DPWH Bantay NG Lansangan

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Extracts from the text may be reproduced

Provided the source is acknowledged as follows:
PIARC Road Maintenance Handbook
Road Condition Manual
First published 1980
ROCOND 87
First published 1987 (superceded by ROCOND 90)
International Road Maintenance Handbook

Volume I-Iv
Transport Research Laboratory, UK
World Copyright Reserved 1994
ROCOND 90
First published 1990 (superceded by ROCOND2007)
Overseas Road Note 7

Volume I & II
Transport and Road Research Laboratory
Crown Copyright 1988
ROCOND2007 (DPWH version)

Reproduction of extracts from this publication may
be made subject to acknowledgement of the source.
Produced by Roads and Traffic Authority of NSW, 1990
Low-Volume Roads Engineering

Best Management Practices Field Guide
Gordon Keller, PE and Janus Shevar, PE
July 2003
DPWH
Standard Specifications for Public Works and Highways
Volume I and II, 2004
Distress Identification Manual for the

Long-Term Pavement Performance Program
U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration
June 2003
Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a

Practitioner
Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good Government (CCAGG)
December 2006
Practical Guidelines Volume I - IV
Gravel Roads
Maintenance and Design Manual
U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration
November 2000
Handbook for Rural Road Maintenance
The following are responsible for the completion of the procedures

manual for road construction and maintenance:
Bantay Lansangan Secretariat:

VINCENT T. LAZATIN
Executive Director
Transparency and Accountability Network
JOWIL M. PLECERDA
Project Coordinator
Consultant Team, GHD Pty Ltd:

DAVID J. HILL
Project Director
VICTORIA A. CORPUZ
Team Leader
BERNARD E. BULMAN
International Road Management Specialist
ELISA P. JOSON
Civil Works Construction Specialist
BantayLansangan
Coordinator:
Transparency and Accountability Network (TAN)

#162 B. Gonzalez St.
Dominion Townhomes, Unit M
Varsity Hills Subd., Loyola Heights
Quezon City, Philippines 1119
MICHAEL L. TESORO
Media Specialist
ALVIN R. MADRID
GIS/Systems Specialist
Telefax: +632 434-0525 / mobile: +63922 826-6774 / email:

[email protected]
ii
CONTENTS
PART A.
INTRODUCTION
PART B.
THE DPWH AND THE PHILIPPINE

NATIONAL ROAD NETWORK
PART C.
BASIC CONCEPTS
PART D.
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

MONITORING
PART E.
PAVEMENT DISTRESSES
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
(Asphalt Concrete Pavement)
41
PART F-1
F-2
F-3
F-4
BRIDGE FAILURES
DITCHES AND DRAINS
CULVERTS
MANHOLES AND DRAINAGE
PIPES
68
81
84
86
PART G
SLOPE PROTECTION
88
PART H.
SURVEY FORMS
91
PART I.
SURVEY FORMS ADVOCACY AND

TRANSPARENCY FOR
DPWH PROCESSES
120
54
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Project Management
iii
PROCEDURES MANUAL FOR

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
(RA 007-04 Supporting the Road Partnership (Road Watch) Project
PART A.
INTRODUCTION
1. What is the Road Watch (Bantay Lansangan) Project?

Bantay Lansangan is a strong and sustainable partnership among
government,
private,
and
non-government
organization
stakeholders and official development assistance partners in the
national road sector for the delivery of quality road services
responsive to users needs, through the efficient and transparent
use of public resources, thus ensuring value for money and
corporate integrity. It is a model for multi-stakeholder partnership
for good governance towards poverty alleviation.
Bantay Lansangan consists of its 18 member organizations:
Alliance of Unified Transport and Telecom Organizations , Inter City
Bus Operators Association, Federation of Jeepney Operators and
Drivers Association of the Philippines, Provincial Bus Operators
Association of the Philippines, Philippine Contractors Association,
Confederation of Filipino Consulting Organizations of the
Philippines, Ateneo School of Government - Government Watch
Procurement Watch, Inc., Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good
Government, Transparency and Accountability Network, Automotive
Association of the Philippines, Philippine Center for Investigative
Journalism, Catholic Media Network, National Center for
Transportation Studies, Land Transportation Office, Office of the
Ombudsman, Presidential Anti-Graft Commission, the World Bank
and the Department of Public Works and Highways.
Bantay Lansangan seeks to mobilize its members to work with the
government and other agencies in order to enhance the delivery of
quality road services; services that are responsive to the citizens
needs.
The AusAID-funded Philippines-Australia Partnership for Economic

Governance Reforms (PEGR) is providing technical assistance to
the Bantay Lansangan Secretariat to enhance and strengthen its
capacity in terms of technical capability, information management,
and media and communication methods.
2. What is the purpose of the procedures manual?
The procedures manual aims to provide an overview, including
guidelines and instructions on essential information on roads
construction and maintenance as well as the step-by-step process
of conducting roads monitoring activities. The manual will enhance
the participants understanding of the essential activities involved in
road construction and maintenance. Essentially, this will establish a
foundation for an informed and active support for the development,
formulation, implementation, management, and monitoring of
selected road sections monitoring at the national and regional level.
In addition, this manual is designed to improve a variety of skills in
roads construction and maintenance including the inherent activities
that goes with it.
3. For whom is this manual written?
This manual was written for the BL volunteer monitors who will
manage and conduct the road monitoring activities for BL in 16
regions nationwide. It is the BL volunteers responsibility to ensure
that the conduct of roads monitoring activities will be accurate and
appropriately facilitated. The manual is written to assist the
volunteer-monitors to carryout its respective tasks and
responsibilities specifically in undertaking roads monitoring
activities.
4. How should you use this manual?

The participants should become familiar enough with the
format and contents of the procedures manual to be able to
refer to it quickly whenever they need answers to questions
regarding managing and implementing roads monitoring
activities.
To facilitate the use of this manual the following features
have been incorporated:
The manual is divided into five parts and each part is

further subdivided into sections.
Each part and section contains extensive information
and discussions on the Philippine national road network,
basic concepts and terminologies in roads and bridges,
and roads construction and maintenance monitoring.
Complete examples that have been developed to
provide a step-by-step guide to the user, especially in
completing the road monitoring and evaluation forms.
5. What are the parts of this manual?
Part B The DPWH and the Philippine National Road

Network. This portion describes the DPWH, its mandate and
functions as well as its organizational structure. It also
describes the Philippine national road network, specifically
on the classification of road types including its total
distribution according to its established road classification.
Part C Basic Concepts Mathematical Concepts and
Calculations. This section provides step-by-step instructions
in understanding mathematical concepts and calculations,
including survey concepts and related survey tools.
Part D The Road and Bridges Terminologies. This portion
provides the appropriate definitions to the terminologies
used in roads and bridges construction and maintenance.
This also includes photographs to further illustrate the
terminologies provided in this section.
Part E Road Construction and Maintenance Monitoring.
The fifth section of the procedures manual which describes
processes and procedures in conducting assessment and
evaluation of pavement distresses, both flexible and rigid
pavement types.
The five parts and the contents of each part are:

Part A Introduction. The first part deals with providing
introduction about the project and the procedures manual,
its goals and objectives. This section also provides
instruction on how the procedures manual will be used.
Part F Bridge Failures. Right after the road construction

and maintenance monitoring, a section on bridge failures will
be presented to provide adequate information on the
identified types of bridge failures.
Part G Slope Protection. This section describes the
approaches and mechanisms in undertaking the
construction of slope protection structures. This also
includes the description and uses of slope protection
structures that is part of a road structure.
2
Part H The Survey and Survey Formats. The eight and the
last section of this procedures manual is the section on
survey. This section provides the basic knowledge and
information on the conduct of survey. It also presents a stepby-step instruction in undertaking surveys.
PART B.
THE DPWH AND THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL

ROAD NETWORK
In relation to this mandate, the DPWH functions as the

engineering and construction arm of the Government tasked
to continuously develop its technology for the purpose of
ensuring the safety of all infrastructure facilities and securing
for all public works and highways the highest efficiency and
quality in construction. DPWH is currently responsible for
the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of
infrastructure, especially the national highways, flood control
and water resources development system, and other public
works in accordance with national development objectives.
1. The DPWH: Its Mandate and Function

2. DPWH Organizational Structure
The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) is
one of the three departments of the government undertaking
major infrastructure projects. It is mandated to undertake the
planning of infrastructure projects, such as roads and
bridges, flood control, water resources projects and other
public works. Its legislative mandate is to administer 29,165
km of national roads. It is also in-charge of the design,
construction, and maintenance of national roads and
bridges, including major flood control systems. These major
activities are undertaken in support of the national
development objectives as envisioned in the Medium-Term
Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP) (2004-2010), aimed
at providing primary attention on meeting the Presidents 10point Agenda.
The DPWH organization (see organizational chart) has more

than 8,000 staff nationwide. They are distributed into
bureaus, divisions, and offices like the Bureau of
Construction, Bureau of Maintenance, Bureau of Design,
Planning Service, 16 Regional Offices, and more than 200
District Offices. The DPWH recognizes that to achieve its
goals the main asset is its staff.
Engineering Offices (MEOs) are in-charge of maintaining

National Roads, Provincial Roads, and Barangay Roads,
respectively.
3. The Philippine National Road Network
It is not only that a road infrastructure is required to support
the economic and social needs of the country but also an
integrated road network is critical for further economic and
social development. The Government through the
implementation
of
the
Medium-Term
Philippine
Development Plan (2004-2010) is continuing its intervention
to further improve the quality of existing infrastructures
through proper maintenance, rehabilitation, and upgrading.
Figure 1. The DPWH Organizational Structure
On the other hand, down to the organizational structure in

the district level, the District Engineering Offices (DEOs) of
DPWH were designated as the party responsible for
maintaining National and Barangay roads, while the
Provincial Engineering Offices (PEOs) were assigned
responsibility for Provincial Roads in each province at the
time of appraisal. However, in accordance with the Local
Government Code of 1991, the responsibility for maintaining
local roads was transferred to local government units
(LGUs). Therefore, the DEOs, PEOs, and Municipal
The overall Philippine Road Network accounts for more than

200,000 km of roads wherein the DPWH is responsible for
managing a total of 29,369 km. which are designated as
national roads linking major population centers and
provinces. The national roads are further classified
according to jurisdiction which includes the following: i)
North-South Backbone; ii) East-West Lateral; iii) Secondary
National Roads, and other roads of strategic performance.
While the remaining 171,000 km are designated as local
roads; since enactment of the Local Government Code in
1991, these are categorized as provincial (27,000 km), city
(7,000 km), municipal (16,000 km) and barangay/village
roads (122,000 km), and are under the jurisdiction of the
local government units (Refer to Table 1). The provincial
roads provide the secondary network within provinces, these
interconnects the municipalities and provided linkage to the
national roads including other public transport facilities like
public wharfs, railway stations, airports and ports. On the
4
other hand, the city and municipal road networks are located
in the urban areas of cities as well as in the center of
municipalities, while the extensive barangay network links
farms to market.
Table 1.
Region
CAR
NCR
Region I
Region II
Region III
Region IV-A
Region IV-B
Region V
Region VI
Region VII
Region VIII
Region IX
Region X
Region XI
Region XII
Region XIII
TOTAL
Length of National Roads by Classification

(As of December 31, 2007)
Current
Length
1,845.85
1,031.79
1,609.60
1,764.98
2,031.61
2,404.50
2,185.39
2,197.00
2,880.06
2,036.50
2,372.63
1,218.01
1,682.22
1,447.23
1,303.91
1,358.44
29,369.70
NorthSouth
72.70
421.21
472.05
323.12
268.60
239.72
397.91
592.40
256.44
395.25
323.76
620.70
328.63
208.98
312.18
5,233.63
Road Classification
EastOther
West
Roads
329.20
331.99
15.61
30.15
408.21
305.62
114.58
257.23
446.72
300.45
501.58
17.68
1,034.55
202.27
473.55
440.94
438.26
173.02
950.87
351.04
660.48
114.73
415.92
202.83
288.47
457.33
125.19
454.90
114.69
367.65
2,965.05
7,360.66
Secondary
1,184.66
943.48
750.03
872.73
1,004.54
1,333.86
893.45
1,123.27
1,408.46
656.17
965.85
363.60
570.23
661.27
514.83
563.93
13,810.36
Figure 2. The Philippine National Road Network
According to the DPWH, paved roads represent more than

70% of the total roads by surface type. Of the 70 percent,
more than 13,000 km (45.5%) are concrete while the
remaining 7,000 km (25.9%) has asphalt overlaying. The
unpaved roads which account for about 30% is subdivided
into gravel and earth having 8,000 km (29.5%) and 76 km
(0.3%), respectively (Refer to Table 2).
permanent bridges, there are 6,325 concrete bridges

nationwide which accounts for a total length of more than
250,000 meters. On the other hand, there are about 560
steel bridges nationwide with a total length of more than
40,000 meters (Refer to Table 3).
Table 3.
Table 2.
Region
CAR
NCR
Region I
Region II
Region III
Region IV-A
Region IV-B
Region V
Region VI
Region VII
Region VIII
Region IX
Region X
Region XI
Region XII
Region XIII
TOTAL
Length of National Roads by Surface Type

Current
Length
1,845.85
1,031.79
1,609.60
1,764.98
2,031.61
2,404.50
2,185.39
2,197.00
2,880.06
2,036.50
2,372.63
1,218.01
1,682.22
1,447.23
1,303.91
1,358.44
29,369.70
Concrete
553.93
713.32
880.80
907.60
986.82
947.72
685.11
905.00
1,216.74
892.13
1,637.49
543.61
729.27
662.32
558.30
557.59
13,377.76
Surface Type
Asphalt
Gravel
105.07
1,173.50
318.47
568.26
139.37
319.33
537.27
784.57
260.22
1,115.28
341.11
323.17
1,176.30
682.14
609.85
959.56
700.17
853.05
271.99
291.71
426.94
292.34
382.06
440.34
512.61
247.46
537.45
255.98
489.51
71.85
729.00
7,628.59
8,287.35
Number and Length of National Permanent Bridges

Permanent
Region Name
Earth
13.34
21.17
0.77
0.39
0.81
3.58
19.34
16.49
0.11
76.00
With regard to national bridges, there are a total of 7,744

bridges which is subdivided into 6,885 (88.9%) permanent
bridges and 159 (10.1%) temporary bridges. Among the
CAR
Concrete
No. of
Total
Bridges
Length
187
5,881.55
Steel
No. of
Total
Bridges
Length
33
3,014.88
Total
No. of
Bridges
220
Total
Length
8,896.43
NCR
264
18,746.13
567.00
269
19,313.13
Region I
441
24,139.20
58
5,611.12
499
29,750.32
Region II
382
18,488.16
23
4,327.55
405
22,815.71
Region III
569
25,228.69
37
3,518.66
606
28,747.35
Region IV-A
562
15,206.00
27
958.21
589
16,164.21
Region IV-B
408
15,026.55
45
1,577.80
453
16,604.35
Region V
519
20,032.64
34
1,388.67
553
21,421.31
Region VI
573
22,921.61
68
3,886.32
641
26,807.93
Region VII
460
15,375.09
25
2,051.44
485
17,426.53
Region VIII
717
25,646.03
58
5,474.05
775
31,120.08
Region IX
224
9,279.17
26
1,337.82
250
10,616.99
Region X
303
11,798.04
49
2,569.99
352
14,368.03
Region XI
224
10,836.76
14
966.47
238
11,803.23
Region XII
239
9,401.93
19
828.53
258
10,230.46
Region XIII
253
10,310.51
39
2,491.40
292
12,801.91
6,325
258,318.06
560
40,569.91
6,885
298,887.97
TOTAL
Meanwhile, there are 859 temporary bridges nationwide. Of

the 859 bridges, there are 667 bailey bridges covering more
than 13,600 km. while the timber bridges has indicated a
total of 192 with a total length of more than 2,400 km (Table
4).
Table 4.
Region
Name
CAR
NCR
Region I
Region II
Region III
Region IV-A
Region IV-B
Region V
Region VI
Region VII
Region VIII
Region IX
Region X
Region XI
Region XII
Region XIII
TOTAL
Number and Length of National Temporary Bridges

Bailey
No. of
Total
Bridges
Length
83
1,756.34
19
326.75
20
303.02
1
21.30
34
529.12
128
3,357.90
50
730.26
69
1,880.64
36
551.96
72
1,150.53
4
51.40
13
298.53
14
402.08
24
454.15
100
1,803.78
667 13,617.76
Permanent
Timber
No. of
Total
Bridges Length
2
16.50
5
55.42
7
102.00
2
14.00
46
581.25
3
88.00
3
66.80
63
758.97
1
20.00
1
6.10
59
719.68
192 2,428.72
PART C.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Basic Mathematical concepts and Calculations

The part is intended to provide easy reference to some of
the mathematical concepts and calculations encountered in
the construction of roads and associated work. It is not
intended as a textbook in basic mathematics.
Units measurement
Total
No. of
Bridges
85
19
25
8
36
174
50
72
39
135
5
14
14
24
159
859
Total
Length
1,772.84
326.75
358.44
123.30
543.12
3,939.15
730.26
1,968.64
618.76
1,909.50
71.40
304.63
402.08
454.15
2,523.46
16,046.48
The total length of the road is usually given in kilometers

(km) and the lengths of sections of a road in meters (m).
The width of a road, or the layers of a road is normally
given. There are 1000 meters in one kilometer.
The thickness of a layer in a road, the thickness of the
surface of the thickness of concrete work is given in
millimeters (mm). There are 1000 millimeters in one meter
Straight sections of a road are joined with curves the radius
(R) of a curve on a road is given in meters (m).
The unit of measurement for an area is in square meter
(m2). This term is mostly encountered in determining the
area to be compacted, surfaced, grassed.
The most frequently used unit of measurement for volume
is the cubic meter (m3). This term is mostly encountered in
determining the amount of material to be excavated, used in
the construction and compaction of a layer and carted away.
The volume of liquid is normally measured in liters (l). The

term is encountered in determining the amount of water,
emulsion, and bitumen.
Example of ratios
Water: cement ratio (using the mass of water and the mass
of cement)
Typical Shapes areas and volumes

The area of a section of road is normally rectangular in
shape and the area is obtained by multiplying the length
of the road by the width of the road. The unit used for /
and a must be the same (normally both are express in
meters (m).
If a concrete mixture contains 25 kg of cement and 125 liters

of water, calculate the water cement ratio based on mass.
As the mass of 1 liter of water is 1 kg the mass of 125 liters
of water equals 125 kg.
The water cement ratio is therefore:
Volume of material is almost always measured in cubic

meters (m3). The volume of compacted material in a road
layer is obtained by multiplying the thickness of the layer (t)
by the width of the layer (w) by the length of the layer (l).
The problem here is that the length could be in km, the width
in m, and the thickness is mm. They must all be brought to
the same unit, normally meters to give a volume in m3 (cubic
meters).
A ratio of one number to another number is the first number,
divided by the second number e.g. the relation between the
quantity of mixing water and the amount of cement in a
concrete mix is known as the water cement ratio:
water cement ratio = volume of water or mass of water
volume of cement
mass of cement
Note: A ratio has no units.
mass of water
mass of cement
= 125
25
5 = 5:1
1
The term percentage is made up of two words per and

centage where per means for (part of) and centage means
100. A percentage (%) is therefore the name given to the
mathematical expression, where the total of the
parts/portions/ingredients is expressed as 100 (100%), and
the individual parts/portions/ingredients are expressed as a
part of a 100.
Examples of percentages
Example 1: If a contract calls for 40% of the labor force to be
made up of women, then of every 100 people employed, 40
must be women. (The remaining 60 will comprise the other
groupings)
Example 2: If the tender documents specify a 60%
bituminous emulsion, the emulsion will comprise 60%
bitumen and 40% water.
When producing the drawings for the construction of a road

(building or other structure), it is not possible to show the
details on the drawings at the same size they are to be
constructed; so use is made of a scale to provide the
information on the drawings.
Scales often used in road construction are:
Site plan 1:50,000

(This means that on the plan 1 cm = 50,000 cm on the
ground = 50,000/100 = 500 meters on the ground (there
are 100 cm in 1 meter)).
Plan 1:2,500
(This means that on the plan 1 cm = 2,500 cm on the
ground = 2,500/100 = 25 meters on the ground).
(The different horizontal and vertical scales are used to be

able to illustrate the differences in height along the route of
the road if the same scale is used for both these would not
be visible).
Cross section 1:50
(This means that on the plan 1 cm = 50 cm on the ground =

50/100=0.5 meters on the ground).
A scale is written as:

1:10, 1:100, 1:50,000, etc. A scale of 1:10 means that 1 unit,
measured on the drawing, represents 10 units on the
ground, while a scale of 1:100 means that 1 unit on the
drawing represents 100 units on the ground.
Longitudinal section
Horizontal 1:2,500
Vertical 1:200
Surface Condition Matrix for Visual Monitoring

Surface Type
Surface Condition
Portland Concrete Cement Pavement
Good
(PCCP)
Smooth surface, no major cracks, less
patched areas (good riding quality)
Illustration
Fair
Some surface irregularities, i.e. cracks,
potholes and less patched areas
Bad
Severely cracked road surface, corrugations,
potholes and ruts
10

Surface Type
Surface Condition
Asphalt Concrete Pavement
Good
(ACP)
Smooth surface, no major cracks, less
patched areas (good riding quality)
Illustration
Fair
Some surface irregularities, i.e. cracks,
potholes and less patched areas
Bad
Severely cracked road surface, corrugations,
potholes and ruts
11

Surface Type
Gravel
Good
Surface Condition
Illustration
Well-graded gravel, well defined cross falls

and adequate side drains
Fair
Presence of loose gravel and minor
depressions on the surface
Bad
Aggregates accumulate along the roadside,
depressions on the traveled way and
presence of sizeable potholes
12

Surface Type
Earth
Good
Surface Condition
Illustration
Well-compacted earth surface
Fair
Presence of loose earth sediments and minor
depressions on the surface
Bad
Presence of heavy depressions on the
traveled way
13
Survey Concepts
Item
Horizontal alignment
Description
Illustration
The route that a road follows between two or more places of

destination e.g. between two towns or villages, between the
village and a school clinic, etc
14
Item
Vertical Alignment
Description
Illustration
The vertical alignment is determined by the nature of the

area in which the road is situated. For example, is the area
hilly or flat? Are there rivers that have to be crossed, etc.?
15
Item
Cross-section elements
Description
Illustration
Shows what you would see if you stood in the middle of the
road and looked from left to right in the direction of increasing
distance (chainage) It is also used to show what happens
under the surface on which you are standing, and therefore,
provides information on the various layers that go into
building a road.
16
Item
Description
Longitudinal section
Provides information regarding the height of the road above a

certain point (datum) for various distances along the road
from a fixed point
Center Line
The centerline (C/L) of the road is the line drawn down the
center of the road
Illustration
It is along this line that the horizontal and vertical alignment

of the road, as well as the camber or cross-fall of the road, is
set out.
17
Item
Description
Camber/cross-fall
The slope from the centre of the road to shoulder breakpoint.

The camber on the surfaced portion is usually flatter than that
on the shoulder. The camber sheds the water, from the road
surface and shoulders, into the road reserve.
Shoulder breakpoint
The point where the extended slope of the shoulder meets

the slope of the fill or cut.
Illustration
18
Item
Description
Cut
Consists of all excavations from the existing ground line to

the roadbed and includes the side (table) drains.
Fill
Consists of that imported material above the roadbed (see

also Figure 1.26 a) on which the layer work (selected layers,
sub-base and base) is constructed.
Illustration
19
Item
Slope/gradient/grade
Description
Illustration
The slope/gradient/grade of a road or drain is the amount

that the road or drain rises, or falls, over a certain distance.
Slope can be expressed in terms of:
Percent 10%
Ratio - 4:1
Degree - 10o, 30o
20
Simple survey tools

Item
Metric tape
Remarks
How to use
Most modern tapes are divided into meters (m) centimeters

(cm), and millimeters (mm). A millimeter is the smallest unit
of measure used in standard metric tapes. One centimeter is
equal to ten (10) millimeters and one meter is equal to one
thousand (1,00) millimeters. I makes a tape far easier to
read if it is graduated in 10 mm sections.
When using a tape, apart from ensuring that the zero

of the tape is correctly identified, ensure that the tape
is not twisted or kinked. Lift the tape up and pull it
straight, then lower it slowly to the point at where
measurement must be taken
21
Road and Bridge Terminology

Project Cycle
Highway
Development Process
Description
Planning
Planning stages involves the initial definition for the need of any highway or bridge improvement project. This is the key
time to get the public involved and provide input into the decision-making process. The problems identified usually fall
into one or more of the following four categories: 1. The existing physical structure needs major repair/ replacement
(structure repair). 2. Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access to transportation
and mobility need to be increased (capacity). 3. The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident
problems that can only be resolved through physical, geometric changes (safety). 4. Developmental pressures along
the route make a reexamination of the number, location, and physical design of access points necessary (access).
Road survey and Design
A road or site survey is needed to identify the terrain features, such as drainages, outcrops, and ground slopes, and to
add some level of geometric control to a project. A survey may be very simple and accomplished with compass and
cloth tape for a rural road, or it may be very detailed using instruments and a high level of precision in difficult terrain or
for a high standard road.
Elements of design include roadway geometry, design speed, drainage, stream crossing structures, slope stabilization
needs, structural sections (materials type, use, and thickness) and road grades
Construction
Construction involves all aspects of implementation of the design and fitting the project to the ground. A key link
between design and construction are the use of standard plans and drawings that show how the work should look,
and specifications that describe how the work is to be done. Another key part of construction is quality control and
inspection to ensure that the work is done in accordance with the plans and specifications. Some amount of sampling
and testing is typically specified to ensure that the materials used in construction meet specifications.
22
Highway Terminology
Item
Paved or sealed road
Description
Illustration
A road with a bituminous and concrete surfacing.

All-weather riding surface
Asphalt Concrete Pavement (Marikina-Infanta Road)
Portland Concrete Cement Pavement
23
Item
Unpaved road
Description
Illustration
A road with a soil or gravel surface.

A gravel road is a road which is normally adequately
drained and aligned; and has been provided with a
wearing course of a selected gravel material,
Gravel
An earth road is a track, which has been formed as a
result of frequent use of a certain route. It very seldom
has any provision for drainage, is subject to erosion and,
in most cases, is not suitable for use by traffic under
adverse weather conditions e.g. when wet.
Earth
24
Item
Bridge
Description
Illustration
Structure usually with a span of 5 meters or more,

providing a means of crossing above water, a railway or
another obstruction, whether natural or artificial. A bridge
consists of abutments, deck and sometimes wingwalls and
piers.
Bailey Bridge
Concrete
Steel Bridge (San Juanico Bridge)
25
Item
Description
Illustration
Viaduct (Cebu City)

Carriageway
The road pavement or bridge deck surface on which

vehicles travel.
Culvert
Conveys water safely from the upper side of the road to the
lower side.
26
Item
Description
Illustration
A structure allowing water to flow under the road and

having an open span of normally between 0.5 and about 5
meters. The opening may be rounding, rectangular or
arched. The invert, walls and soffit often form an integral
unit.
Animal Crossing
27
Item
Description
Illustration
Reinforced concrete box culvert
Arch-type culvert
28
Item
Description
Deck
The part of a bridge that spans between abutments or pier

supports, and carries the road traffic.
Embankment
Constructed earthworks below the pavement raising the

road above the surrounding natural ground level.
Illustration
29
Item
Description
Pavement
The constructed layers of the road on which the vehicles

travel.
Road right-of-way
Any strip or area of land, including surface and overhead or

underground spree, which is granted by deed or easement
for the construction and maintenance of specified linear
elements such as power and telephone lines; roadways;
gas, oil, water, and other pipelines; sewers
Road Base and Subbase
Pavement courses between surfacing and subgrade.
Illustration
30
Item
Roadway
Description
Illustration
The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular

use.
Two-lane highway
Multi-lane highway
Shoulder
Paved or unpaved part of the highway next to the outer

edge of the pavement. The shoulder provides side support
for the pavement and allows vehicles to stop or pass in an
emergency
31
Item
Slope
Description
Illustration
A natural or artificially constructed soil surface at an angle

to the horizontal
Unprotected slope
Vegetated slope
Shotcrete
32
Item
Description
Subgrade or road bed
Upper layer of the natural or imported soil (free of

unsuitable material), which supports the pavement.
Subbase
A layer of aggregate material laid on the subgrade. It is

often the main load-bearing of the pavement. Its role is to
spread the load evenly over the subgrade. The quality of
subbase is very important for the useful life of the road.
Base
A layer of aggregate material laid over the subbase.
Surfacing
Top layer of the pavement. Consists of wearing course,

and sometimes a base course or binder course.
Illustration
33
Item
Description
Traffic lane
The portion of the carriageway defined by road markings

for the movement of a single line of vehicles.
Wingwall
Retaining wall at a bridge abutment to retain and protect

the embankment fill behind the abutment.
Concrete railing
Protective structure usually located along high

embankment
Illustration
34
Drainage Terminology
Drainage system
Protects the road structure from any ponding on, or next to,
the structure, draining all storm water as rapidly as is
practical from the road reserve, with little if any, erosion
occurring.
Bridges
Culverts
35
Item
Description
Drainage
Interception and removal of ground water and surface

water by artificial or natural means.
Ditch
A long narrow excavation designed or intended to collect

and drain off surface water.
Illustration
36
Item
Description
Outfall
Discharge end of a ditch or culvert.
Riprap
Stones, usually between 5 to 50 kg, used to protect the

banks or bed of a river or watercourse from scour.
Illustration
37
Table (side) drain
Collects water from the carriageway and road reserve and

transport the water to a convenient place of disposal (e.g.
natural water course).
Catch-water drain
Intercepts surface water flowing from adjacent land to the

road reserve and lead it away
Mitre drains
Leads water out of the side drains and safely disperse it

outside the road reserve onto adjoining land.
38
Spillway
Low-cost structures that may be successfully installed as
an alternative to a culvert. A spillway allows water to cross
the surface of the road rather than underneath
Soffit
The highest point in the internal cross-section of a culvert,

or the underside of a bridge deck.
39
Weephole
Opening provided in retaining walls or bridge abutments to

permit drainage of water in the filter layer or soil layer
behind the structure. They prevent water pressure building
up behind the structure.
40
Defects
Item
Description
Bleeding
Excess binder on the surface of the pavement.
Block Cracking
Interconnected cracks forming a series of large polygons

usually with sharp corners or angles.
Cracking
Narrow breaks in a surfacing or pavement material caused

by overloading, fatigue or weakness of the material.
Illustration
41
Fatigue or Alligator Cracks
Interconnecting network of cracks in the road surfacing.
Depression
Localized low areas of limited size in the pavement surface

or in any other surface.
Edge Cracking
Crescent-shaped cracks or fairly continuous cracks, which

generally run parallel to the pavement edge and are
located within 0.6 m of the pavement edge, adjacent to the
shoulder.
Applies only to pavements with unpaved shoulders.
42
Excess Aggregate
Aggregate particles not coated with binder after application

of binder.
Fretting
The loss of chippings from the surface seal or premix layer

due to poor bond between the aggregate and the seal or
binder.
43
Glazing
Wear or embedment of chippings in the surfacing giving a

smooth, shiny appearance.
Loss of Surface Aggregate
Removal of aggregate from a surface dressing, or from

surfacing with coated aggregate.
Scour
Erosion of a channel bed area by water in motion,

producing a deepening or widening of the channel
44
Slip
Slope material sliding downhill because of instability, water

penetration or flow.
Stripping (Ravelling)
The loss of surface seal from the pavement due to poor

bond between the seal and the lower pavement layer.
45
PART D.
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE MONITORING

Item
I.
EARTHWORKS
Clearing and Grubbing
Definition/Description
Assessment Criteria
Red Flag
Earthwork refers to the

clearing of all vegetations and
debris within the road project
and it should be confined
within
the
work
limit
designated in the contract.
All surface objects like trees,

stumps, roots and other protruding
obstructions shall be removed
Verify the existence of the
vegetations to be cleared prior to
the execution of work
The work area limits to be

cleared needs to be clearly
defined,
measured
and
recorded prior to clearing and
grubbing so the contractor
cannot claim for more work
done.
For environmental concerns, the

contractor should only confine
their operations within the work
limit specified especially when the
project is a new road opening
Look for the change of method.
The area being cleared and
grubbed will be the basis of
payment
Result
Over payment
The method of measurement

and consequently payment
maybe by area, lump sum or
unit basis. The excess
should not be measured for
payment but rather be
considered for repayment
46
Item
Excavation
Assessment Criteria
Red Flag
It refers to the excavation and

grading for roadways. Slope
rounding
including
the
removal
of
unsuitable
materials from the roadbed.
Compare existing field profile/

condition with that of the plan.
Verify the class of soil that is
being excavated and compare
it with the class of soil loaded
into the cost breakdown.
Verify the actual quantity of
work to be done vis--vis the
programmed.
The planned width of the road
is met.
The roadbed is set with respect
to the planned grades and
slopes.
The
newly
constructed
roadway
is
free
from
landslides.
The quantity of rock and
common earth excavation is
calculated separately as basis
of payment.
The road shall be provided with
earth canal or side ditches to
avoid scouring at the roadway
due to water run-off.
Verify the actual quantity of
work to be done vis--vis the
programmed.
Rock excavation is a very

profitable item to defraud
on because of its high
cost. In cuttings, the
Measuring up of rock man
be contrived especially
where is only large
boulders or rock outcrops
that do not necessarily
extend from one side of a
cutting to the other side.
As it is below grade and is
covered up it is difficult to
dispute the quantities if
not measured while the
construction is open and
visible.
The
removal
of
unsuitable material is
usually spread out over
many areas when it is
dumped, making it difficult
to re-measure, and the
area from which it was
dug is filled with suitable
material and at quite a
depth so again it is
difficult to re-measure.
Result
48
Item
Embankment
Assessment Criteria
Red Flag
Embankment is the placing

and compacting of approved
materials within the roadway
where unsuitable materials
has been removed, and the
placing and compacting of
material in holes, pits, and
other depressions within the
roadway area.
Looked for the established

vertical control point. This will
be used for the computation of
the
actual
volume
of
embankment.
Verify the actual source of
embankment materials and
compare it with the approved
quarry site.
Any approved change in the
quarry site/borrow pit location
should bear a corresponding
adjustment on the computation
of cost.
Make sure that the materials
used is granular such as sand
and gravel or selected borrow.
The embankment should be
compacted.
The embankment should be
completed as planned and
programmed.
Material
requirements.
The specific requirements
as to the suitability of the
material, gradation, and
compaction may not be
complied with and the
contractor may try to use
a source nearer the
project site, which would
be cheaper.
Methods of construction
The contractor may try to
use deleterious material
and not comply with the
construction methods and
tolerances.
Compaction
The
contractor may not submit
for approval his plan for
compaction of the various
fill materials or comply
with the approved method
or adjustment of moisture
content.
Method of measurement
The
method
of
measurement is defined
in
the
Standard
Specifications
and
embankment placed must
be
measured
as
compacted to be within
the defined tolerances.
Result
49
Item
Sub-Grade Preparation
Assessment Criteria
Red Flag
Sub-grade preparation is the

removal of unsuitable and
detrimental organic materials
such as grass, roots and
sewage which can not be
properly compacted which
may eventually cause the
surface to sink or make the
surface uneven.
Prior to commencing sub-grade

preparation, all culverts, cross
drains (including their fully
compacted backfill), ditches,
drains, and drainage outlets
must be done first.
The sub-grade is prepared to
the full width of the roadway.
This should be properly
graded,
compacted,
and
stabilized.
In a cut section, the sub-grade
is the original soil lying below
the
sub-base
and
base
materials.
The sub-grade consists of the
materials taken from nearby
roadway cuts or from borrow
pit.
Determine the area of work to
be done and compare it with
the program.
On material requirements,
the contractor may not
comply
with
the
requirements of the depth
and suitability of material
below the sub-grade.
On
sub-grade
level
tolerances. The contractor
may not comply with the
sub-grade
level
tolerances required for
compaction.
Sub-grade preparation is
done long before the
Construction of pavement
structure.
The use of unsuitable
materials like soft earth
and big sized stones.
Result
50
Item
II.
SUBBASE AND BASE

COURSE
These
items
are
the
furnishing,
placing,
and
compacting of aggregate or
sand and gravel sub-base or
base course over a prepared
road sub-grade.
Aggregate Subbase
Course Preparation
Aggregate for subbase shall

consists of hard, durable
particles or fragments of
crushed stores or crushed or
natural gravel and filler of
natural or crushed sand or
other finely divided mineral
matter.
The
composite
material shall be free from
vegetable matter and lumps
or balls of clay, and shall be
in a state where it can be
compacted readily to form a
firm and stable subbase.
The aggregate subbase
material shall be placed in a
uniform
mixture
on
a
prepared subgrade in a
quantity which will provide
the required
compacted
thickness.
Assessment Criteria
Red Flag
Verify the actual area and

thickness of the compacted road
base vis--vis the plan.
For the materials, the coarse
aggregates should be provide
with the right amount of binding
materials and should be mixed
uniformly.
The
sub-base
and
base
materials should be compacted
in
accordance
with
the
specifications.
Verify the source of materials.
Should be free of large rocks
and stones.
The full width of the roadway
should be properly prepared and
compacted.
The
maximum
compacted
thickness is 150 mm for each
layer. If the required thickness is
greater than 150 mm, the
materials should be spread and
compacted in two or more layers
of
approximately
equal
thickness.
Material requirements
the specific requirements
as to suitability of stones,
sand and gravel and
grading may not be
complied with and the
contractor may try to use
a source nearer to the
project site which would
be cheaper.
Spreading and compacttion the requirements
for
spreading
and
compaction may not be
adhered to. Also it is also
possible that falsified
laboratory test results for
Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit,
Plasticity
Index,
Dry
Density, etc. may be
submitted.
Result
51
Aggregate Base Course

Preparation
When more than one layer is

required, each layer shall be
shaped
and
compacted
before the succeeding layer
is placed.
The surface should be properly

shaped
to
prevent
water
accumulation
within
the
roadway.
Aggregate for base course

shall consists of hard,
durable
particles
or
fragments of crushed stores
or crushed or natural gravel
and filler of natural or
crushed sand or other finely
divided mineral matter. The
composite material shall be
free from vegetable matter
and lumps or balls of clay,
and shall be in a state where
it can be compacted readily
to form a firm and stable
base.
The sub-base and base should

be properly prepared and
compacted prior to placing of
forms.
Verify the actual area of
thickness of the compacted road
base vis--vis the plan.
For the materials, the coarse
aggregate should be provided
with the right amount of binding
materials and compare it with
the approved quarry site.
Method of measurement
Payment is in cubic
meters,
placed,
compacted and accepted.
The contractor may not
comply with and place
and compact the required
thickness of aggregate
sub-base course.
In areas where conventional

materials are scarce or not
available, the use of 40%
weathered
limestone
blended with 60% crushed
stones or gravel shall be
allowed
provided
the
blended materials meet the
specified requirements.
52
Item
Assessment Criteria
Red Flag
Result
III. SURFACE COURSES
Aggregate Surface Course

(Gravel Surface Course)
This item consists of a

wearing or top course
composed of gravel or
crushed
aggregate
and
binder material.
The aggregate shall consist
of hard, durable particles or
fragments of stones or gravel
and sand or other fine
mineral particles free from
vegetable matter and balls of
clay and of such nature that it
can be compacted readily to
form a firm and stable layer.
Bituminous
Concrete
Surface Course, Hot -laid
(Asphalt
Concrete
Pavement)
This
item
consists
of
constructing a bituminous
concrete surface course
composed of aggregates,
mineral filler, and bituminous
material mixed in a central
plant, constructed and laid
hot on the prepared base in
accordance with required
specifications.
The
bituminous
mixture
should not be placed on any
wet surface, or when weather
conditions would prevent its
proper handling or finishing.
53
Portland Cement Concrete

Pavement
A pavement of Portland
cement concrete with or
without
reinforcement
constructed over a prepared
road base.
Pre-construction Stage
Prior to pouring of concrete, the
road base should be wellprepared.
Ensure that there is no excessive
crowning on the base crosssectional profile. This will create a
sub-standard pavement in terms of
thickness of the mid-section.
No boulders are laid over the
prepared road base that will lessen
the required thickness of the
pavement.
The forms should be rested over
the prepared base and not
embedded on the ground.
Dowel and tie bars are present
with their specified size and
spacing.
River mix gravel or unscreened
aggregates should not be used
without the approval of the
engineer.
Construction Stage
The concrete mixture should be
Class A. A bag of cement is
mixed with 2 boxes of fine
aggregates (sand) and 4 boxes
of coarse aggregates (gravel).
Concrete vibrator or concrete
screeder with vibrator should be
used during a spreading of
concrete
to
prevent
honeycombs.
Too much water or too wet
concrete mixture will weaken
Concrete
mixture
contains a lesser amount
of cement as required in
the
Specification
presented in The Blue
Book for roads that
approximately 9.0 bags
of cement per cubic
meter of concrete based
on a 40 kg. per bag of
cement.
Re-tempering of concrete
and mortar which has
partially hardened, that is
remixing with or without
additional
cement,
aggregate, or water is a
practice but should not
be permitted.
The prepared roadbed is
no longer moist and
saturated to at least 6
hours before concrete
pouring.
Tie (deformed) and dowel
(round) bars does not
conform to the specified
length, size, spacing.
Lacking, insufficient or
undersize reinforcement
placed in the pavement
slab or placed in the
wrong
location.
The
contractor may not store
the
reinforcement
properly and try to use
rebar that is undersize,
54
the structure.
For every 4.50 meters of the
pavement, a contraction joint or
weakened plane joint should be
provided.
For every pouring of concrete,
the end of the pavement should
be provided with dowel bars
spaced at 0.30m O.C.
Shear key or groove is provided
at the centerline (pavement
side) for better connection to
the other lane.
Brooming on the pavement
surface should be uniform in
depth and direction.
not tested and even dirty

or rusty.
The thickness of the
pavement slab placed
could possibly thinner
than the designed.
IV. BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
Location
Preparation
and
Site
Piles shall be driven where

indicated on the Plans or as
directed by the Engineer
All excavations for the
foundation on which the
piles are to be driven shall
be completed before the pile
driving, unless otherwise
specified or approved by the
Engineer. After driving is
completed, all loose and
displaced materials shall be
removed from around the
piles by hand excavation,
leaving clean solid surface
to receive the concrete of
Pile length and bearing capacity

shall be determined by the
Engineer from the results of the
test piling and load tests.
The
Contractor
shall
be
responsible for obtaining the
correct pile length and bearing
capacity according to the
criteria given by the Engineer.
55
Railings
Timber structures
the
foundation.
Any
requirement for granular fill
and lean concrete shall be
indicated on the Plans or as
directed by the Engineer.
Activities shall consists of
furnishing or fabricating
and/or placing railings for
bridges and other structures.
Railings shall be classified
as
concrete,
steel,
aluminum, or timber.
Construction
of
timber
structures shall be in
accordance
with
the
specifications on the Plan.
Timber shall be treated or
untreated depending on
Plan requirements
All railing posts shall be set

plumb in hand or mechanically
dug holes. Post holes shall be
backfilled
with
acceptable
material placed in layers and
thoroughly compacted.
Where painting of steel railing is
specified, apply rust-inhibitive
(anti-rust) primer prior to
painting.
Concrete railings,
in the
finished work, shall be sharp
and clean-cut and shall be free
from cracks, spalls and other
defects.
The workmanship of stone and
brick railing shall be first class
and the finished construction
shall be neat in appearance
and true to line and grade.
Timber preservatives shall be
creosote
oil
or
creosote
petroleum oil blend.
For marine use, creosote
petroleum oil shall not be used.
In structures of untreated
timber, all of the bridge part
surfaces shall be coated
thoroughly with two (2) coats of
hot creosote oil or carbolineum
before
the
timber
are
assembled.
56
Metal Structures
The work will include the

furnishing,
fabricating,
hauling, erecting, welding
and painting of structural
metal parts.
Structural metal will include
structural
steel,
rivet,
welding, special and alloy
steels, steel forgings and
castings and iron castings.
Washers of the size and type

shall be used under all bolt
heads and nuts that would
otherwise be in contact with
wood.
Cap washers shall be used
when the timber is in contact
with earth.
Structural material, either plain
or fabricated, shall be stored
above
the
ground
upon
platforms, skids, or other
supports. It shall be kept free
from dirt, grease, or other
foreign matter and shall be
protected as far as practicable
from corrosion.
On fabrication, workmanship
and
finish
shall
be
in
accordance with the best
general practice in modern
bridge shops. Portions of the
work exposed to view shall be
finished neatly. Shearing, frame
cutting, and chipping shall be
done carefully and accurately.
Bolts shall be driven to the
holes without damage to the
threads. A snap shall be used
to prevent damage to the
heads. The heads and nuts
shall be drawn tight.
The Contractor shall provide
the falsework and all tools,
machinery
and
appliances
necessary for the efficient
handling of the work and shall
57
erect the metal work, remove

the temporary construction, and
do all work necessary to
complete the structure.
The prime coat of paint or
pretreatment when specified,
shall be applied as soon as
possible after the surface has
been cleaned and before
deterioration of the surface
occurs.
All paint and thinner should be
stored in a separate building or
room that is well ventilated and
free from excessive heat,
sparks, flame or the direct ray
of the sun.
Concrete Structures
This item shall consist of

furnishing, bending, placing
and finishing concrete in all
structures except pavements
in
accordance
with
specifications.
Concrete
shall consist of a mixture of
Portland
Cement,
fine
aggregate,
coarse
aggregate, admixture when
specified, and water mix in
the proportions specified.
Concrete shall be thoroughly

mixed in a mixer of an
approved size and type that will
ensure a uniform distribution of
the materials throughout the
mass.
In case the normal supply of
concrete is disrupted, concrete
shall be mixed in mechanically
operated mixers to provide
auxiliary supply to complete the
casting of a section up to a
construction joint.
Equipment having components
made
of
aluminum
or
magnesium alloys, which would
have contact with plastic
concrete
during
mixing,
transporting or pumping of
58
Portland Cement
shall not be used.
Pre-stressed Concrete
Structures
This item shall consist of

prestressed structures and
the prestressed concrete
portions
of
composite
structures, constructed in
accordance with Plans and
Specifications.
All pre-stressing steel shall
be
protected
against
physical damage and rust or
other results of corrosion at
all times from manufacture
to grouting. Pre-stressing
steel that has sustained
physical damage at any time
shall be rejected.
concrete,
Prestressing steel shall be

packaged in containers or other
shipping
forms
for
the
protection of the steel against
physical damage and corrosion
during shipping and storage. All
packages should be properly
labeled.
Prior
to
prestressing
procedures, the Contractor
shall submit to the Engineer the
details of prestressing method
to be used.
Extreme shall be exercised in
handling and moving precast
prestressed concrete mortar
members. Precast girders and
slabs shall be transported in
upright position.
Prestressed girders shall not be
shipped until tests on concrete
cylinders indicate that the
concrete has attained the
desired compressive strength
and has attained a minimum
age of 14 days.
59
PART E.
PAVEMENT DISTRESSES
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (Asphalt Concrete Pavement)
Item
How to Measure
Red Flag
I. CRACKING
Types of Cracks:
Cracks are linear breaks on the road

surface and are the most significant early
signs of long-term pavement distress.
1.
Fatigue Cracking
Cracks are indicators of structural failure.
Cracks allow moisture infiltration into the
base and sub-grade, which eventually
results to potholes and pavement
disintegration if not treated.
2.
3.
Longitudinal Cracks
4.
5.
Transverse Cracks
For Fatigue or alligator

cracks, determine the
area by measuring the
length and width of the
affected area.
For
single
cracks,
measure its length and
the width of the crack
(see picture 2).
Take pictures while you
measure the failures in
order to provide a scale.
Attach pictures in the
space provided for in the
BL Road Monitoring
Form-2.
Complete all necessary
details in the forms
(1&2).
Inadequate structural support for the given

loading
Decrease in pavement load supporting
characteristics
Increase in loading
Inadequate structural design
Poor
construction
(i.e.
inadequate
compaction)
60
Item
II. BLEEDING
Red Flag
.
A film of asphalt binder on the pavement
surface. It usually creates a shiny, glasslike reflecting surface that can become
sticky when dry and slippery when wet.
Bleeding results to loss of skid

resistance when wet
How to Measure
Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills

the aggregate voids during hot weather or
traffic compaction, and then expands onto
the pavement surface. Since bleeding is
not reversible during cold weather or
periods of low loading, asphalt binder will
accumulate on the pavement surface over
time.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Measure the area of the

affected portion of the
pavement.
Take pictures as you
measure the affected
area.
Attach picture in the
BL Road Monitoring
Form.
Provide
the
needed
information in the form.
Excessive asphalt binder in the Hot Mix

Asphalt (HMA) may be due to poor mix
design or manufacturing problems.
Excessive application of asphalt binder
during bituminous surface treatment (BST)
application.
Low HMA air void content (e.g. not enough
void space for the asphalt to occupy) likely a
mix design problem.
Measure the area of the

affected portion of the
pavement.
Take pictures as you
measure the affected
area.
Attach picture in the
BL Road Monitoring
Form.
Provide
the
needed
Porous pavement as a result of inadequate

compaction during construction
or poor mix design
Poor drainage
High water table
III. WATER BLEEDING

Water bleeding occurs when water seeps
out of joints or cracks or through an
excessively porous HMA layer. Pumping
occurs when water and fine materials are
ejected from underlying layers through
cracks in the HMA layer or out the sides of
the HMA layer under moving loads.
1.
2.
3.
4.
61
Item
How to Measure
Red Flag
IV. CORRUGATION &

SHOVING
A form of plastic movement typified by
ripples (corrugation) or an abrupt wave
(shoving) across the pavement surface.
The distortion is perpendicular to the
traffic direction. Usually occurs at points
where traffic starts and stops (corrugation)
or areas where HMA abuts a rigid object
(shoving).
1.
Surface depression in the wheel path.

Pavement uplifts (shearing) may occur
along the side of the rut.
1.
Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle

hydroplaning, can be hazardous because
ruts tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut
path as it is steered across the rut.
2.
2.
3.
Take
pictures
of
the
pavement distress as you
measure its approximate
area.
Attach the picture/s on the
BL Road Monitoring Form.
Fill
up
all
needed
Usually caused by traffic action (starting and

stopping) combined with:
Take
pictures
of
the
area.
BL Road Monitoring Form
Fill
up
all
needed
Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during

construction. If it is not compacted enough
initially, HMA layers may continue to densify
under traffic loads.
Sub-grade rutting (e.g. as a result of
inadequate pavement structure)
Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g.
excessively high asphalt content, excessive
mineral filter, insufficient amount of angular
aggregate particles.
An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer

caused by mix contamination, poor mix
design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack of
aeration of liquid asphalt emulsion)
Excessive moisture in the sub-grade
V. RUTTING
3.
62
Item
How to Measure
Red Flag
VI. PATCHING
An area of pavement that has been
replaced with new material to repair the
existing pavement. A patch is considered
a defect no matter how well it performs.
1.
2.
3.
VII. POLISHED
AGGREGATES
Areas of HMA pavement where the

portion of aggregate extending above the
asphalt binder is either very small or there
are no rough or angular aggregate
particles.
1.
Areas with polished aggregates are area

of low skid resistance.
3.
2.
Take
pictures
of
the
area.
Fill
up
all
needed
Previous localized pavement deterioration that

has been removed and patched (or not repaired
correctly).
Take
pictures
of
the
area.
Fill
up
all
needed
Repeated traffic applications. Generally, as

pavement ages, the protruding rough, angular
particles become polished. This can become
quicker if the aggregate is susceptible to
abrasion.
Utility cuts.
63
Item
How to Measure
Red Flag
VIII. POTHOLES
Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the
pavement surface that penetrate all the
way through the HMA layer down to the
base course. They generally have sharp
edges and vertical sides near the top of
the hole.
Potholes are more likely to occur on roads
with thin HMA surface.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Measure the longest

diameter of the pothole.
Take picture/s as you
measure the pothole
Record
the
measurement and place
the picture in the BL
Road Monitoring Form
Provide
necessary
details
Generally, potholes are the end result of fatigue

cracking. As fatigue cracking becomes severe,
the interconnected cracks create small chunks
of pavement, which can be dislodged as
vehicles drive over them.
Take pictures of the

pavement distress as
you
measure
its
approximate area.
Attach the picture/s on
the BL Road Monitoring
Form
Fill up all needed
Loss of bond between aggregate particles and

the asphalt binder as a result of:
IX. RAVELING
The progressive disintegration of an HMA
layer from the surface downward as a
result of the dislodgement of aggregate
particles.
1.
2.
3.
Reveled area on residential road. This

road has not been overlaid in almost
20 years. Raveling is probably a result
of asphalt binder aging.
Asphalt binder aging. Aging is generally

associated with asphalt binder oxidation as it
gets older.
A dust coating on the aggregate particle that
forces the asphalt binder to bond with dust
rather than the aggregate.
Aggregate segregation. If fine particles are
missing from the aggregate matrix, then the
asphalt binder is only able to bind the
remaining coarse particles at their relatively
few contact points.
Inadequate compaction during construction.
High density is required to develop sufficient
cohesion within the HMA.
64
RIGID PAVEMENT (Portland Cement Concrete Pavement)

Item
I.
CRACKING
Types of Cracks:
How to Measure
Cracking is an indicator of rigid pavement

breakup. The severity of cracking is
determined by the crack width but hairline
cracks are deemed not significant.
1.
Slabs that are considered shattered are

rated under cracking.
2.
Shattered Slab
3.
4.
Corner Break
5.
For shattered slabs,

determine the area by
measuring the length
and width of the affected
area.
For
single
cracks,
measure its length and
the width of the crack
BL Road Monitoring
Form-2.
(1&2).
Red Flag
Usually a combination of traffic loading,
thermal gradient curling, moisture stresses,
and loss of support
Poor construction (inadequate compaction)
Longitudinal & Transverse

Cracks
65
Item
II.
SPALLING
Breaking
edges.
or
chipping
of
joints/crack
How to Measure
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
III.
FAULTING
A difference in elevation across a joint

usually associated with undoweled joints.
Usually the approach slab is higher than
the leave slab due to pumping, the most
common faulting mechanism.
2.
3.
4.
Red Flag
Measure its length and

the width of spalling.
BL Road Monitoring
Form-2.
(1&2).
Measure its length and

the width of spalling.
BL Road Monitoring
Form-2.
(1&2).
66
Item
IV.
BLEEDING &
PUMPING
Movement of material underneath the

slab or ejection of material from
underneath the slab as a result of water
pressure. Water accumulated underneath
a PCC slab will pressurize when the slab
deflects under load.
How to Measure
1. Measure its length and

the width of cracks.
2. Take pictures while you
3. place pictures in the
BL Road Monitoring
Form-2.
4. Complete all necessary
(1&2).
Red Flag
Water accumulation underneath the slab. Such

things as high water table, poor drainage, and
panel cracks or poor joint seals that allow water
to infiltrate the underlying material can cause
this.
67
Unpaved Roads
Failure Modes of Unpaved Roads
Defects
Description
How to Measure
Corrugation
The result of material displacement under

the moving vehicle tire due to the loose
surface material and vehicle dynamics.
Regular ridges are formed across the
road surface
1. Measure the length of

affected section using
the measuring tape.
2. Take pictures of the
affected area as you
measure.
3. Attach the appropriate
photograph
in
the
space provided for in
Form-2.
4. Accomplish
other
details in the form.
Potholes
Localized defects, growing in depth and

diameter with the traffic.
Potholes
develop most frequently where the
drainage is less functional, or cross-fall is
inadequate. Typically, these locations
include flat grades and slopes, bridge
approaches, super elevation changes,
etc.
1. Measure the longest

diameter of the pothole
using a measuring tape
2. Record
the
measurement in the BL
Road Monitoring Form
area with potholes.
Attach photo in the
the form.
4. Accomplish
other
Red Flag
Unsuitable material is used during maintenance
68
Defects
Description
Rutting
Longitudinal deformation formed in the

wheel paths. Dry season rutting is related
to the use of non-cohesive materials with
low fines content, such as some gravels
and sands. Wet season rutting is found in
materials sensitive to water. Rutting is
sometime categorized as structural
failure, as the deformation may take place
in the base or subgrade layers).
Scouring/erosion
Loss of surface material caused by free

flowing water on the road and vehicular
traffic
How to Measure
Red Flag

the measuring tape.
measure.
photograph
in
the
Form-2.
4. Accomplish
other
the measuring tape.
measure.
photograph
in
the
Form-2.
4. Accomplish
other
69
Defects
Description
How to Measure
Red Flag
Ravelling
Is characterized by loose surface
materials that may cause low friction due
to loose aggregate.
Dustiness
Caused by loose gravel materials
Stoniness
Substantial amount of surface material

has exposed the road bed
70
Defects
Slippery
Description
How to Measure
Red Flag
How to Measure
Red Flag
Substantial amount of surface material

and lack of adequate cross fall have
extended the presence of water.
Other Characteristics of Unpaved Roads

Characteristics
Gravel Thickness
Description
This component applies only to unsealed
roads that are surfaced with an imported
material i.e. gravel roads. If the road has
not been surfaced with imported gravel
then the road is an earth road and the
gravel thickness is 0mm.
Sufficient Gravel - Depth of gravel > 100mm

Isolated sub-grade exposure (<25%) Depth of gravel 50 > 100mm
Moderate Sub grade exposure (25-75%) Depth of gravel 25 > 50mm
Extensive Sub-grade exposure (>75%) Depth of gravel 0 > 25mm
71
Characteristics
Material Quality
Description
If an unsealed road has been surfaced
with in imported gravel then this gravel
quality is rated along with any sub-grade
that has been exposed, in the case of an
earth road the insitu material is rated.
How to Measure
Crown Shape
Crown Shape is determined to be the

height of the center of the road above the
edge of the road. This determines the
ability of the road to shed water from it
surface.
Red Flag
Good Material Quality even size
distribution with sufficient plasticity to bind
the material no significant oversize
material
Fair Material Quality loose material or
stones clearly visible
Poor Material Quality Poor particle size
distribution with excessive oversize material
- Plasticity high enough to cause
slipperiness or low enough to cause
excessive loose material resulting in loss of
traction
Bad Material Quality Poorly distributed
range of particle sizes Zero or excessive
plasticity safety hazard Excessive
oversize
1.
Good Camber >2% crossfall no

significant ponding
2.
Flat Camber crossfall mostly >2% - some

unevenness
3.
Uneven Camber No crossfall

Depressions common and drainage
impeded
4.
Very Uneven Camber Extensive Ponding

Water tends to flow on the road
72
Characteristics
Roadside Drainage
1
Description
Roadside drainage is determined to be
the height of the side of the road above
the side drains or adjacent ground level.
This item determines the ability of the
roadside drainage to remove water away
from the side of the road. This can be
done by means of side drains, turn out
drains or by having side slopes which
lead the water away from the road
How to Measure
Red Flag
1.
2.
3.
4.
Good - Road edge well above side

drains/ground level well defined side
drains or sufficient side slopes to drain
water
Fair - Road edge level with side
drains/ground level ineffective side drains
water can cross the road in many places
Poor - Road edge slightly below ground
level no side drains or totally blocked
side drains some ponding of water
Bad - Road edge well below ground level
road serving as a drain to surrounding
areas
73
PART F-1
BRIDGE FAILURES
Bridges (including culverts) can be the weak links in a road network. These structures connect roads over waterways and provide safe access to destinations.
They must be properly maintained to keep the roads open to traffic.
I.
Item
How to Measure
IMPACT DAMAGE
Vehicle impact causes a lot of damage to

bridges. When a vehicle hits a parapet, the
parapet will be damaged. If a heavy vehicle hits
a parapet, then the main structure of the bridge
may also be damaged because of the impact.
Through-truss and through-girder bridges can
be seriously damaged by heavy vehicle impact.
For steel bridges, measure the bend.

Stretch a measuring tape on the bent
portion and take a photograph of it
with emphasis on the bend. Place the
picture on the BL Bridge Monitoring
Form and complete the necessary
details.
Red Flag
Insufficient installation of
safety signs at bridge
approach, which include
the lack of lighting fixtures,
may be several causes of
direct impact on bridges.
74
II.
RIVER DAMAGE
When a river flows very fast it picks up material

from the river bed or banks and washes it away.
This is called SCOUR. Sometimes scour causes
large holes in river beds or washes large
sections of the bank away. Many bridges have
been destroyed by scour.
Rivers can easily damage or destroy bridges.
Usually, bridges are damaged when river water
is too big to go through the waterway under the
bridge, or when the river changes its path.
If there is a flood which is too big for the
waterway under the bridge, the river may do 3
things:
1.
2.
3.
Wash away the bridge.

Wash away the road embankment and the
road, and go round the bridge.
Wash away the fill in front of the
abutments, and scour big holes in the river
bed.
Take pictures of the situation and

place them in the BL Bridge
Monitoring Form. Provide needed
information.
There are 3 reasons why a

river may not be able to go
through the waterway of a
bridge:
1.
2.
3.
A river can grow and

become too big for the
waterway.
The waterway under the
bridge can be blocked by
parts of old bridges, trees,
fences and other debris.
The waterway under the
bridge was not made big
enough.
75
PROTECTION FROM SCOUR

SLOPE PROTECTION
If the river is causing scour, then the road

embankment, the abutments and the piers can
be protected with slope protection and bed
protection
There are 4 common ways to protect a slope:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Piled walls
Stone pitching
Gabions
Riprap
Measure the length and width of the

scoured area using a measuring tape.
Take picture as you measure the
damaged portion. Be sure to take the
picture together with the tape to
provide a scale as reference. Place
the picture/s in the BL Bridge
Monitoring Form and complete
necessary details
As well as the damage caused

by water to the river bed, water
damages bridges in many
ways:
1.
3.
4.
Stone Pitching
PILED WALLS are made from timber or

steel. These timber or steel piles are
hammered into the ground at the bottom
of the slope. Sometimes the river scours
in front of the piled walls, and the walls
move forward. This is not serious if the
walls are still protecting the slope.
STONE PITCHING is stones set in mortar on

the slope. Stone pitching is a good way to
protect a slope from water running down it.
Stone pitching can be damaged by scour at the
base of the embankment, or by scour or erosion
at the edge.
NATURAL
WATER
2.
Piled Walls
OTHER
CAUSES
5.
6.
Corrosion of steel in steel

bridges
Corrosion of reinforcement or prestressing in
concrete bridges
Decay of timber
Damage to masonry or
stone pitching by water
running down it
Abutments and retaining
walls can be pushed
forward if drains are
blocked and water is held
behind the wall.
Water
running
down
embankments can wash
the fill away. This sort of
erosion can be a very
serious problem on some
types of abutment.
Good
drainage
on
the
approaches to the bridge, and
drainage and waterproofing on
the bridge, help to avoid these
problems.
76
Gabions
GABIONS (or RENO MATTRESSES) are wire
baskets filled with stones. They are often used
as slope protection because they can change
shape and settle a lot without any damage gabions are good for protecting slopes.
Riprap
RIP-RAP is large rocks or blocks of concrete

place against the slope. For rip-rap to work, the
rocks must be heavy enough not to be washed
away by river water. Stones found in the river
close to the bridge cannot be used as rip-rap.
They will not be heavy enough. If the rip-rap is
being washed away, it must be replaced with
larger rocks.
DEBRIS, DIRT AND

VEGETATION
When dirt or debris collect on a
structure they hold water, and
the
dampness
causes
deterioration, If large plants
grow in these pockets of dirt,
their roots can damage the
structure.
If debris carried by the river
collects against a pier or
abutment, it can block the
waterway. The river may then
wash
out
the
road
embankment. If large amounts
of debris collect against a pier
or the bridge superstructure,
the force of the water on the
debris can badly damage the
bridge.
77
BED PROTECTION
Sometimes, to protect the bridge from scour,
part or all of the bed of the river at the bridge is
covered with stone pitching, concrete or gabions
(or reno mattresses).
When all of the river bed under a bridge is
covered by bed protection, the bed protection is
called an INVERT. For fast flowing rivers, it is
sometimes necessary to carry this bed
protection a long way downstream of the bridge
or culvert. Bed protection carried downstream of
a bridge is called APRON.
Measure the length and width of the

scoured area using a measuring tape.
Take picture as you measure the
damaged portion. Be sure to take the
picture together with the tape to
provide a scale as reference. Place
the picture/s in the BL Bridge
Monitoring Form and complete
necessary details
EARTHQUAKES
Bridges
are
sometimes
damaged by earthquakes.
There are 2 common types of
damage
caused
by
earthquakes:
1.
2.
Foundation
failure
causing movement of the
abutment or piers
The
superstructure
moving off its supports.
Some
bridges
in
earthquake zones have
the superstructure held
down to stop it falling off.
78
RIVER TRAINING WORKS
River training works are used to keep a river on

its path.
There are 4 common ways of river training:
1.
2.
3.
Sheet piled walls of steel or timber

Embankment protected by rip-rap or
gabions
Trees protected by gabions
GROYNES are lines of piles or gabions which

are placed part way across the river from the
river bank.
If trees can grow, their roots help to keep the
bank in place. Gabions are commonly used to
protect the young trees.
River training works can be made of many
different types of material and with different
methods of construction. If you are not sure
about the methods used in your district, ask the
engineer.
LANDSLIDES
Another danger to bridges is
landslides. If there is a
landslide which blocks the river
upstream from a bridge, the
water will build up behind it.
After some time the river may
break through and wash the
bridge away. This does not
often happen, but it is always
helpful to talk to local people
when inspecting a bridge. They
can tell about changes in the
river that one might not see
from the bridge site.
Another danger to bridges is
landslides. If there is a
landslide which blocks the river
upstream from a bridge, the
water will build up behind it.
After some time the river may
break through and wash the
bridge away. This does not
often happen, but it is always
helpful to talk to local people
when inspecting a bridge. They
can tell about changes in the
river that one might not see
from the bridge site.
79
III. BRIDGE FAILURES

CONCRETE BRIDGES
There are 5 main problems with concrete on

bridges:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
CRACKING OF
CONCRETE
Cracking of the concrete

Spalling of concrete
Corrosion of reinforcement or prestressing steel
Poor quality concrete
Chemical attack
Most problems with concrete come from water

and air getting into the concrete. Water and air
together can cause reinforcement or prestressing steel to corrode, but good concrete
can protect the steel. Sometimes water and air
can carry chemicals which damage the
concrete, or corrode the steel more quickly.
Most concrete has cracks in it. Large cracks are
always important, but fine cracks may not be a
problem.
Measure the length of the crack and

its width. Record the measurements
in the Remarks box in the BL
Bridge Monitoring Form-2, together
with the picture on the right side box.
Complete all necessary details in the
form.
If deck drains are not

properly made and water
can get down the side of
the drain, or through the
concrete
around
the
drain, then the beams
underneath
may
be
damaged
if water can lay on a
concrete bridge deck, it
will get into the concrete.
For example a blocked
drain can keep water on
the deck, which can
cause a lot of damage to
the concrete.
80
2.
3.
SPALLING OF
CONCRETE
CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT OR
PRESTRESSING STEEL
Spalling means that some of the concrete has

fallen away from the structure.
Determine the affected area by

measuring its length and width using
a measuring tape. Write down the
measurements (possibly with a
sketch) on the space provided for in
the BL Bridge Monitoring Form. Take
pictures as you measure the affected
area. Place the pictures on the form.
This Is the most important problem with

concrete bridges. This can cause the bridge to
fail.

Fill up all necessary information
needed.
Spalling
is
commonly
caused by corrosion of the
reinforcement. When steel
corrodes, the rust is much
thicker than the original
steel. So when a steel bar
corrodes inside concrete, it
breaks pieces of concrete
away.
Corrosion can be caused by:
Signs that the reinforcement may be corroding

are:
1.
2.
3.
You can see the reinforcement at the

surface of the concrete
You can see cracks or rust stains along a
line where you think there is reinforcement
You can see the areas where concrete has
spalled.
1.
2.
3.
Not enough concrete

around the reinforcement
A
break
in
the
reinforcement due to
serious cracking, spalling
or honeycombing.
Poor quality concrete
Corrosion will happen more

quickly when the concrete is in,
or near, salt water.
81
4.
POOR QUALITY CONCRETE
Honeycombing is an indicator of
poor quality concrete
5.
CHEMICAL ATTACK
It is not easy to know if the concrete is poor

without special tests. But if water can get into
the top surface of a deck, you may see
dampness on the bottom of the bridge deck.
This can mean that the concrete is poor or that
the drainage is bad. Whatever the cause, water
should be stopped. If the water is not stopped,
the deck reinforcement will corrode very soon.
Honeycombing is caused during construction
when the wet concrete does not flow properly
and air gets trapped. If there is honeycombing,
then the concrete cover to the reinforcement will
be much thinner than it should be, and the
reinforcement may corrode quickly.
If chemicals are damaging the concrete, the

surface of the damaged concrete might feel soft
or there may be lots of small hollows in the
surface of the concrete. If you think that the
concrete is being damaged by chemicals write a
note to the engineer.

needed.
There are 3 problems to look

for with poor quality concrete:
1.
2.
3.
Water and air can go

through the concrete too
easily.
You can see large holes
on the surface of the
concrete, these hole are
called honeycombing
Chemicals, which you can
not see, in streams or
rivers may damage the
concrete

needed.
82
STEEL BRIDGES
1.
Deterioration of Paint and

Galvanizing
Paint or galvanizing does not last for many

years. When paint or galvanizing deteriorates,
the steelwork needs new protection. Painted
steelwork needs new protection. Painted
steelwork can be painted again, and the
galvanized steelwork can be painted with a zincrich paint, or some other paint made for
galvanized steel. Before the steelwork can be
painted again, the old paint or galvanizing must
be very well cleaned and all rust removed, or the
new paint will not last long.

needed.
Galvanizing deteriorates by corrosion of the

zinc. If you see white spots on the surface of the
zinc then it is corroding.
Paint deteriorates when the

steel starts to rust. Often, the
first signs of failure are small
spots of rust in the paint
surface. These spots of rust
allow water to get under the
rest of the paint. This causes
more rust and the paint starts
to come off. Paint deteriorates
more quickly where the paint is
thin, e.g. at corners or sharp
edges in steelwork. Chemicals
in the air (from factories) can
also cause paint deterioration
to happen quickly.
If the paint or galvanizing on a
steel bridge is not properly
maintained the steel will rust.
2.
Corrosion (Rust)
Corrosion, or rust, is a chemical change which

happens to steel when it is in contact with air
and moisture.
If corrosion becomes very bad, the edge of the
steel plate can look as if it has split into thin
layers. This is called lamination. When this
happens, the steel has no strength left. It is very
serious and needs immediate attention from the
engineering district.

needed.
Usually the worst corrosion

happens under the deck. Here
there is often water from
condensation and sometimes
from poor deck drainage and
other debris, such as birds
nests, hold the water against
the steel. Bird droppings cause
corrosion.
Corrosion of steel parts such
as rivets and bolts.
83
3.
Loose or Broken Fixings
4.
Cracking of Steel
Steel parts are joined by fixings such as rivets

and bolts, or by welding the parts together. All
rivets and bolts must be tight and not broken. If
there is corrosion between two pieces of steel
which are fixed together, the fixings can break.
This is because rust is mush thicker than the
steel it comes from.
Take pictures of the damaged steel

parts. Place the picture on the space
provided for in the BL Bridge
Monitoring
Form
and
provide
necessary details.
Sometimes, but not often, steel members crack.

This can be caused by many heavy loads
crossing the bridge, or by problems with welds,
or by faults in the steel. Look carefully near
welds, holes, etc. This is where cracks can start.
Measure the length of the crack and

its width. Record the measurements
in the Remarks box in the BL
Bridge Monitoring Form-2, together
with the picture on the right side box.
Complete all necessary details in the
form.
A crack often has a thin line of

rust along it.
84
TIMBER BRIDGES
1.
Decay makes the timber go soft and loose its

strength.
Decay
The surveyor should look carefully at those
places on the bridge which are in contact with
both water and air. For example:
1.
2.
3.
Parts in contact with the ground (piles,

ends of beams, logs, etc.);
Places where dirt, debris and water collect
and vegetation grows (bridge deck and
joints in a truss)
Around fixings. Water can sometimes get
to the middle of the timber through holes
for fixings. It will be difficult to see this type
of decay.

needed.
Decay is caused by a
fungus which attacks damp
wood.
Sometimes,
timber
is
treated with chemicals to
prevent decay and insect
attack. The chemical will
not go into the middle of
the timber so, even if the
timber is good, decay may
still happen in the middle.
Around splits in the timber. Splits are common

and will only lead to decay if water can stay in
them.
Split 1 will cause decay, water will

not go into split 2
85
2. Insect Attack
Holes and tunnels in timber made by insects or

worms can seriously weaken a bridge. Insect
holes have dust in them or near them. A few
small holes (less than 5mm diameter) are not
usually serious. If there are many larger holes,
the problem is serious.

needed.
A number of insects attack

timber. The most damaging are
forest longhorn beetles, which
make large holes, and termites,
which make large tunnels
through the timber. If you see
termite nests near a timber
bridge you will know there is a
danger of attack to the bridge.
In salt water, a worm called the
teredo can attack any area
below the high tide level.
Teredo worms make large
holes and can cause very
serious damage. You must
check all piers and piles in salt
water.
86
PART F-2:
DITCHES AND DRAINS

Defect
Obstruction
Main Causes (MC) /

Consequences (C)
MC : Vegetation growth, bushes,
fallen tress, debris, loose silt,
loose rocks
C
Silting
Remedies
Take pictures of the defect. Place the

pictures on the BL Drainage Monitoring
Form and fill up all necessary
information needed.
Clearing and Cleaning

information needed.
Deepen ditch (desilting), and/or provide

new mitre drains (turnouts)
: Blockage of ditch
MC : Invert slope is too flat, the water

cannot flow at sufficient speed
C
How to measure
: Blockage of ditch
Where deepening or turnouts are not

possible because of topography, the
construction of a new culvert with a
drop-inlet may be possible, in order to
discharge water onto the other side of
the road.
87
Ponding in ditch and on shoulder
MC : The ditch cross-section is too

small
The ditch gradient is too flat
C
Ditch lining is damaged

information needed.
Deepen ditch

information needed.
Repair lining.
Provide new mitre drain
: The shoulder material

becomes soft and can easily
erode. The pavement can also
be flooded and thereby
weakened
MC : Poor construction
workmanship
Soil settlement, erosion of soil
under ditch lining
Realign drain.
Poor alignment or sudden

change in flow direction.
C :
When flowing water reaches

the soil protected by the lining,
erosion starts. The amount of
soil washed away increases,
the lining is further damaged
by loss of support, leading to
complete destruction of the
lining.
88
Erosion at drain outfall
MC : Flow too fast

Flow too concentrated, for the
soil at the outfall to resist.
C
: Erosion will continue back into

the ditch and increase the
area of the outfall. The erosion
may eventually threaten the
road as well as the
surrounding land.

information needed.
Reduce water flow and speed by:

Realign drain to flatter
gradient
Provide new mitre drain,
upstream from the existing.
Reduce impact of outfall by:
Construct cascade
Construct flow spreader
Erosion control for soil:
Turfing
Wattling
Stone pitching
89
PART F-3:
CULVERTS
Defect
Silting, sanding, blockage by debris
Main Causes (MC) /

Consequences (C)
MC : Invert slope too flat
Culvert constructed too low, so
that material from the stream
bed becomes deposited in the
culvert
How to measure

information needed.
Erosion of stream bed at culvert

outlet
Clearing and cleaning

If floating debris is a problem, the
provision of debris rack should be
considered.
If the culvert regularly silts up:
Reconstruct at correct level
and fall
Vegetation and floating debris

carried by water have become
lodged in the culvert.
C
Remedies
: The intended waterway opening

will be so reduced that flood
water cannot flow. It will backup or pond on the upstream
side of the culvert and may
eventually over-flow the road
embankment. The road is then
in danger of being washed
away.
MC : The culvert invert has been

constructed too steep so that
the water flows too fast

information needed.
Erosion repair
Construct outfall basin
The
culvert
has
been
constructed too flat with an
excessive drop at the outfall
(these
are
design
or
construction mistakes).
90
: The stream bed is washed away

and a pool or ravine develops.
The culvert downstream head
and wingwalls and even a
section of the culvert and road
embankment can collapse into
the pool or ravine.
91
PART F-4:
MANHOLES AND DRAINAGE PIPES

Defect
Water is flowing up at manhole
Main Causes (MC) /

Consequences (C)
How to measure
Remedies
MC : The manhole or connected

underground pipes are blocked
and water cannot flow as
intended

information needed.
Clear manhole and underground pipes.

information needed.
Replace manhole cover or grating.
C :
Flooding of road shoulder or

carriageway
Drainage system becomes
ineffective, danger of earth slip
or weakening of pavement
Manhole cover or grating is

missing/damaged
MC :
Accident, vandalism.
Open manholes become a

danger to people and animals.
Vegetation and debris have
uncontrolled access and
blockage can occur.
92
The manhole is covered with soil

and vegetation
MC : Silting of the ground area at

manhole; manhole cover level
possibly set too low.
C
The catchpit sump is completely

silted up

information needed.
Clear manhole area.

information needed.
Clean catchpit sump.
Possible blockage of the

drainage system at the
manhole, due to an
undetected accumulation of
silt in the manhole.
MC : Silt and debris collecting in the

sump has not been removed
sufficiently regularly.
C : Possible blockage of the
drainage system at the
catchpit, or down stream due
to a build up of silt or debris.
93
PART G.
SLOPE PROTECTION
Slope protection methods are designed specifically to combat slope erosion and shallow slope failure up to a depth of about 0.5 meter. Methods of slope
protection comprise drainage control and surface treatments for soil and weathered rock that include masonry revetments, the use of vegetation and less
conventional slope coverings including geo-textiles, bituminous fabrics and gunite / shotcretes.
Item
1.
EMBANKMENT
How to Measure
Red Flag
Embankment erosion starts very often at

the road shoulder edge, where the level
of compaction tends to be relatively low,
rather than on the slope surface.
Estimate the affected area by

measuring the length and height
of the damage/failure using a
measuring tape. Take pictures as
you take measurements so as to
provide a scale of the damaged
area. Place the pictures on the
space provided for in the BL
Bridge
Monitoring
Form-2.
Provide the necessary details in
the form.
Revegetation is most rapidly achieved

by planting with grass slips, by
spreading of collected top soil
containing roots and seeds or by
sodding.
Well-graded soils with some

cohesive fractions offer better
erosion resistance than single-sized
n n-cohesive soils.
One of the most effective ways to control
erosion on embankments and on natural
slopes below a road is to take reasonable
precautions to prevent its initiation.
Avoid
concentration
of
runoff
wherever possible
Avoid disturbing the natural ground
outside the areas to be used for
construction
Do not allow natural plants to track
natural ground in an uncontrolled
manner
Grass slip planting is frequently the

most effective.
Erosion of embankment slopes can also
be prevented to some extent by careful
selection of material in which the
embankment is constructed.
Embankment erosion is usually initiated
as a result of one or more factors:
The side slope is too steep or too
long for the embankment materials
to withstand erosion.
Embankment materials have not
been compacted to specifications.
94
2. CUT SLOPES
Every effort should be made to

prevent spoil from being dumped
outside the limits of designated spoil
areas. Spoil is highly erodible it
can smother vegetation and serve to
concentrate flow sufficiently to initiate
erosion.
Do not allow runoff to discharge,
either temporarily or permanently,
onto unprotected natural ground,
other than in pre-existing drainage
channels.
Usually, factors of cost, availability of

materials and practicality will limit the
selection of measures to those that can
be applied on a low-technology, laborintensive basis. It is apparent that a
number of measures may be required to
solve each problem. These often involve
a combination of slope trimming, slope
support, revetment, slope drainage, and
vegetation applications. Many of these
measures will be applicable to the
prevention and control of slope erosion as
well as to the stabilization of shallow
slope failures.
Concentrated
permitted to
shoulder.
road
drain
runoff
is
over the
Estimate the affected area by

measuring the length and height
of the damage/failure using a
measuring tape. Take pictures as
you take measurements so as to
provide a scale of the damaged
area. Place the pictures on the
space provided for in the BL
Bridge
Monitoring
Form-2.
Provide the necessary details in
the form.
95
3.
BIO-ENGINEERING
Bio-engineering is the use of living plants,

either alone or in conjunction with
engineering structures and non-living
plant material, to reduce erosion and
shallow-seated instability on slopes.
The presence of a vegetation cover

protects the soil against rain splash
and erosion, and prevents the
movement of soil particles down
slope under the action of gravity.
Vegetation
increases
the
soil
infiltration capacity, helping to reduce
the volume of runoff.
Plant roots bind the soil and can
increase
resistance
to
failure,
especially in the case of loose,
disturbed soila and fills.
Plants
transpire
considerable
quantities of water, reducing soil
moisture and increasing soil suction.
Planting
schemes should,
if
possible,
be
undertaken
in
cooperation with local farmers, to
keep grazing of newly-planted sites
under control and to minimize the
effects of soil saturation and runoff
from farmland above road cuttings.
Concentrated seepage or runoff
from irrigated land is a common
cause of slope failure, even on
slopes that have well established
cover of vegetation.
96
PART H.
SURVEY FORMS
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
Project Management
Project Management refers to a discipline that involves planning,
organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful
completion of specific project goals and objectives. It aims to
achieve all of the project goals and objectives while adhering to
classic project constraints, usually scope, quality, time, and budget.
In addition, it aims to meet the pre-defined objectives that use
resources (money, people, materials, energy, space, provisions,
communication, motivation, etc.) to achieve the project goals and
objectives.
assigned whose compensation is part of the annual appropriations

of the Department.
Duties of the Consultant
1. Carryout the consultancy services based on sound engineering
theories and practices.
2. Accept full responsibility for the consulting services agreement
and is held liable by the Agency (DPWH).
3. Perform the work in an efficient and diligent manner.
The Creation of the DPWH Project Management Office

4. Keep accurate and systematic records.
In 1974, the Presidential Decree No. 458 created the Department of
Public Works and Highways. On the same year, an Administrative
Order establishing a Special Project Service (SPS) was issued. The
SPS is responsible for the formulation and development of all
projects financed by IBRD, ADB, PJHL, Australia and other
government and foreign lending institutions.
In 1981, President Ferdinand E. Marcos issued an Executive Order
empowering the DPWH to establish a Project Management Office.
The need for a PMO was rationalized to provide a more responsive
organization to handle the stringent and often peculiar requirements
of the foreign lending institutions.
The PMO supervises and/or oversees the effective implementation
of
projects
authorized
by
the
relevant
financing
agreements/memoranda of understanding and other financial
documents delineating project dimensions. Personnel services and
other operating expenses of the PMO are funded by the project
itself except the Director, Assistant Director, and Project Managers
5. Submit monthly progress report and any information that may

be requested by the agency.
6. Also acts as the Engineer of the project representing the
owner in the execution of the works to be undertaken. As the
designated engineer, the Consultant is also expected to
administer the contract with fairness and firmness in
accordance with plans and specifications.
Specific Tasks of the Consultant

Tendering Assistance
1. Assist the DPWH Project
Management Office (PMO) to
conduct pre-bid conference and
pre-bid site inspection for
interested contractors.
Construction Stage
1.
Represent the DPWH PMO as

the Engineer of the project.
The Consultant shall supervise
the construction in accordance
with approved construction
plans and specification. The
2. Prepare for approval and issue

by DPWH any necessary
revision
to
the
tender
documents.
3. Assists in the opening of bids,
tabulate and evaluate the bids
received, prepare evaluation
and
recommendation
for
contract awards.
4. Prepare standard forms and
reporting formats.
5. Prepare and compile all
documents for a complete
construction
contract
for
approval.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Consultant shall fully inspect

and only accepts works that is
complete and in accordance
with specifications.
Monitor
the
Contractors
performance to ensure that the
Contractor carries out its
responsibilities
under
the
contract.
Furnish all necessary ground
and topographic data for the
establishment
of
road
alignment and date.
Review and recommend for
approval the Contractors work
schedule.
Prepare
a
disbursement schedule and
submit to DPWH.
Assess the adequacy of the
materials,
labor,
and
equipment provided by the
Contractor in its Bid. Regularly
update the Contractors list of
equipment
to
ensure
compliance as submitted in its
bid.
Inspect and evaluate all
installations,
housing,
warehouses,
and
other
accommodations
in
compliance with the terms and
conditions of the contract.
Prepare and submit reports to
DPWH periodically as required
on the progress of work.
Contractors
performance,
quality of works and the project
financial status.
Prepare
and
maintain
inspection and engineering
reports
and
records
to
document the progress and
performance of the work.
9. Review and approve all
working
drawings,
shop
drawings, erection drawings,
and drawing for temporary
works.
10. Organize and operate a
materials laboratory and fieldtesting of materials to assure
that the quality of work as
required by the plans and
specifications are obtained.
11. Inspect the safety facilities in
the construction works to
ensure that safety measure
has been taken to protect life
and property.
12. When the project is completed
conduct
the
necessary
inspection,
specify
and
supervise remedial works to be
carried out before the issuance
of
the
Certificate
of
Completion. Recommend to
DPWH the final inspection and
acceptance of the project.
8.
Environmental Management Duties of the Consultant

1. The Consultant shall oversee that the project site is and its
surrounding is free from adverse environmental pollution
through the environmental and evaluation survey done by the
Contractor.
2. The Consultant shall conduct a profiling of the present
environmental condition to form as the baseline which shall
include water quality, air quality, noise and vibration, and solid
waste management.
3. The Consultant shall closely monitor the strict compliance of the
Project to the conditions stated in the Environmental
Compliance Certificate (ECC) throughout the consultancy
service period
2. Assistance in review and strengthening of livelihood programs

for the PAFs.
a. Prepare socio-economic profile of PAFs after resettlement.
b. Conduct consultation with the PAFs for the preparation of
livelihood program.
c. Review livelihood program of local government or other
agencies if any and prepare a revised program showing the
actual needs of the PAFs.
d. Form a task force with concerned local government units,
NGOs and other entities for a livelihood program for the
PAFs.
e. Prepare and conduct workshop on the propose livelihood.
4. The Consultant shall prepare and implement the Environment

Management/Monitoring Plan (EMP). It shall assist in organizing
a Multipartite Monitoring Team (MMT) to oversee the
compliance of the EMP.
Implementation of Resettlement Action Plan
1. Assist in the relocation of project affected families (PAF)
including but not limited to the following:
a. Transfer of PAFs including issuance of notice, preparation,
and processing of relocation documents, dismantling,
transportation to the relocation sites and initial living
allowance.
b. Monitor the living condition of the relocation site.
Contract Administration
Contract Administration Duties of
Representative and the Inspector
Engineer
1. Strict
compliance
with
the
specifications The
Engineer shall fully
inspect and accept
work
that
is
complete and in
strict
compliance
with specifications.
2. Monitoring
the
Contractors
responsibility The
Engineer
shall
ensure that the
Contractor carries
out
his
responsibilities are
met. Such action
may
include
suspension of work
or
withholding
payment.
3. Measurement and
payment
(a)
recommend
for
payment all work
performed
in
accordance
with
the contract and is
the Engineer, Engineers
Engineers
Representative
1. Watch
and
supervise
the
work.
2. Test and examine
any material to be
used
for
workmanship
employed
in
connection with the
work.
3. The Engineer may
from time to time
delegate in writing
any of the powers
and
authorities
vested
to
the
Engineer
and
furnish
the
Contractor a copy
of such delegation.
Inspectors
1. Inspect all work
done
and
materials
furnished.
2. Inspect
the
preparation,
fabrication
or
manufacturing of
materials to be
used.
responsible for its

measurement, (b)
supervise
the
Contractors
personnel required
to assist in the
measurement, (c)
all
measurement
must be accurately
recorded for review
of the DPWH, and
(d) If there us a
deviation in the
measurement of an
item of work from
the contract which
affects
the
structural integrity
of the work or the
safety of its users.
The Engineer in his
monthly report will
withhold payment
for this work.
Authorization for Addition/Deletion and Revision in the Bill of

Quantities
Definition of Terminologies:
1. Revised Bill of Quantities the bill of quantities in the tender
documents are preliminary engineering measurements and
estimates. The accuracy of the preliminary estimates is
generally less than those taken during stake out. These stake
bills of quantities shall be used for payment until the final bill of
quantities submitted in the preliminary turn over.
2. Overruns due to differing subsurface or physical condition at

the site adjustment will be necessary during construction.
3. Changes changes must be authorized in a written Change
Order or Extra Work Order for approval by the DPWH.
4. Disputes and Claims if a dispute or difference between the
Government of the Engineer and the Contractor in connection
with or arising from the Contract it shall first be referred to and
settled by the Engineer within ninety (90) days. If the
Government or the Contractor is dissatisfied by the decision of
the Engineer has not become final and binding within the
specified time when the matter could be referred to arbitration
and settled under the Rules of the Construction Industry
Arbitration Law.
5. Sub-contracting permission in writing prior to subcontract a
portion of the work must be submitted by the Contractor to the
Engineer. The Engineer shall monitor the Contractors work
force and payrolls. The Contractor must perform work totaling
not less than fifty (50) percent of the total contract cost. The
request to sub-contract must include the proposed subcontractor; include the proposed list of items and the value to be
contracted. The Prime Contractor shall not permit his Subcontractor to commence work before DPWH approval. The
Contractor shall remain fully responsible to the DPWH for all the
works regardless of the approved subcontracting.
Preconstruction Conference, Prosecution and Progress

Definition of Terminologies:
1. Possession of Site upon the approval of the contract the

Engineer will prepare and issue the possession of site to the
Contractor.
2. Pre-construction Conference the purpose of the conference is
to discuss the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
Plans and Specifications of the Project

Unusual condition
Contractors Plan and Schedule of Operation
Type and Adequacy of Equipment
Sources of Labor and Labor Requirements
Maintenance of Traffic
Requirements for Traffic Control
Contractors Responsibilities for Accident Prevention
Plan for Implementing Provision for Safety Requirements
Materials Sources and Testing Requirements
Sub-contracting Requirements
3. Prosecution and Progress of Work In the prosecution of the

work the following has to be followed:
a. Contractor has to submit a detailed work program indicating
labor, equipment, materials, and schedule he intends to
follow to complete the project within the contract time.
b. The Engineer will compare the actual progress with the
progress anticipated in the program of work.
c. If the Contractor is behind on any or all portion of the work
he shall be notified by the Engineer. The Engineer in
notifying the Contractor of his progress lag may request the
Contractor to procure additional equipment or accelerate by
other means.
Construction Survey
d. The Contractor shall be fully responsible for all additional

costs for accelerating the progress of work.
e. The Contractor shall at all times consider the safety and
convenience of the public by providing safe detours
constructed with signs, barricades, warning lights, and other
traffic control devices.
4. Extension of Contract Time
a. The Contractor performs extra or additional work or if new
circumstances occur.
b. To compensate for working days lost due to causes beyond
the Contractors control such as unusually severe weather,
right-of-way, or utility delay.
c. The Contractor should submit a written request to the
Engineer for an extension of a specified number of days with
sufficient proof to establish his claim.
d. The Engineer shall determine the amount of such extension
and recommend for approval by the DPWH.
e. The Engineer shall keep exact records of the cause of delay
and the extent of the delay in the Contractors total and
individual operation. This is critical especially in the case of
delay to one construction operation that may affect other
construction activities.
1. The Contractor is
required to furnish
all
labor,
equipment,
and
materials
necessary for the
as stake survey
under the direct
supervision of the
Engineer.
2. Supervision
and
approval of the
Engineer does not
relieve
the
Contractor of his
responsibility
for
the accuracy of the
survey.
3. The original ground
survey field books
signed by both the
Engineer and the
Contractor shall be
turned over to the
DPWH
4. The Engineer is
responsible
for
establishing
references to all
control points.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Inspection and
Testing
Work performed or
materials
used
without the required
supervision
or
inspection of the
Engineer or his
representative shall
be
subject
to
rejection
and
removal,
and
replace
at
the
Contractors
expense.
Request
of
inspection must be
submitted 24 hours
in advance to the
Engineer.
Work
to
be
covered up must be
approved
and
inspected
before
covering.
Sampling required
by the Contract
shall be performed
in the presence of
the Engineer or his
representative.
Acceptance and
Rejection
1. When
the
Engineer finds the
work performed is
not in conformity
with the plans and
specification and
resulted to an
inferior
and
unsatisfactory
product,
the
Contractor
will,
when ordered by
the
Engineer,
remove
and
replace or correct
the rejected work
at
his
own
expense.
2. The Engineer shall
make
partial
acceptance
of
portions of the
work which his
inspection
and
testing fully met
the requirements
of the contract.
3. Final acceptance
of the works is by
the DPWH after
the
warranty
period
of
360
days.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Extracts from the text may be reproduced

International Road Maintenance Handbook

Overseas Road Note 7

ROCOND2007 (DPWH version)

Low-Volume Roads Engineering

Distress Identification Manual for the

Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a

Handbook for Rural Road Maintenance

The following are responsible for the completion of the procedures

Bantay Lansangan Secretariat:

Consultant Team, GHD Pty Ltd:

Transparency and Accountability Network (TAN)

Telefax: +632 434-0525 / mobile: +63922 826-6774 / email:

THE DPWH AND THE PHILIPPINE

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

SURVEY FORMS ADVOCACY AND

PROCEDURES MANUAL FOR

1. What is the Road Watch (Bantay Lansangan) Project?

The AusAID-funded Philippines-Australia Partnership for Economic

4. How should you use this manual?

The manual is divided into five parts and each part is

5. What are the parts of this manual?

Part B The DPWH and the Philippine National Road

The five parts and the contents of each part are:

Part F Bridge Failures. Right after the road construction

THE DPWH AND THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL

In relation to this mandate, the DPWH functions as the

1. The DPWH: Its Mandate and Function

The DPWH organization (see organizational chart) has more

Engineering Offices (MEOs) are in-charge of maintaining

Figure 1. The DPWH Organizational Structure

On the other hand, down to the organizational structure in

The overall Philippine Road Network accounts for more than

Length of National Roads by Classification

Figure 2. The Philippine National Road Network

According to the DPWH, paved roads represent more than

permanent bridges, there are 6,325 concrete bridges

Length of National Roads by Surface Type

Number and Length of National Permanent Bridges

With regard to national bridges, there are a total of 7,744

Meanwhile, there are 859 temporary bridges nationwide. Of

Number and Length of National Temporary Bridges

Basic Mathematical concepts and Calculations

The total length of the road is usually given in kilometers

The volume of liquid is normally measured in liters (l). The

Typical Shapes areas and volumes

If a concrete mixture contains 25 kg of cement and 125 liters

Volume of material is almost always measured in cubic

The term percentage is made up of two words per and

When producing the drawings for the construction of a road

Site plan 1:50,000

(The different horizontal and vertical scales are used to be

Cross section 1:50

(This means that on the plan 1 cm = 50 cm on the ground =

A scale is written as:

Surface Condition Matrix for Visual Monitoring

Surface Condition Matrix for Visual Monitoring

Surface Condition Matrix for Visual Monitoring