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Practical Guide to

Atmospheric
Dispersion Modeling
D. Bruce Turner, CCM
Richard H. Schulze, P.E., QEP

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Library of Congress Control Number: XXXXXXXXXX

Copyright 2006 by Trinity Consultants, Inc., and Air & Waste
Management Association.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be
expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the
Publisher.
Printed in the United States of America.
0 9 8 7 6 5
f e d c b a
Cover Photo: Paul S. Wolf, League City, TX
For information, contact: Trinity Consultants, 12770 Merit Drive,
Suite 900, Dallas, TX 75251 (972) 661-8100
ISBN: X-XXX-XXXXX-X

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Contents
CHAPTER 1. WHY DISPERSION MODELING
Introduction
1
Advantages of Dispersion Modeling
3
Types of Sources
4
History of Dispersion Modeling
5
Dispersion Modeling as Engineering Tool
Dispersion Modeling as a Regulatory Tool
Accidental Release Models
13
Accuracy of Calculations
13
Validation of Model Performance
20
Summary
21
References
22
Further reading
24
Questions
24

PERFORMED

IS

5
7

CHAPTER 2. A LAYMANS CRASH COURSE ON THE PHYSICS

OF THE ATMOSPHERE ITS CHARACTER, VARIABILITY, AND
SUBJECTIVE EFFECT ON POLLUTANT RELEASES
Wind
25
Vertical Structure, Gradient Wind, Surface Roughness
Turbulence
33
Vertical Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere
35
Plume Types
37
Mixing Height
41
Boundary Layer
46
Summary
48
References
49
Questions
50

30

CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS

Introduction
53
Routine Observations
53
Measurements by Site-Specific Programs
62
Characterizing the Boundary Layer
65
Proper Exposure, Siting, and Calibration
69
Proper Signal Processing, Analysis, and Archiving
Equipment Maintenance and Audits
71
Other Measurement Systems
71
ACARS
72
Summary
72

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References
73
Further Reading
74
Data on Compact Disks
Questions
75

74

CHAPTER 4. ESTIMATING

THE

EFFECTIVE HEIGHT

OF

SOURCES

Momentum
79
Buoyancy
79
Stack-Tip Downwash
79
Buoyancy Flux
83
Momentum Flux
84
Final Plume Rise
84
Distance of Final Rise
84
Gradual or Transitional Rise
84
Plume Rise in AERMOD
85
Plume Rise in CALPUFF
86
Discharges That Limit Plume Rise
89
Regarding Downwash
89
Rule-of-Thumb for Plume Thickness
90
Rise from Merged Plumes
90
Summary
91
References
91
Further Reading
92
Questions
92

CHAPTER 5. ESTIMATING DISPERSION

RELEASES

FROM

CONTINUOUS

Various Modeling Techniques

93
Characterizing the Surface Layer
96
The Gaussian Distribution
103
Concentrations from Continuous Releases by Point Sources
Summary
120
References
121
Further Reading
122
Questions
122

CHAPTER 6. FURTHER DETAILS

MODELING

OF

106

COMMON GAUSSIAN

Hour-By-Hour Modeling
125
Effect of Wind Direction on Concentrations
126
Reflection, Deposition, and Depletion
128
Estimating Dispersion from Direct Measurement of Turbulence
Effect of Mixing Height
131
Effect of Limit to Horizontal Spreading (Box Models)
134
Urban Dispersion
134

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Maximum Concentrations from Urban Sources

The Finite Size of Sources
140
Buoyancy-Induced Dispersion
141
The Conflicting Effects of Wind Speed
144
Highest Concentrations for Particular Distances
Long-Term Estimates
148
Summary
149
References
149
Questions
150

CHAPTER 7. ESTIMATING DISPERSION

AND AREA SOURCES

137

FROM

145

PUFF, LINE,

Instantaneous and Quasi-Instantaneous Releases.

153
Accidental Release Analysis
160
Biological Agents, Toxic Chemicals, and Radioactive Materials
Line Source Modeling
162
Estimating Dispersion from Area Sources
165
Volume Sources
170
Summary
170
References
171
Questions
172

CHAPTER 8. CURRENT MODELS

Introduction
173
AERMOD
175
CALPUFF
185
ADMS
192
OML
192
SCIPUFF
194
Rapid Response and Planning Models
Summary
196
References
196
Further Reading
198
Questions
201

CHAPTER 9. INPUTS

TO

195

MODELS

Introduction
203
Control Data
203
Source Data
204
Meteorological Data
207
Receptor Data
221
Summary
222
References
222
Questions
223
Universal Transverse Mercator Grid

224

161

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CHAPTER 10. APPROACHES

FOR SPECIALIZED CASES

TO

MAKING ESTIMATES

Dense Gas Releases

227
Moisture in Plumes
230
Over-Water Dispersion
230
Odors
231
Flares
234
Techniques Employed to Minimize Ground-Level Concentrations
Summary
246
References
248
Questions
250

CHAPTER 11. DOWNWASH

OF

PLUMES

BY

STRUCTURES

Introduction
251
Characteristics of Wakes
252
Procedures Used to Simulate Building Downwash Effects
259
PRIME
259
Processor Applicable to PRIME
261
Example Results from Applying AERMOD
261
Good Engineering Practice Stack Height Regulations
264
Modeling Porous Structures
266
Summary
266
References
267
Available Programs
268
Questions
268

CHAPTER 12. CONSIDERATION

OF

TERRAIN

IN

MODELING

Terrain Nomenclature
269
Treatment of Terrain
270
Summary
281
References
282
Questions
283

CHAPTER 13. MODEL USE

AND

SOURCES

Regulatory Approved Models

285
EPA Decisions on Model Use
287
Availability of Models
290
Recommendations for Model Use
294
Sources of Information
295
Summary
296
References
297
Questions
297

OF

INFORMATION

242

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CHAPTER 14. STEPS

ANALYSIS

IN

PERFORMING

Introduction
299
Importance of a Protocol
299
Meeting Emission Standards
301
Meeting Air Quality Standards
303
Application of Models
317
Modeling Nitrogen Oxides
324
Transportation Modeling
324
Quality Assurance of Input and Output
Summary
327
References
328
Questions
330

AN

AIR QUALITY

326

CHAPTER 15. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ANALYSIS

Definition of Risk
331
Risk Perception
333
Industrial Risk
334
Chronic Risk
335
Environmental Risk Acceptability
Chronic Societal Risk
337
Acute or Probabilistic Health Risk
Contingency Planning
341
Use of Probability Risk Assessment
Conclusion
342
References
343
Questions
344

337
338
341

CHAPTER 16. ADDITIONAL TOPICS

Ozone Concentrations in Urban Areas
345
Limitations to Gaussian Modeling
347
Situations Requiring the Use of Special Models
351
Effects Present, but Only Included in Most Recent Modeling
Summary
366
References
367
Questions
369

APPENDIX A. TABLES

OF

364

DISPERSION PARAMETER VALUES

Pasquill-Gifford Parameters
372
Briggs Urban Parameters
376
Slade Instantaneous Parameters
380

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APPENDIX B. UNITS, CONVERSIONS

AND

SYMBOLS

Units
383
Conversions
383
Conversion of Concentrations from Mass Per
Volume to Volume Per Volume and Vice Versa
List of Symbols
385

GLOSSARY
INDEX

384

389

397

FIGURES
FIGURE 1-1.

Structure of a dispersion model. (Adapted from

Turner 1994)

FIGURE 1-2.

Schematic diagram of the simulation of atmospheric turbulence and dispersion for EPA shortrange regulatory applications. (Adapted from
Turner 1994)

FIGURE 1-3.

Cumulative frequency of measured and modeled air quality concentrations at the Clifty
Creek steam electric station. (U.S. EPA 1982)

18

FIGURE 2-1.

Surface wind roses: Annual based on 10 years

data. (Environmental Data Service, undated
around 1968, p. 30)

27

FIGURE 2-2.

Annual Mean Days (Figure 2-2a) shows the

stagnation days, and Annual Mean Cases
(Figure 2-2b) shows the annual number of
cases, averaged for the period 1948-1998.
(Wang and Angell 1999)

29

FIGURE 2-3.

Effect of terrain roughness on the wind speed

profile. With decreasing roughness, the depth
of the affected layer becomes shallower and the
profile steeper. Percentages of the gradient
wind are listed at various heights on the profile
curves. The gradient wind is assumed to be
100%. (Based on Davenport 1963)

31

FIGURE 2-4.

Schematic of thermal structure. (Weil 1986 p. 9)

36

FIGURE 2-5.

A schematic view of large-eddy diffusion

processes in a convective boundary layer. (Briggs
1988 p. 67).

37

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FIGURE 2-6.

Summary of plume types, including Trapping. (Hewson 1964 p. 89)

39

FIGURE 2-7.

Mixing height capped by an inversion layer.

(Smith 1968 p. 10)

42

FIGURE 2-8.

Mean summer afternoon mixing heights.

(Holzworth 1972 p. 34)

44

FIGURE 2-9.

Mean winter afternoon mixing heights.

(Holzworth, 1972 p. 32)

45

FIGURE 3-1.

ASOS station. Haines, Alaska. (www.nws.noaa

.gov/ )

54

FIGURE 3-2.

ASOS wind sensor. (www.nws.noaa.gov/ )

55

FIGURE 3-3.

Radiosonde balloon and instrument package

just after launch. (Upper left: just prior to
launch) (www.nws.noaa.gov/ )

59

FIGURE 3-4.

Map of the NWS Radiosonde Network.

(www.nws.noaa.gov/ )

61

FIGURE 3-5.

Wind system mounted on 10-meter tower.

Source: Forecast Systems Laboratory, Boulder
Colorado. (NOAA)

62

FIGURE 3-6.

Left: Micro-vane wind direction sensor and 3Cup Anemometer, Model 27005. Right: Wind
Monitor, Model 05103. (Photos courtesy of R.
M. Young Company)

63

FIGURE 3-7.

Ultrasonic Anemometer, Model 81000.

(Photo courtesy of R. M. Young Company)

63

FIGURE 3-8.

Phased-Array Wind Profiler (Sodar). (Photo

from Atmospheric Research & Technology)

64

FIGURE 3-9.

Left: Gill U V W Anemometer, Model 27005.

Right: Gill Bivane, Model 17003. (Photos
courtesy of R. M. Young Company)

69

FIGURE 4-1.

Gradual or transitional plume rise and final

plume rise.

78

FIGURE 4-2.

Karmen vortices and stack-tip downwash due

to these vortices.

80

FIGURE 4-3.

The region of lowering pressure in the lee of

a stack.

81

FIGURE 4-4.

How stack downwash occurs, and the calculation of reduction of release height.

82

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FIGURE 4-5.

Plume rise estimates made in the ISC

models.

82

FIGURE 4-6.

Rule-of-thumb that equates vertical plume

thickness to plume rise.

90

FIGURE 5-1.

Heat imbalance during day and night.

98

FIGURE 5-2.

Relative variation with height of temperature, wind speed, wind direction, a and e
for day and night with clear skies and light
wind.

100

FIGURE 5-3.

The Gaussian or normal distribution.

104

FIGURE 5-4.

The coordinate system for Gaussian

modeling.

106

FIGURE 5-5.

Pasquill-Gifford y. The rural horizontal

dispersion parameter.

110

FIGURE 5-6.

Pasquill-Gifford z. The rural vertical dispersion parameter.

111

FIGURE 5-7.

Values for the two exponential terms of

equation 5-5 and their sum as a function of
receptor height z for Pasquill B stability at a
downwind distance of 300 meters. The
effective height is 40 m, and at this distance
z is 30.1 m.

114

FIGURE 5-8.

Downwind distance to the point of maximum ground-level concentration and

maximum relative concentration normalized
for wind speed for rural conditions, derived
by using the Pasquill-Gifford dispersion
parameter values. The diagonal curves, from
upper left to lower right, are for each Pasquill
stability class. The more horizontal line segments correspond to the effective heights of
release in meters. (From Turner 1994)

116

FIGURE 6-1.

Concentrations (+) along a line of receptors

perpendicular to the wind flow at a downwind distance (x direction) of 600 meters
from the source under B stability and 3 m
s1 wind speed, and concentrations ()
along a line of receptors 4 kilometers from
the source under E stability and 3 m s1
wind speed.

126

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FIGURE 6-2.

The same as Figure 6-1, but with concentrations plotted on a logarithmic scale.

127

FIGURE 6-3.

Depiction of eddy reflections from ground

and from mixing height for N = 1.

133

FIGURE 6-4.

Briggs urban y, the horizontal dispersion

parameter.

135

FIGURE 6-5.

Briggs urban z, the vertical dispersion

parameter.

136

FIGURE 6-6.

Downwind distance to the point of maximum ground level concentration and maximum relative concentration normalized for
wind speed for urban conditions, derived
by using the Briggs Urban dispersion
parameter values. The diagonal curves from
upper left to lower right are for each
Pasquill stability class. The more horizontal
line segments correspond to effective
heights of release in meters.

138

FIGURE 6-7.

Motions induced by exit velocity and

buoyancy to produce buoyancy-induced
dispersion.

142

FIGURE 6-8.

Concentrations as functions of wind speed

using matrix of stability-wind speed combinations used by the SCREEN3 model.

146

FIGURE 6-9.

Concentrations as functions of downwind

distance from the source for each Pasquill
stability class. The wind speed selected for
each class is the one producing the maximum for that class (critical wind speed).

147

FIGURE 7-1.

Two puffs emitted at different times with a

wind shift occurring between times of emission.

154

FIGURE 7-2.

Puff y, horizontal dispersion parameter.

156

FIGURE 7-3.

Puff z, vertical dispersion parameter.

157

FIGURE 7-4.

Puff cross-section showing mean ordinate

between 1.5 standard deviations.

159

FIGURE 7-5.

Modification of source term for wind at an

angle to a line source.

163

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FIGURE 7-6.

Determining the corrections to the area

under the Gaussian distribution for a finite
line source.

164

FIGURE 7-7.

Estimating concentrations from an area

source by integrating over the area. The
solid lines are used for the first estimate.
Both the solid and dashed lines are used for
the second estimate.

166

FIGURE 7-8.

Location of virtual source upwind of an

area source with plume edges as defined by
1/10 centerline concentrations. Recommendation: Receptors should be more than 2.5
times the area side length downwind from
the downwind edge of the area source. (Of
course, this means placing no receptors
within the area source.)

168

FIGURE 7-9.

Concentrations along a line 20 m downwind from the downwind edge of an area

source 200 m by 200 m using PAL (dashed
curve) and a virtual point source (solid
curve). For both examples, u = 3m s1, H = 0
m, and z = 1.5 m.

169

FIGURE 7-10.

Simulation of area source by a series of

point sources and location of two receptors,
A and B, which will produce a good estimate if the concentrations are averaged for
the two points. Recommendation: Receptors
should be placed more than five times the
individual point source spacing downwind
from the downwind edge of the area source.

169

FIGURE 8-1.

Wind speed and stability class combinations used by the SCREEN model. Shaded
area indicates 54 combinations.

175

FIGURE 8-2.

Quantile-quantile plot of model predicted

vs. observed /Q (concentration normalized
for emission) for AERMOD and ISCST3 for
Kincaid SF6, convective conditions. (Lee et
al. 1998)

176

FIGURE 8-3.

Quantile-quantile plot of model predicted

vs. observed /Q (concentration normalized
for emission) for AERMOD and ISCST3 for
Indianapolis SF6, stable conditions. (Lee et
al. 1998)

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FIGURE 8-4.

Quantile-quantile plot of model predicted

vs. observed /Q (concentration normalized
for emission) for AERMOD and ISCST3 for
Indianapolis SF6, convective conditions. (Lee
et al. 1998)

177

FIGURE 8-5.

Interaction between preprocessors and the

model AERMOD. (Based on Figure 1 from
the AERMOD formulation document.
(Cimorelli et al. 1998)

178

FIGURE 8-6.

AERMODs pdf approach for plume dispersion in the convective boundary layer (CBL).
AERMOD approximates the skewed distribution by superimposing two Gaussian distributions, the updraft and downdraft distributions. (Based on Cimorelli et al. 1998)

180

FIGURE 8-7.

AERMODs three plume treatment of the

CBL. (Source: Figure 16 of the AERMOD formulation document, Cimorelli et al. 1998
and redrawn by the authors.

181

FIGURE 8-8.

Overview of the program elements in the

CALMET/CALPUFF modeling system. Also
shown are the associated CALGRID photochemical model, the KSP particle model, and
the MM4/MM5 and CSUMM meteorological
models. (Figure 1-1 in Scire et al. 2000)

186

Figures in USGS attachment to Chapter 9:

FIGURE 10-1.

Figure 1. The Universal Transverse Mercator

grid that covers the conterminous 48 United
States comprises 10 zones from Zone 10
on the West Coast through Zone 19 in New
England.

224

Figure 2. The grid value of line A-A is

357,000 meters east. The grid value of line
B-B is 4,276,000 meters north. Point p is 800
meters east and 750 meters north of the grid
lines; therefore, the grid coordinates of point
p are north 4,276,750 and east 357,800.

225

Concentration Fluctuations Instantaneous

and average concentrations observed in a
wind tunnel 50 simulated meters from the
source. The left side is on the plume centerline. The right side is at a distance of 12
meters from the centerline. (Aubrun 2002)

233

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FIGURE 10-2.

Typical open flare. (Buonicore and Davis,

eds. 1992)

235

FIGURE 10-3.

El Salvador diesel powered generating

station. (Mylius 1996)

245

FIGURE 11-1.

Characteristic wind flow pattern in the

vicinity of a cube.

250

FIGURE 11-2.

Building Wake Effects. The figures on the

left are time exposures. The figures on the
right are instantaneous shots. Top: Plume
caught in cavity. Middle: Plume descends in
building wake. Bottom: Plume little affected
by the structure. (Courtesy of CPP, Inc., Fort
Collins, CO 80524)

252

FIGURE 11-3.

Wind tunnel photographs of plume dispersing with various shapes of buildings and
without a building. Middle: Plume is little
affected. Bottom: Increased turbulence affects
plume. (Photos courtesy of CPP, Inc., Fort
Collins, CO 80524)

253

FIGURE 11-4.

The effects of effluents of a porous structure

(limited effects) compared to a block-like
structure (greater effects). (Photos courtesy
of CPP, Inc., Fort Collins, CO 80524)

254

FIGURE 11-5.

Effects on plume trajectory caused by

roughness elements placed downwind of a
source with similar stacks next to different
size buildings. (Photos courtesy of CPP, Inc.,
Fort Collins, CO 80524)

255

FIGURE 11-6.

Effect of a tall building located near a short

stack on a short building with the wind
blowing in, first, one direction, and then in
the opposite direction. (Photos courtesy of
CPP, Inc., Fort Collins, CO 80524)

256

FIGURE 11-7.

Comparison of streamlines predicted by

the PRIME model with those observed in
wind-tunnel simulations of a cubic building. The five regions of streamline deflection (A-E) are noted. The height and distances are scaled by building height, H.
(Schulman et al. 2000)

258

FIGURE 11-8.

Schematic of building downwash for two

identical plumes emitted at different locations. The plume released from the rooftop

259

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stack has a larger rate of growth and more

descent than the plume released farther
downwind. (Schulman et al. 2000)
FIGURE 11-9.

Maximum ground-level concentrations as a

function of building height for a 21-meter
source next to buildings of various heights.

262

FIGURE 12-1.

Terrain classifications.

269

FIGURE 12-2.

Comparison of crosswind factor values evaluated crosswind for the two assumptions of
uniform distribution across the 22.5o sector
and Gaussian distribution crosswind for the
specific conditions of E Pasquill stability
and 1000-meter downwind distance.

271

FIGURE 12-3a.

Keeping plume at same mean sea-level

elevation. Concentrations are computed 10
meters from plume centerline. Also, concentrations decrease to zero as plume rises 400
meters along face of obstruction.

272

FIGURE 12-3b.

Plume half-height response to terrain.

273

FIGURE 12-4.

Schematic diagram of plume behavior in stable flow over and around a three-dimensional
obstacle. Note different plume behavior above
and below the height of the dividing streamline. Uo(z) is the wind speed at the height z
in the approach flow. (Adapted from Strimaitis et al. 1982)

FIGURE 12-5.

AERMOD Two-State Approach. The total

concentration predicted by AERMOD is
the weighted sum of the two extreme possible plume states. (Cimorelli et al. 1998)

275

FIGURE 12-6.

Treatment of terrain in AERMOD. Construction of the weighting factor used in calculating total concentration. C is Concentration;
Horiz is Horizontal Plume; TerrRes is Terrain
Responding Plume. (Cimorelli et al. 1998)

276

FIGURE 12-7a.

Quantile-quantile plot for 1-hour averaging

time for the Lovett site. (Paine et al. 1998)

276

FIGURE 12-7b.

Quantile-quantile plot for 3-hour averaging

time for the Lovett site. (Paine et al. 1998)

277

FIGURE 12-7c.

Quantile-quantile plot for 24-hour averaging time for the Lovett site. (Paine et al.
1998)

277

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FIGURE 12-8a.

Quantile-quantile plot for 1-hour averaging

time for the Martins Creek site. (Paine et al.
1998)

278

FIGURE 12-8b.

Quantile-quantile plot for 3-hour averaging

time for the Martins Creek site. (Paine et al.
1998)

278

FIGURE 12-8c.

Quantile-quantile plot for 24-hour averaging time for the Martins Creek site. (Paine
et al. 1998)

279

FIGURE 12-9.

Quantile-quantile plot of maximum hourly

concentrations for CALPUFF and CTDMPLUS using data from the Lovett site. (Strimaitis et al. 1998)

280

FIGURE 14-1.

Modeling Flow Chart for NAAQS.

306

FIGURE 14-2.

Modeling Flow Chart for PSD Permit.

307

FIGURE 15-1.

Five-year average calculations (19831987)

at and beyond plant fence line. Concentrations in micrograms per cubic meter of
benzene.

336

FIGURE 15-2.

Joint probability of the frequency of an event.

342

FIGURE 16-1a-c.

Laboratory convection tank results showing

contours of non-dimensional crosswindintegrated concentration as a function of
dimensionless height and downwind distance for sources at three release heights
in a convective boundary layer. (Weil 1988
p. 188)

350

FIGURE 16-2a-b.

Convective scaling plot of crosswindintegrated concentration isopleths versus

height scaled according to the mixing
height and dimensionless downwind distance. Laboratory tank experiment (Figure
16-1), from Figure 16-1 c, and chaff from
CONDORS field experiment (Figure 16-1b).
(Moninger et al. 1983)

351

FIGURE 16-3a-d.

The effects on an elevated plume of the progressive erosion of the inversion by daytime
heating (IBF inversion breakup fumigation).

352

FIGURE 16-4a-b.

Changes in vertical temperature structure

resulting from flow over surfaces of different temperatures.

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FIGURE 16-5.

Change in atmospheric turbulence as air

moves over warm land.

356

FIGURE 16-6.

Topography of Anniston, Alabama.

359

FIGURE 16-7.

Wind roses for airport (left) that result from

valley flows and at the plant at a height of
150 m (right) that show general synoptic
flow at Anniston, Alabama.

360

FIGURE 16-8.

Vertical wind flow patterns near industrial

facility at Anniston, Alabama.

361

FIGURE 16-9.

Schematic diagram of typical sea breeze in

Los Angeles.

363

FIGURE 16-10.

Oil well fires in Kuwait following the Gulf

War. (Canby 1991) Dark plumes are moving
to the southeast from the sources.

365

TABLES
TABLE 1-1.

Types of sources.

TABLE 1-2.

Attributes and applications of air quality

simulation models.

17

TABLE 2-1.

Surface roughness length, zo, in meters for

typical surface.

31

TABLE 2-2.

Wind (from power-law equation) at various

heights relative to the wind at 10 meters
height.

32

TABLE 2-3.

Typical maximum mixing heights in the

United States.

43

TABLE 2-4.

Relationship between atmospheric conditions and effects upon released pollutants.

49

TABLE 3-1.

Sample of ASOS observation downloaded

from www.nws.noaa.gov/ .

56

TABLE 3-2.

Information on hourly airport observations.

57

TABLE 3-3.

Sample Listing of on-site air quality and

meteorological data C678 site Texas
Commission on Environmental Quality

TABLE 3-4.

Suggested components of a site-specific

system for surface measurements.

TABLE 5-1.

Pasquill stability categories.

6667

71

101

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Practical Guide to Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling

TABLE 5-2.

Ordinate y relative to the center peak for

the Gaussian distribution for values of s
given on the left and top in the table.

105

TABLE 5-3.

Area under the Gaussian curve from - to

the s given on the left and top in the table.

105

TABLE 5-4.

Exponents (p) for the power law wind profile.

108

TABLE 6-1.

Effect on maximum concentration of BID

for rural or urban dispersion parameters.

144

TABLE 7-1.

Average to peak concentrations for s standard deviations centered about the peak of
the normal distribution.

158

TABLE 8-1.

Comparison of dispersion model features:

AERMOD vs. ISCST3 (U.S. EPA 2003c).

TABLE 9-1.

A check list of information required for

dispersion modeling.

205

TABLE 9-2.

Albedo of ground covers by land use and

season.

211

TABLE 9-3.

Surface roughness length in meters, by land

use and season.

211

TABLE 9-4.

Daytime Bowen ratio by land use and season.

212

TABLE 9-5.

Input to the AERMET processor.

213

TABLE 9-6.

Data included in AERMET output file.

217

TABLE 9-7.

Listing of some of the lines from STAR data.

220

TABLE 10-1.

Ratio of peak to mean concentrations.

233

TABLE 10-2.

Calculation of heat release from a flare.

240

TABLE 11-1.

Input meteorological conditions for downwash simulation.

260

TABLE 11-2.

Maximum ground-level concentrations as a

function of building height.

261

TABLE 12-1.

Meteorological conditions used in

CTSCREEN. (Adapted from: Tables 2-1 and
2-2, Perry et al. 1990)

274

TABLE 13-1.

Dates of changes to the Modeling Guidelines.

286

TABLE 13-2.

Lists of states and locations of modeling

guidance available on the Internet.

289290

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CONTENTS

TABLE 13-3.

Models and processors that are available

from SCRAM.

292293

TABLE 13-4.

Recommended models (as of November 2005).

TABLE 14-1.

Outline of a protocol for U.S. air quality

analysis.

TABLE 14-2.

Protocol outline for a Class I visibility

analysis in the U.S.

TABLE 14-3.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

(NAAQS), PSD increments, PSD significant
emission rates, modeling significant levels,
and monitoring de minimis concentrations.

TABLE 14-4.

Partial summary of form of state standards.

309

TABLE 14-5.

World Bank recommendations for ambient

air concentrations.

311

TABLE 14-6.

Ambient air quality standards currently

applied in 21 nations.

TABLE 14-7.

European Union air quality limit values.

318

TABLE 14-8.

Maximum concentrations for specific averaging times as a fraction of the maximum

1-hour concentration.

319

TABLE 14-9.

Specified adverse (worst-case) conditions for

screening.

320

TABLE 15-1.

U.S. annual death rates from various causes.

332

TABLE 15-2.

Estimated loss (gain) of life expectancy due

to various causes.

332

TABLE 15-3.

Risks estimated to increase the probability

of death in any year by one chance in a
million.

333

TABLE 15-4.

Injuries and deaths from common events

compared to press reports on these events.

334

TABLE 15-5.

U.S. short-term safe concentrations.

339

TABLE 15-6.

Air exchange rates for residences derived

from indoor air quality studies.

341

295
300-301

302

304305

312315

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