77. (d) 78. (b) 79. (a) 80. (c) 81. (c)
40
=
10
=4
= radius
` line is tangent
 PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 1 195

Practice Assessment Task

SET 1
p-3 p+1 2x + 6
1. Solve for p: - = 1. 16. Simplify .
2 5 2
2. Factorise fully: 10x + 2xy - 10y - 2y 2. 17. Solve 2x 2 - 3x - 1 = 0 correct to
3 significant figures.
3. Write in index form
1 18. The radius r of a circle with area A is
(a) x A
given by r = . Find r, correct to
r
(b) 3
x4
2 decimal places, if A = 7.59.
4. Simplify the expression 8y - 2 ^ y + 5 h .
19. Solve 5 - 2x 1 3 and sketch the solution
5 on a number line.
5. Rationalise the denominator of .
5- 2
3 1 2 5
6. Expand and simplify 20. Evaluate + + - .
20 15 3 12
] x - 3 g ^ x 2 + 5x - 1 h .
21. Solve the equation x 2 - 4x + 1 = 0,
3x 2 giving exact solutions in simplest surd
7. Solve the equation = . ^ x ! -1h
x+1 3 form.
x+1 x 2 - 2x - 3
8. Simplify ' .
5 10 22. Write 7 - 2 as a rational number.
9. Show that TABC and TEDC are
23. Solve simultaneous equations y = 3x - 1
congruent triangles. Hence, or otherwise,
and y = x 2 - 5.
show that TACE is an isosceles triangle.
24. Find integers x and y such that
3
= x + y 3.
2 3+3
25. Evaluate |-2 | 2 - | -1 | + | 4 |.
10. Evaluate ] 3.9 g4, correct to 1 decimal
place. 26. Find the value of x.

11. Simplify 2 3 - 27 .

12. Find the size of each interior angle in a

regular octagon.

13. Evaluate 0.72 ' 9.82 in scientific

notation, correct to 3 significant figures.

14. Expand and simplify 2 ^3 5 - 2 2 h. 27. Factorise 8x 3 - 1.

15. Find, correct to 2 decimal places, the 28. Rationalise the denominator of
] 2.14 g3 2 3
value of . .
6.94 - 3.72 3 5- 2
196 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

29. Simplify 2 | -4 | - | 3 | + | -2 |. 41. Solve x 2 $ 9.

30. Find the sale price if a discount of 8% is o as a fraction.

42. Write 0.16
given on a DVD player that usually sells
43. Prove that the diagonals in any rhombus
for $699.
bisect the angles they make with the
5.21 + 4.71 sides of the rhombus.
31. Evaluate 3 correct to
3.94 # 1.76
2 significant figures. 1
44. Write in index form.
x+3
5 +1
32. Rationalise the denominator of . 45. Expand and simplify ] x + 2 g3.
2 2+3
33. The price of roller skates has increased 46. Find the value of a 3 b - 2 in index form if
by 6.5% to $89. Find the price before the 1 3 4 2
a = c m and b = c m .
increase. 2 5
47. Find the value of x, giving reasons for
34. Find the values of all pronumerals,
each step of your working out.
giving reasons for each step of your
calculations.

35. Find the area of this figure. 48. Find values of x and y.

^ a - 4 h3 # b 6
36. Simplify .
a9 # ^ b-1 h
4
1
-
49. Write ] 3x + 2 g 2
without an index.
37. Solve 5x - 9 2 21.
3
50. Simplify
-
38. Evaluate 4 2
as a rational number. (a) 8x - 7y - y + 4x

39. Simplify 2 ] x - 5 g -3 ] x - 1 g . (b) 124

x2 - 9
40. Solve 4 2x + 1 = 8. (c)
x 3 + 27
 PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 1 197

1 2 55. ABCD is a parallelogram with CD

(d) +
2+1 2-1 produced to E so that ED = AD.
3 2 4 Prove that +ABC = 2+DEA.
(e) + -
x + 1 x2 - 1 x - 1
1
(f) x - x when x = 2 3

^ x - 2 h5 y 4 z - 3
(g) -1
x4 _ y3 i ^ z - 4 h- 2
2 1
-
a+b a + 2ab + b 2 2
5 3
(h) ' 56. Find the exact value of .
5a - 20ab 2 3 - 6b 5
1-
6
1 1
(i) 8 5 - 3 20 + 2 45 57. Tran spent of her salary on rent,
3 4
a3 b2 ^ c4 h
2 1 1
1 2 2 3 on food, on bus and taxi fares, and
(j) , if a = c m , b = c m 5 6
^ a 2 h2 bc 5 2 3
on going out. If she puts the rest of her
4 -1
and c = c m salary into savings, what percentage of
9
her salary is savings?
51. Find the values of x and y, correct to
1 decimal place. 58. The speed of light is about
2.99 # 10 8 ms - 1 . If a rocket travels at
one-fifth the speed of light, find its speed
in kmh - 1 (in scientific notation correct
to 2 significant figures).

59. Find the value of k if

52. Evaluate x. ] 2x + 5 g2 = 4x 2 + kx + 25.

60. Simplify 81x 2 y 3 .

61. The sum of the interior angles in a

regular polygon is 1620c. Find the size
53. The volume of a sphere is given by the of each interior angle, to the nearest
4 minute.
formula V = rr 3. Find the exact radius r,
3
2 62. Find the area of the shaded region
if the volume V is 10 cm 3.
3 in this figure, correct to 2 decimal
54. Find the perimeter of the figure below, places.
correct to 3 significant figures.
198 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

63. Factorise
(a) 5 ] a - 2 g3 + 40b 3
(b) ] 2a - b + c g2 - ] a + 5b - c g2
8x - 1 20 m
64. Solve -2 # 1 9.
5
65. ABCD and BCEF are parallelograms.
Show that AFED is a parallelogram.
25 m

71. In the figure, BD is the perpendicular

bisector of AC. Prove that triangle ABC is
isosceles.
B

66. Find the value of b correct to 2 decimal

places.

A D C

72. The diagonals of a rhombus are x and y.

Find the length of its side.
67. The diagonals of a rhombus are 6 cm and 1
73. Write in index form.
10 cm long. Find the 3 ] x - 2 g5
(a) exact length of the sides of the -
5
(a) ] x - 2 g 3
rhombus
5
-
(b) area of the rhombus. ]x - 2 g 2
(b)
68. Write as a single fraction with a rational 3
2 1 -
5
denominator - . (c) 3 ] x - 2 g 2
3 3- 2 2+ 5
1
69. The exterior angles of a regular polygon (d) 5

are 18c . How many sides has the ] x - 2 g3

polygon? 74. Write the number 54 000 000 in
scientific notation.
70. A cable is used to support a 20 m tower
(a) 5.4 # 108
as shown. If the cable is placed 25 m
(b) 54 # 106
away from the base of the tower, how
(c) 5.4 # 107
long must it be, to the nearest metre?
(d) 54 # 10−8
 PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 1 199

^ 2a 3 b h 3 o to a fraction.
78. Convert 0.36
75. Simplify .
] ab g 2
9
(a)
(a) 8a b 7
25
(b) 8a8b 12
(b)
(c) 2a7b 33
(d) 2a8b 1
76. A computer costs $1850. If it has (c) 3
3
increased in cost by 4% since last week,
11
how much did it cost last week? (d)
30
(a) $1924.00 A
79.
(b) $1778.85
E
(c) $1867.80
(d) $1776.00 C
3
-
2
77. Evaluate 4 . B
D
(a) - 8
1 The triangles ABC and CDE can be
(b)
8 proven congruent by using the test
1 (a) SSS
(c)
6 (b) SAS
(d) −6 (c) RHS
(d) AAS.
446 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Practice Assessment Task

SET 2
1. Evaluate sin 309c 41l to 2 decimal places. angle must a shot be made in order to
score a goal?
2. Simplify sin 2 38c + sin 2 52c.
3
13. Find the domain and range of y = .
3. Find the equation of the straight line 2x - 1
through ^ -1, 3 h that is perpendicular to 14. (a) On a number plane, draw the
the line 2x - 5y = 9. line 2x - y = 4.
(b) On your diagram, shade the region
4. Calculate the point of intersection
given by y $ 0, 2x - y $ 4.
of the lines 2x - 3y - 10 = 0 and
5x + 4y - 2 = 0. 15. Sketch y = x 2 - 5x + 4.

5. Evaluate cot 107c 9l to 3 decimal places. 16. Simplify sin 2 i - sin 2 i cos 2 i.

6. ABCD is a parallelogram in which 17. Find the perpendicular distance from

BC = 2 cm, +ABC = 150c and ^ -2, 3 h to the line 5x - 12y + 20 = 0.
AB = 3 cm. Find
18. Find the equation of the straight line
(a) the exact area of the parallelogram
through ^ 1, 2 h parallel to the line
(b) the exact lengths of both diagonals.
through ^ -3, 4 h and ^ 5, 5 h .
7. The lines AB and AC have equations 1
19. Solve cos i = - for 0c # i # 360c.
3x - 4y + 9 = 0 and 8x + 6y - 1 = 0 2
respectively. Show that the lines are 20. Find the gradient of the line through the
perpendicular and find the coordinates origin and ^ -3, 5 h .
of A.
tan 20c + cot 70c
21. Simplify .
8. If sin ^ x + 5 hc = cos 70c, find a possible tan 20c
value of x. 22. Find a in degrees and minutes.

9. Simplify as a fraction the expression

sin 2 60c - cos 2 45c + tan 2 30c without
using a calculator.

10. Sketch 5x - 2y - 10 = 0. 23. Find the value of y correct to 3 significant

figures.
11. On the number plane, shade in the region
given by x 2 + y 2 # 9 and x - y $ 2.

12. A soccer goal is 8 m wide. A man shoots

for goal when he is 9 m from one post
and 11 m from the other. Within what
 PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 2 447

24. Find the equation of the line passing 36. Simplify 9 - 9 sin 2 i .
through ^ 1, 2 h that passes through the
37. (a) Find the equation of the straight line
intersection of lines x - 2y - 11 = 0 and
l through ^ -1, 2 h that is perpendicular to
5x - y - 19 = 0.
the line 3x + 6y - 7 = 0.
25. Solve 3x - 7 1 2. (b) Line l cuts the x-axis at P and the y-axis
at Q. Find the coordinates of P and Q.
26. If f ] x g = 9 - 2x 2, find the value of f ] -1 g .
(c) Find the area of TOPQ where O is the
27. Find the value of x if f ] x g = 7 where origin.
f ] x g = 2 x - 1. 38. Two points A and B are 100 m apart on
the same side of a tower. The angle of
28. Find the exact value of tan 300c. elevation of A to the top of the tower is
29. Show that 3x - 4y + 10 = 0 is a tangent 20c and the angle of elevation from B is
to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4. 27c. Find the height of the tower, to the
3-x if x 2 1 nearest metre.
30. If g ] x g = )
2x if x # 1 39. The lines 3x - y = 6, 2x + y = 14 and
(a) find g ] 2 g and g ] -3 g y = 0 enclose a triangle. Find the area of
(b) sketch the graph of g ] x g. the triangle.
3x 2 h - 4xh + 2h 2
31. Find lim . 40. Show that f ] x g = x 6 - x 2 - 3 is an even
h "0 h
function.
32. Find the exact value of cos 135c.
41. Differentiate x ^ 2x 2 + 1 h .
4

33. A bird at the top of a 10 m tree sees

a mouse on the ground. If the angle 42. Solve 3y - 7 # 20.
of depression is 34c51l, how far, to 3
1 decimal place, does the bird need 43. Differentiate x .
to fly to reach the mouse? 44. (a) Find the equation of the tangent
34. If the point ^ 3, -7 h is the midpoint to the curve y = x 3 - 2 at the point
of ^ x, 3 h and ^ 8, y h, find the values of P ^ 1, -1 h .
x and y. (b) The curve y = x 3 - 2 meets the y-axis
at Q. Find the equation of PQ.
35. (c) Find the equation of the normal
to y = x 3 - 2 at the point ^ -1, - 3 h .
(d) Find the point R where this normal
cuts the x-axis.

45. Find the distance between the

parallel lines 5x - 12y - 3 = 0 and
5x - 12y + 5 = 0.
(a) Find AB, correct to 1 decimal place.
(b) Find the area of TABC, 46. What is the domain and range of the
3
to 3 significant figures. function f ] x g = ?
x+4
448 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

47. Differentiate 2x - 7 . 60. For the interval AB where A = ^ 3, -2 h

and B = ^ -1, 4 h find
48. Justin walks for 3.1 km due west, then (a) the midpoint
turns and walks for 2.7 km on a bearing (b) the exact distance
of 205c. How far is he from his starting (c) the gradient
point? Give your answer correct to (d) the equation of line AB.
1 decimal place.
61. Differentiate ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g6
49. Find the derivative of 4x 2 - 7x + 3 + 5x - 2 .
5x (a) 12 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g5 + 3 ] 2x + 1 g6
50. Find the derivative of . (b) 36 ] 2x + 1 g5
x+1
51. Differentiate from first principles (c) 6 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g5 + 3 ] 2x + 1 g6
f ] x g = x 2 - 3x + 2. (d) 18 ] 2x + 1 g5.
62. Find an expression involving i for the
52. Write as a single fraction
3 4 2 triangle below (there may be more than
- + .
x 2 + 5x x x + 5 one answer).

53. Find the equation of the normal to the

curve y = 3x 2 - 6x + 9 at the point
4
where x = 2. 5

54. If f ] x g = 2x 3 - 5x 2 + 4x - 1, find f ] -2 g
and f l ] -2 g .
i a
7
55. At the point ^ 2, -3 h on the curve
y = ax 2 + bx + 7, the tangent is inclined
52 + 42 - 72
at 135c to the x-axis. Find the values of (a) cos i =
2#5#4
a and b.
sin i sin a
(b) =
56. Find the equation of the straight line 4 5
passing through ^ 3, 6 h that also passes sin i sin a
(c) =
through the intersection of the lines 5 4
x - 2y = 0 and 3x + y + 7 = 0. 52 + 72 - 42
(d) cos i =
2#5#7
57. Find the equation of the tangent to the 8x 3 if x 2 3
curve f ] x g = 2x 3 - 7x + 1 at the point
63. If f x = * 3x - 2
] g 2
if 0 # x # 3
where x = -3.
9 if x 1 0
58. Solve for x: 4 2x - 1 =
1
. evaluate f ] 3 g + f ] 1 g + f ] -1 g
8 (a) 35
59. Find the domain and range of (b) 226
(a) y = 2x - 1 (c) 233
(d) 53
5
(b) y =
x+7
(c) y = - 4 - x 2
 PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 2 449

64. The equation of the normal to the 65. The linear function with equation
parabola y = 3x 2 - 5x + 1 at the point 4x - 2y + 3 = 0 has
^ 2, 3 h is (a) gradient -2, y-intercept -1
1
(a) 7x - y - 11 = 0 2
1 3
(b) 7x - y - 17 = 0 (b) gradient , y-intercept
2 4
(c) x + 7y - 23 = 0 1
(c) gradient 2, y-intercept 1
(d) x + 7y - 19 = 0 2
(d) gradient 4, y-intercept 3.
536 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Practice Assessment Task

SET 13
1. Solve m 2 - 5m + 6 $ 0. 13. A and B are the points ^ -4, 0 h and
^ 4, 0 h respectively. Point P ^ x, y h moves
2. Find the locus of point P that moves so
so that PA 2 + PB 2 = 64. Find the
that it is equidistant from the points
equation of the locus of P and describe
A^ -3, 1 h and B ^ 5, 7 h .
it geometrically.
3. Find the centre and radius of the
14. Find the equation of the circle
circle with equation
with centre ^ -2, -3 h and radius
x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 10y - 15 = 0.
5 units.
4. If a and b are the roots of the quadratic
15. The lines PA and PB are perpendicular,
equation 3x 2 - 2x - 1 = 0, find the
where A is ^ -2, 7 h, B is ^ 5, -1 h and
value of
P is ^ x, y h . Find the equation of the
(a) a + b
locus of P.
(b) ab
(c) a 2 + b2 16. Find the gradient of the normal to
5. Find the coordinates of the focus and the the curve x 2 = - 6y at the point where
equation of the directrix of the parabola x = - 4.
x 2 = - 8 y.
17. Find the locus of a point moving so that
6. Solve ] x + 3 g + 5(x + 3) + 6 = 0.
2 the ratio of PA to PB is 2:3 where A is
^ 3, 2 h and B is ^ 0, 7 h .
7. Find the value of k in the equation
x 2 - ] k - 4 g x + 3k = 0 if the sum of the 18. If 2x 2 - 3x + 1 / a(x - 1) 2 + b(x - 1) + c,
roots is -5. find the values of a, b and c.

8. Find the equation of the locus of a 19. Differentiate 9 - x2 .

point whose distance from the line
20. Find the locus of the point that is
3x - 4y + 1 = 0 is 3 units.
equidistant from the point ^ 2, 5 h and the
9. Find the coordinates of the vertex and line y = -3.
focus of the parabola y = x 2 + 8x - 1.
21. Show that D ABC is similar to DCDE and
2x x
10. Solve 2 - 9.2 + 8 = 0. hence find y, correct to 1 decimal place.

11. Find the equation of the tangent to

the parabola x 2 = 16y at the point ^ -4, 1h .

12. For what values of b does the equation

x 2 + 4x - 2b = 0 have real roots?
 PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 3 537

22. Find the equation of the tangent to 36. Show that the quadratic equation
the curve ] x - 2 g2 = 8y at the point 6x 2 + x - 15 = 0 has 2 real, rational roots.
where x = 6.
37. Find the equation of the normal to the
23. Find the equation of the locus of point curve y = 2x 4 - 5x 2 - 1 at the point
P ^ x, y h that moves so that it is always ^ -1, -4 h.
equidistant from the point ^ -1, 3 h and
38. Find values of k for which the
the line y = - 5.
quadratic equation
24. Solve 2 2x - 5.2 x + 4 = 0. x 2 - 2x + k - 2 = 0 has real roots.

25. Show that - x 2 + x - 9 1 0 for all x. 39. Find the equation of the straight line
through ^ 5, -4 h , that is parallel to the
26. Differentiate ^ 3x - 1 h ^ 2x + 5 h .
4

line through ^ 7, 4 h and ^ 3, -1 h.

27. Simplify cot x + tan x.
40. Rationalise the denominator of
28. Find the centre and radius of 2+1
the circle whose equation is .
3 3+ 5
x 2 + 10x + y 2 - 6y + 30 = 0.
41. Find the values of x and y correct to
29. Show that x 2 - x + 3 2 0 for all x. 1 decimal place.
30. Find the value of k in the quadratic
equation x 2 - 3x + k + 1 = 0 if the roots
are consecutive numbers.

31. Find the equation of the locus of the

point that is equidistant from ^ -2, 1 h
and ^ 4, 5 h . 42. Given f ] x g = 8x - 3, find the value of x
32. A ship sails from port due east for for which f ] x g = 5.
150 km, then turns and sails on a 43. Find the distance between ^ 0, 7 h and
bearing of 195c for 200 km. ^ -2, -1 h correct to 3 significant figures.
(a) How far from port is the ship, to the
nearest kilometre? 44. Find the value of p correct to 1 decimal
(b) On what bearing, to the nearest place.
degree, is the ship from port?

33. Find the values of a, b and c if

3x 2 - 7 / a ] x + 3 g2 + bx + c.

34. Solve 2x - 7 2 1.
a3 ^ b2 h
4
2 4
45. Simplify if a = and b = .
35. Find the value of i in degrees and ^a h b
- 1 2 7
3 9
minutes. 1
46. Solve cos 2x = - for 0c # x # 360c .
2
47. Find the equation of the straight line
through ^ 3, -1 h perpendicular to the line
3 x - 2 y - 7 = 0.
538 Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

48. Solve 5y - 3 = 5 - y. 64. Solve x 2 - 4 2 0.

49. Find the size of each internal angle in a 65. A circle with centre at the origin O passes
regular 20-sided polygon. through the point (2, 5 ). Find the
radius of the circle, and hence its
50. Solve 2 cos 2 x = 1 for 0c # x # 360c . equation.
51. Solve equations x 2 + xy + 1 = 0 and 66. Find values of a, b and c for which
3x - y + 5 = 0 simultaneously. 3x 2 - 2x - 7 / a (x + 2) 2 + b (x + 2) + c.
52. Factorise a 3 - 8b 3 . 67. What is the domain and range of
x+1 x+2 y = x 2 - 3?
53. Solve - = 7.
2 3
68. Prove that TABC is congruent to TCDE.
54. Find the gradient of the normal to the
curve y = 2x 3 + 7x + 1 at the point
where x = - 2.

55. Find the perpendicular distance from

^ 3, -2 h to the line 4x - 3y - 9 = 0.

56. Simplify ] sec i + 1 g ] sec i - 1 g .

69. Find the area of the figure below.
57. Differentiate ] 2x + 5 g (x - 1) .
2 4

x-2
58. Find lim .
x "2
x2 - 4
59. Find the equation of the locus of point
P(x, y) if PA is perpendicular to PB, given
A = ^ 3, -2 h and B = ^ -5, 5 h .

60. Find the coordinates of the focus and the

equation of the directrix of the parabola
x 2 - 4x + 8y - 20 = 0.
70. Find the equation of the straight line
61. Find the equation of the normal to
through the midpoint of (-5, 7) and
the parabola x 2 = -12y at the point
(1, 3) and making an angle of 135c with
where x = 12.
the x-axis.
62. Prove that the line 6x - 8y + 40 = 0 is
a tangent to the circle with centre the 71. Complete the square on x 2 - 12x.
origin and radius 4 units. 72. Solve 2y + 4 $ 9.
63. In the quadratic equation
(k -1) x 2 - 5x + 3k + 4 = 0, the roots are 73. (a) Find the equation of the tangent
reciprocals of each other. Find the value to the curve y = x 3 - 3x at the point
of k. P (-2, -2).
 PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 3 539

(b) Find the equation of the normal to (c) x 2 - 2x - 8y + 17 = 0

y = x 3 - 3x at P.
(d) y 2 - 4y + 8x - 4 = 0
(c) Find the point Q where this normal
cuts the x-axis. 79. The quadratic equation
x 2 + ] k - 3 g x + k = 0 has real roots.
74. (a) Find the equation of the normal to
Evaluate k
the curve y = x 2 - 6x + 9 at the point
(a) k # 1, k $ 9
where x = -1.
(b) k = 1, 9
(b) This normal cuts the curve again at
point R. Find the coordinates of R. (c) 1 # k # 9
(d) k 1 1, k 2 9
75. The function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c has a
tangent at (1, -3) with a gradient of -1. 80. Find the centre and radius of the circle
It also passes through (4, 3) . Find the x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 8y + 13 = 0.
values of a, b and c. (a) Centre ^ -1, 4 h, radius 4
(b) Centre ^ 1, -4 h, radius 2
76. The equation of the locus of point P(x, y)
(c) Centre ^ -1, 4 h, radius 2
that moves so that it is always 4 units
from ^ -1, 3 h is (d) Centre ^ 1, -4 h, radius 4
(a) ^ x - 1 h2 + ^ y + 3 h2 = 4
81. For the quadratic function
(b) ^ x + 1 h2 + ^ y - 3 h2 = 4
y = ax 2 + bx + c to be positive definite
(c) ] x + 1 g2 + ^ y - 3 h2 = 16
(a) a 2 0, b 2 - 4ac 2 0
(d) ^ x - 1 h + ^ y + 3 h = 16
2 2
(b) a 1 0, b 2 - 4ac 2 0
77. If a and b are the roots of the (c) a 2 0, b 2 - 4ac 1 0
quadratic equation x 2 - 5x + 2 = 0, (d) a 1 0, b 2 - 4ac 1 0
a b
evaluate +
b a
1
(a) 11
2
1
(b) 12
2
1
(c) 2
2
1
(d) 10
2

78. The equation of the locus of

point P(x, y) moving so that it is
equidistant from (3, 2) and the line
x = -1 is given by
(a) x 2 - 2x + 8y - 15 = 0
(b) y 2 - 4y - 8x + 12 = 0
 Mathematics
Preliminary Course

maths
Mathematics Preliminary Course

maths
Margaret Grove
Text © 2010 Grove and Associates Pty Ltd
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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Author: Grove, Margaret.
Title: Maths in focus: mathematics preliminary course/Margaret Grove.
Edition: 2nd ed.
ISBN: 9780070278561 (pbk.)
Target Audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: Mathematics–Problems, exercises, etc. Mathematics–Textbooks.
Dewey Number: 510.76

Published in Australia by
McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
Level 2, 82 Waterloo Road, North Ryde NSW 2113
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Printed in China on 80 gsm matt art by iBook
 v

Contents
PREFACE viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii
CREDITS viii
FEATURES OF THIS BOOK viii
SYLLABUS MATRIX ix
STUDY SKILLS ix

Chapter 1: Basic Arithmetic 2

INTRODUCTION 3
REAL NUMBERS 3
DIRECTED NUMBERS 9
FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES 12
POWERS AND ROOTS 19
ABSOLUTE VALUE 37
TEST YOURSELF 1 41
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 1 43

Chapter 2: Algebra and Surds 44

INTRODUCTION 45
SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS 45
BINOMIAL PRODUCTS 51
FACTORISATION 55
COMPLETING THE SQUARE 69
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 71
SUBSTITUTION 73
SURDS 76
TEST YOURSELF 2 90
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 2 93

Chapter 3: Equations 94
INTRODUCTION 95
SIMPLE EQUATIONS 95
SUBSTITUTION 100
INEQUATIONS 103
EQUATIONS AND INEQUATIONS INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUES 107
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS 114
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 118
QUADRATIC INEQUATIONS 125
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS 127
TEST YOURSELF 3 133
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 3 134
vi

Chapter 4: Geometry 1 136

INTRODUCTION 137
NOTATION 137
TYPES OF ANGLES 138
PARALLEL LINES 145
TYPES OF TRIANGLES 149
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 155
SIMILAR TRIANGLES 159
PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM 167
TYPES OF QUADRILATERALS 173
POLYGONS 180
AREAS 184
TEST YOURSELF 4 191
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 4 193

Practice Assessment Task Set 1 195

Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs 200

INTRODUCTION 201
FUNCTIONS 201
GRAPHING TECHNIQUES 212
LINEAR FUNCTION 220
QUADRATIC FUNCTION 224
ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION 230
THE HYPERBOLA 238
CIRCLES AND SEMI-CIRCLES 242
OTHER GRAPHS 250
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 256
REGIONS 260
TEST YOURSELF 5 270
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 5 271

Chapter 6: Trigonometry 274

INTRODUCTION 275
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS 275
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE PROBLEMS 283
APPLICATIONS 292
EXACT RATIOS 302
ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE 306
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS 320
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES 326
NON-RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE RESULTS 331
APPLICATIONS 342
AREA 346
TEST YOURSELF 6 349
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 6 350

Chapter 7: Linear Functions 352

INTRODUCTION 353
DISTANCE 353
MIDPOINT 358
 vii

GRADIENT 360
EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE 370
PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES 374
INTERSECTION OF LINES 379
PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE 384
TEST YOURSELF 7 389
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 7 390

Chapter 8: Introduction to Calculus 392

INTRODUCTION 393
GRADIENT 394
DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES 403
SHORT METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION 419
TANGENTS AND NORMALS 425
FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION AND INDICES 430
COMPOSITE FUNCTION RULE 432
PRODUCT RULE 436
QUOTIENT RULE 439
TEST YOURSELF 8 442
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 8 443

Practice Assessment Task Set 2 446

Chapter 9: The Quadratic Function 450

INTRODUCTION 451
GRAPH OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION 451
QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES 457
THE DISCRIMINANT 461
QUADRATIC IDENTITIES 468
SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS 472
EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO QUADRATICS 477
TEST YOURSELF 9 481
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 9 482

Chapter 10: Locus and the Parabola 484

INTRODUCTION 485
LOCUS 485
CIRCLE AS A LOCUS 493
PARABOLA AS A LOCUS 497
GENERAL PARABOLA 516
TANGENTS AND NORMALS 531
TEST YOURSELF 10 534
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 10 535

Practice Assessment Task Set 3 536

Answers 540
viii

PREFACE
This book covers the Preliminary syllabus for Mathematics. The syllabus is available through the NSW
Board of Studies website on www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au. You can also access resources, study
techniques, examination technique, sample and past examination papers through other websites
such as www.math.nsw.edu.au and www.csu.edu.au. Searching the Internet generally will pick up
many websites supporting the work in this course.
Each chapter has comprehensive fully worked examples and explanations as well as ample sets
of graded exercises. The theory follows a logical order, although some topics may be learned in any
order. Each chapter contains Test Yourself and Challenge exercises, and there are several practice
assessment tasks throughout the book.
If you have trouble doing the Test Yourself exercises at the end of a chapter, you will need to
go back into the chapter and revise it before trying them again. Don’t attempt to do the Challenge
exercises until you are confident that you can do the Test Yourself exercises, as these are more difficult
and are designed to test the more able students who understand the topic really well.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks go to my family, especially my husband Geoff, for supporting me in writing this book.

CREDITS
Fairfax Photos: p 311
Istockphoto: p 101, p 167
Margaret Grove: p 18, p 37, p 159, p 202, p 242, p 256, p 275, p 292 (bottom), p 294, p 295, p 297,
p 300, p 353, p 497
Photolibrary: p 201
Shutterstock: p 74, p 160, p 225, p 292 (top), p 486

FEATURES OF THIS BOOK

This second edition retains all the features of previous Maths in Focus books while adding in new
improvements.
The main feature of Maths in Focus is in its readability, its plentiful worked examples and
straightforward language so that students can understand it and use it in self-paced learning. The
logical progression of topics, the comprehensive fully worked examples and graded exercises are still
major features.
A wide variety of questions is maintained, with more comprehensive and more difficult questions
included in each topic. At the end of each chapter is a consolidation set of exercises (Test yourself)
in no particular order that will test whether the student has grasped the concepts contained in the
chapter. There is also a challenge set for the more able students.
The three practice assessment tasks provide a comprehensive variety of mixed questions from
various chapters. These have been extended to contain questions in the form of sample examination
questions, including short answer, free response and multiple-choice questions that students may
encounter in assessments.
The second edition also features a short summary of general study skills that students will find
useful, both in the classroom and when doing assessment tasks and examinations. These study skills
are also repeated in the HSC book.
 ix

A syllabus matrix is included to show where each syllabus topic fits into the book. Topics are
generally arranged in a logical order. For example, arithmetic and algebra are needed in most, if not
all other topics, so these are treated at the beginning of the book.
Some teachers like to introduce particular topics before others, e.g. linear functions before more
general functions. However, part of the work on gradient requires some knowledge of trigonometry
and the topic of angles of any magnitude in trigonometry needs some knowledge of functions. So
the order of most chapters in the book have been carefully thought out. Some chapters, however,
could be covered in a different order, such as geometry which is covered in Chapter 4, and quadratic
functions and locus, which are near the end of the book.

SYLLABUS MATRIX
This matrix shows how the syllabus is organised in the chapters of this book.

Mathematics (2 Unit)
Basic arithmetic and algebra (1.1 – 1.4) Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic
Chapter 2: Algebra and surds
Chapter 3: Equations

Real functions (4.1 – 4.4) Chapter 5: Functions and graphs

Trigonometric ratios (5.1 – 5.5) Chapter 6: Trigonometry

Linear functions (6.1 – 6.5, 6.7) Chapter 7: Linear functions

The quadratic polynomial and the parabola (9.1 – 9.5) Chapter 9: The quadratic function
Chapter 10: Locus and the parabola

Plane geometry (2.1 – 2.4) Chapter 4: Geometry 1

Tangent to a curve and derivative of a function (8.1 – 8.9) Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus

STUDY SKILLS
You may have coasted through previous stages without needing to rely on regular study, but in this
course many of the topics are new and you will need to systematically revise in order to build up your
skills and to remember them.
The Preliminary course introduces the basics of topics such as calculus that are then applied in
the HSC course. You will struggle in the HSC if you don’t set yourself up to revise the preliminary
topics as you learn new HSC topics.
Your teachers will be able to help you build up and manage good study habits. Here are a few
hints to get you started.
x

There is no right or wrong way to learn. Different styles of learning suit different people. There
is also no magical number of hours a week that you should study, as this will be different for every
student. But just listening in class and taking notes is not enough, especially when learning material
that is totally new.
You wouldn’t go for your driver’s licence after just one trip in the car, or enter a dance competition
after learning a dance routine once. These skills take a lot of practice. Studying mathematics is just
the same.
If a skill is not practised within the first 24 hours, up to 50% can be forgotten. If it is not practised
within 72 hours, up to 85–90% can be forgotten! So it is really important that whatever your study
timetable, new work must be looked at soon after it is presented to you.
With a continual succession of new work to learn and retain, this is a challenge. But the good
news is that you don’t have to study for hours on end!

In the classroom
In order to remember, first you need to focus on what is being said and done.
According to an ancient proverb:

‘I hear and I forget

I see and I remember
I do and I understand’

If you chat to friends and just take notes without really paying attention, you aren’t giving yourself a
chance to remember anything and will have to study harder at home.
If you have just had a fight with a friend, have been chatting about weekend activities or myriad
other conversations outside the classroom, it helps if you can check these at the door and don’t keep
chatting about them once the lesson starts.
If you are unsure of something that the teacher has said, the chances are that others are also not
sure. Asking questions and clarifying things will ultimately help you gain better results, especially
in a subject like mathematics where much of the knowledge and skills depends on being able to
understand the basics.
Learning is all about knowing what you know and what you don’t know. Many students feel like
they don’t know anything, but it’s surprising just how much they know already. Picking up the main
concepts in class and not worrying too much about other less important parts can really help. The
teacher can guide you on this.
Here are some pointers to get the best out of classroom learning:

■ Take control and be responsible for your own learning

■ Clear your head of other issues in the classroom
■ Active, not passive, learning is more memorable
■ Ask questions if you don’t understand something
■ Listen for cues from the teacher
■ Look out for what are the main concepts
 xi

Note taking varies from class to class, but there are some general guidelines that will help when you
come to read over your notes later on at home:

■ Write legibly
■ Use different colours to highlight important points or formulae
■ Make notes in textbooks (using pencil if you don’t own the textbook)
■ Use highlighter pens to point out important points
■ Summarise the main points
■ If notes are scribbled, rewrite them at home

At home
You are responsible for your own learning and nobody else can tell you how best to study. Some
people need more revision time than others, some study better in the mornings while others do better
at night, and some can work at home while others prefer a library.
There are some general guidelines for studying at home:

■ Revise both new and older topics regularly

■ Have a realistic timetable and be flexible
■ Summarise the main points
■ Revise when you are fresh and energetic
■ Divide study time into smaller rather than longer chunks
■ Study in a quiet environment
■ Have a balanced life and don’t forget to have fun!

If you are given exercises out of a textbook to do for homework, consider asking the teacher if you
can leave some of them till later and use these for revision. It is not necessary to do every exercise at
one sitting, and you learn better if you can spread these over time.
People use different learning styles to help them study. The more variety the better, and you will
find some that help you more than others. Some people (around 35%) learn best visually, some (25%)
learn best by hearing and others (40%) learn by doing.
Here are some ideas to give you a variety of ways to study:

■ Summarise on cue cards or in a small notebook

■ Use colourful posters
■ Use mindmaps and diagrams
■ Discuss work with a group of friends
■ Read notes out aloud
■ Make up songs and rhymes
■ Do exercises regularly
■ Role play teaching someone else
xii

Assessment tasks and exams

Many of the assessment tasks for maths are closed book examinations.
You will cope better in exams if you have practised doing sample exams under exam conditions.
Regular revision will give you confidence and if you feel well prepared, this will help get rid of nerves
in the exam. You will also cope better if you have had a reasonable night’s sleep before the exam.
One of the biggest problems students have with exams is in timing. Make sure you don’t spend too
much time on questions you’re unsure about, but work through and find questions you can do first.
Divide the time up into smaller chunks for each question and allow some extra time to go back
to questions you couldn’t do or finish. For example, in a 2 hour exam with 6 questions, allow around
15 minutes for each question. This will give an extra half hour at the end to tidy up and finish off
questions.
Here are some general guidelines for doing exams:

■ Read through and ensure you know how many questions there are
■ Divide your time between questions with extra time at the end
■ Don’t spend too much time on one question
■ Read each question carefully, underlining key words
■ Show all working out, including diagrams and formulae
■ Cross out mistakes with a single line so it can still be read
■ Write legibly

And finally…
Study involves knowing what you don’t know, and putting in a lot of time into concentrating on
these areas. This is a positive way to learn. Rather than just saying, ‘I can’t do this’, say instead, ‘I can’t
do this yet’, and use your teachers, friends, textbooks and other ways of finding out.
With the parts of the course that you do know, make sure you can remember these easily under
exam pressure by putting in lots of practice.
Remember to look at new work

■ today
■ tomorrow
■ in a week
■ in a month

Some people hardly ever find time to study while others give up their outside lives to devote their
time to study. The ideal situation is to balance study with other aspects of your life, including going
out with friends, working and keeping up with sport and other activities that you enjoy.

Good luck with your studies!