TASK 01

Contents

Page No

The processor

02

Backing storage

03

Computer hardware peripherals

08

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THE PROCESSOR
A computers processor, also known as its central processing unit (CPU), is one of
the biggest hardware factors affecting the computers performance. Processors
have a number of different specifications and statistics that factor into their speed,
but many users dont fully understand what they mean.

Factors That Affect Processor Performance

The most important factors affecting processor performance are:

1. Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS)

It is a method of measuring the raw speed of a computer's processor. Since the
MIPS measurement doesn't take into account other factors such as the computer's
I/O speed or processor architecture, it isn't always a fair way to measure the
performance of a computer. For example, a computer rated at 100 MIPS may be
able to computer certain functions faster than another computer rated at 120
MIPS.

2. Clock Rate
Also called clock speed, a processors clock rate is a measure of how many
instructions the processor can execute in one second. Clock rate is measured in
megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). One hundred MHz is one hundred million
operations per second. Equal processors with faster clock speeds process data
faster than those with slower clock speeds.

3. Bandwidth
Measured in bits, the bandwidth determines how much information the processor
can process in one instruction. If you were to compare data flow to the flow of
traffic on a highway, then clock speed would be the speed limit, and bandwidth
would be the number of lanes on the highway.
Most existing desktop computer systems today run on 32-bit processors, but
almost all new PC's are coming equipped with 64-bit chips and operating systems.
It makes sense to design your new computer around a multi-core, 64-bit CPU, like
the Athlon 64 X2 or the Intel Core2 Quad.

4. Front Side Bus (FSB) Speed

The FSB is the interface between the processor and the system memory. As such,
the FSB speed limits the rate at which data can get to the CPU, which in turn
limits the rate at which the CPU can process that data. The CPU's FSB speed
determines the maximum speed at which it can transfer data to the rest of the
system.
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Other factors affecting data transfer rates include the system clock speed, the
motherboard chipset, and the RAM speed.

5. Cache Size
Processors get their data from the computer's Random Access Memory (RAM).
As the data pours in, the processor copies it and sends it to a "cache." The cache
acts as a temporary information way station. It makes commonly or recently used
data readily available to save the processor from having to retrieve it from RAM.
The larger the cache, the more of this easy-to-access memory the processor can
use.

6. Multi-core Processors
Many modern processors have more than one core. Each core effectively serves as
another processor, able to perform functions simultaneously with the other cores.
A 133 MHz dual-core processor can actually perform 266 million operations per
second.

BACKING STORAGE
Backing storage (sometimes known as secondary storage) devices are where can
store data permanently. They are non-volatile, which means that even when the
computer is switched off, the data will still be safe and can be loaded onto a
computer system when required.

Accessing Stored Data

Whenever Save a file, burn files to a CD-R, copy music onto MP3 player, or
drag and drop a file onto memory stick, we are using storage devices - devices that
can store and retrieve data. The data is accessed in two ways.

Serial / Sequential Access:

A serial (or sequential) access storage device is one that stores files one-byone in a sequence. Systems that store things on tape (video, music, computer
data, etc.) are always serial access.

Direct / Random Access:

A direct (or random) access storage device is one that stores files so that they
can be instantly accessed - there is no need to search through other files to get
to the one which want. An example of a direct access device would be a DVD
movie. Unlike the VHS video-tape movie, it can jump to any scene on a
DVD.

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Storage Media & Devices

The device that actually holds the data is known as the storage medium. The
device that saves data onto the storage medium, or reads data from it, is known as
the storage device.
Sometimes the storage medium is a fixed (permanent) part of the storage device,
e.g. the magnetic coated discs built into a hard drive
Sometimes the storage medium is removable from the device, e.g. a CD-ROM can
be taken out of a CD drive.

1. Hard Drives
Hard-drives have a very large storage capacity (up to 5TB). They can be used to
store vast amounts of data. Hard-drives are random access devices and can be
used to store all types of films, including huge files such as movies. Data access
speeds are very fast. Data is stored inside a hard-drive on rotating metal or glass
discs (called platters).

Fixed Hard Drive:

A hard-drive built into the case of a computer is known as fixed. Almost
every computer has a fixed hard-drive. Fixed hard-drives act as the main
backing storage device for almost all computers since they provide almost
instant access to files (random access and high access speeds).

Portable Hard Drive:

Portable Hard Drive is one that is placed into a small case along with some
electronics that allow the hard-drive to be accessed using a USB or similar
connection. Portable hard-drives allow very large amounts of data to be
transported from computer to computer.

2. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a large capacity, serial access medium. Because it is a serial
access medium, accessing individual files on a tape is slow. Tapes are used where
large amounts of data need to be stored, but where quick access to individual
files is not required. A typical use is for data back-up (lots of data, but rarely only
accessed in an emergency).

3. Magnetic Discs

Floppy Disc:
Floppy disc is removable, portable, cheap, low-capacity (1.44MB) storage
medium. Floppy discs are random access devices used for transfer small

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amounts of data between computers, or to back-up small files, etc. Access

times are slow. Almost every PC used to have a floppy disc drive.
Zip Disc:
Zip Disc is a removable and portable storage medium, similar in appearance to
a floppy disk, but with a much higher capacity (100MB, 250MB or 750MB).
Zip discs are random access devices which were used for data back-up or
moving large files between computers. Another obsolete storage device, zip
discs were a popular replacement for floppy discs for a few years, but they
never caught on fully before being superseded by cheaper media like CDROMs and CD-Rs.

4. Optical Discs
Optical discs save data as patterns of dots that can be read using light. A laser
beam is the usual light source.
The data on the disc is read by bouncing the laser beam off the surface of the
medium. If the beam hits a dot it is reflected back differently to how it would be
if there was no dot. This difference can be detected, so the data can be read.
Dots can be created using the laser beam (for media that is writable such as CDRs). The beam is used in a high-power mode to actually mark the surface of the
medium, making a dot. This process is known as burning data onto a disc.

A. Read-Only Optical Discs

Read-only optical discs have data written onto them when they are
manufactured. This data cannot be changed.

CD-ROM:
Compact Disc - Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) discs can hold around
800MB of data. The data cannot be altered (non-volatile), so cannot be
accidentally deleted. CD-ROMs are random-access devices. CD-ROMs are
used to distribute all sorts of data: software (e.g. office applications or
games), music, electronic books (e.g. an encyclopedia with sound and video.)

DVD-ROM:
Digital Versatile Disc - Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM) discs can hold
around 4.7GB of data (a dual-layer DVD can hold twice that). DVD-ROMs
are random-access devices. DVD-ROMs are used in the same way as CDROMs (see above) but, since they can hold more data, they are also used to
store high-quality video.

B. Recordable Optical Discs

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Recordable optical discs can have data written onto them (burnt) by a
computer user using a special disc drive (a disc burner).

CD-R and DVD-R:

CD-Recordable (CD-R) and DVD-recordable (DVD-R) discs can have data
burnt onto them, but not erased. You can keep adding data until the disc is
full, but you cannot remove any data or re-use a full disc.

CD-RW and DVD-RW:

CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) and DVD-ReWritable (DVD-RW) discs, unlike
CD-Rs and DVD-Rs, can have data burnt onto them and also erased so that
the discs can be re-used.

DVD-RAM:
DVD-Random Access Memory (DVD-RAM) discs are a type of re-writable
DVD. They often come in a floppy-disc style case (to protect the disc).
DVD-RAM discs have a similar capacity to a normal DVD, holding 4.7GB of
data. DVD-RAM discs are random-access devices. DVD-RAM discs are used
in many camcorders (video recording cameras).
The discs are much higher quality than normal DVD-RWs and can reliably
store data for up to 30 years. This means that they are often used for video and
data back-up and archiving.

5. USB Memory Sticks

Memory sticks (or thumb-drives) have made many other forms of portable
storage almost. Memory sticks are non-volatile, random-access storage
devices.
Each of these small devices has some flash memory connected to a USB
interface. Plug it into your computer and it appears as a drive. You can then
add files, erase files, etc. You can use it to move any type of file between
computers.

Performance Factors of Storage Devices

1. Storage capacity
Storage capacity refers to how much disk space one or more storage devices
provides. It measures how much data a computer system may contain. For an
example, a computer with a 500GB hard drive has a storage capacity of 500
gigabytes. A network server with four 1TB drives has a storage capacity of 4
terabytes.
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Data storage capacity is measured in bytes (B).

A thousand bytes is known as a kilobyte (kB) A thousand kilobytes is known as a megabyte (MB) A thousand megabytes is called a gigabyte (GB) A thousand gigabytes is called a terabyte (TB) I

1,000B
1,000kB
1,000MB
1,000GB

=
=
=
=

1kB
1MB
1GB
1TB

Figure 1.1: Storage Capacity

2. Disk Access Time

Disk access time is the average time taken for the device to search and read the
required data on the storage medium. Shorter access time means higher searching
speed.
Access time is measured in milliseconds (ms or msec).

3. Data Transfer Rate (DTR)

The data transfer rate (DTR) is the amount of digital data that is moved from one
place to another in a given time. The data transfer rate can be viewed as the speed
of travel of a given amount of data from one place to another.
In computers, data transfer is often measured in bytes per second (Bps).
Slow devices have speeds measured in thousands of Bps (kBps).
E.g. a floppy disc can save/read data at a speed of 60kBps
Fast devices have speeds measured in millions of Bps (MBps).
E.g. a hard-drive can save/read data at a speed of 300MBps (5000 times quicker
than the floppy!)
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COMPUTER HARDWARE PERIPHERALS

A peripheral is a piece of computer hardware that is added to a computer in order
to expand its abilities. The term peripheral is used to describe those devices that
are optional in nature, as opposed to hardware that is either demanded or always
required in principle. There are all different kinds of peripherals you can add your
computer. The main disctinction among peripherals is the way they are connected
to your computer. They can be connected internally or externally.

Input Devices
Input devices are absolutely crucial to computers. The most common input
devices are mice and keyboards which barely every computer has. A new
popular pointing device that may eventually replace the mouse is touch screen
which you can get on some tablet notebooks. Other popular input devices include
microphones, webcams, and fingerprint readers which can also be built in to
modern laptops and desktops. A scanner is another popular input device that
might be built-in to your printer.

Output Devices
There are lots of different kinds of output devices that you can get for your
computer. The absolute most common external output device is a monitor. Other
very popular output devices are printers and speakers. There are lots of different
kinds of printers and different sizes of speakers for your computer. Monitors are
connected usually through the HD-15 connector on your video card. Printers are
usually connected through a USB port. Speakers have their own audio out port
built-in to the sound card.

1. Computer Monitor
A monitor or a display is an electronic visual display for computers. The monitor
comprises the display device, circuitry and an enclosure. The display device in
modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFTLCD) thin panel, while older monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT) about as
deep as the screen size.
Type of Monitors by Technology

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Thin-Film-Transistor Liquid-Crystal Display (TFT LCD)
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED)

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Measurements of Performance
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following parameters:

Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2 also called a

Nit).

Aspect ratio is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length.
Monitors usually have the aspect ratio 4:3, 5:4, 16:10 or 16:9.

Viewable image size is usually measured diagonally, but the actual widths and
heights are more informative since they are not affected by the aspect ratio in
the same way. For CRTs, the viewable size is typically 1 in (25 mm) smaller
than the tube itself.

Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can
be displayed. Maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch.

Dot pitch is the distance between sub pixels of the same color in millimeters.
In general, the smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the picture will appear.

Refresh rate is the number of times in a second that a display is illuminated.

Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time.

Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from active (white)
to inactive (black) and back to active (white) again, measured in milliseconds.
Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image
artifacts.

Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to
that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing.

Power consumption is measured in watts.

Delta-E: Color accuracy is measured in delta-E; the lower the delta-E, the
more accurate the color representation. A delta-E of below 1 is imperceptible
to the human eye. Delta-Es of 2 to 4 are considered good and require a
sensitive eye to spot the difference.

Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the monitor can be
viewed, without excessive degradation to the image. It is measured in degrees
horizontally and vertically.

2. Video RAM (VRAM)

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Stands for "Video Random Access Memory" and is pronounced "V-RAM."

System RAM is great for loading and running programs, but when you need
graphics power, VRAM is where it's at. This is the memory used to store image
data that the computer displays; it acts as a buffer between the CPU and the video
card. When a picture is to be displayed on the screen, the image is first read by the
processor and then written to the VRAM. The data is then converted by a RAM
digital-to-analog converter (RAMDAC) into analog signals that are sent to the
display. Unlike most system RAM, VRAM chips are dual-ported, which means
that while the display is reading from VRAM to refresh the currently displayed
image, the processor is writing a new image to the VRAM. This prevents the
display from flickering between the redrawing of images.
There are many different types of VRAM.
Synchronous Graphics RAM (SGRAM)
It is an inexpensive type of RAM that is clock-synchronized. This means data can
be modified in a single operation rather than as a sequence of read, write, and
update operations. This allows background, foreground, and image fills to be
handled more efficiently.
Rambus Dynamic RAM (RDRAM)
It is designed by Rambus and includes a proprietary Rambus bus that speeds up
the transfer of data through it. Video editing pros like this chip since it is
optimized for video streaming.
Window RAM (WRAM)
This high-performance VRAM is dual-ported, has about 25% more bandwidth
than standard VRAM, and typically costs less.
Multibank Dynamic RAM (MDRAM)
This is also high-performance VRAM, developed by MoSys, which divides the
memory into divisions of 32 KB that can be accessed individually. This makes
memory transfers more efficient and increases overall performance. Another
advantage of MDRAM is that it can be manufactured with just the right amount of
memory for a given resolution, so it is cheaper to manufacture than most other
types of VRAM.

3. Printer
Printer is an external hardware device responsible for taking computer data and
generating a hard copy of that data. Printers are one of the most used peripherals
on computers and are commonly used to print text, images, and photos.
Types of printers
Below is a list of all the different types of computer printers. Today, the most
common printers used with a computer are Inkjet and Laser printers.
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All-in-one (AIO) printer

Dot Matrix printer
Inkjet printer
Laser printer
Multifunction printer (MFP)
Thermal printer
LED printer

Performance Factors of Printers

Technology
The first and foremost important consideration to consider when purchasing a
printer is the technology the printer utilizes to print. Today, there are two major
technologies available, ink jet and laser.
Ink Jet - Inkjet printers are an affordable and effective solution for home users
and home businesses.
Laser - Laser printers are a recommended solution for businesses or networks that
require speed and efficiency, and high quality resolution.
Resolution
Resolution on a printer is measured by the amount of dots per inch a printer is
capable of printing. When looking at purchasing a printer, it is important to look at
the DPI the printer is capable of printing.
It is also important to know that some printer manufacturers may generate their
own methods through software for increasing their resolution.
Speed
Speed is another important consideration when looking at computer printers. The
speed of a printer is rated in PPM, or pages per minute, and rate anywhere
between 4 and 10+ PPM, depending on several factors such as if it is Black and
White or Color, text only or full page. You should expect a faster PPM from a
laser printer printing text than an Inkjet printer.
Ink and Toner
Ink or Toner is becoming a very important factor when purchasing a printer. Look
at the below characteristics of the Ink and Toner used with the printer.
Price
By far the most important factor is price; if the printer becomes a frequently used
device you may find that the price of the ink can far surpass the price of the
printer. Look how much the ink will cost when it needs to be replaced.

Availability

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From where can the ink or toner be purchased? Some printer manufacturers may
require that you purchase the ink directly from them; and if purchased from a
third-party, cause your printer warranty to become void. Verify that the ink can be
purchased from a third-party and if so, from whom.
Type
See what ink or toner used with your printer, and for users considering an Ink Jet
printer, see if the printer accepts separate color cartridges. Some manufacturers
may include all the cartridges as one cartridge, causing you to have to purchase all
the available colors for one color that may be out. In addition, see if the cartridges
are just ink or ink and nozzles. Cartridges with ink and nozzles will cost more than
those that have just ink.
Cost Per Page
It is important to look at the cost per page and see how much you may be paying
for the amount of printing you expect to do. You can expect to pay less for a laser
printer than an ink printer when looking at Cost per Page.

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TASK 02
Contents

Page No

Selection of computer

14

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SELECTION OF COMPUTER
System - 1

Processor
Ram
Hard Disc
Mother Board
Monitor

- i5 processor
- 4GB 1800MHz axe Ram DDR3
- 1 Terabyte hard disc
- DG43GT Intel G43 Chipset 1333 FSB Intel motherboard
- 19 LED Monitor

Advantage of Core i5
Core i5 is the latest - mid-range processor by Intel. A step up from the Core i3, i5
processors will give a noticeable difference in speed, depending on what type of
applications that runs. If we are playing solitaire, we arent going to be able to tell
a difference between Core i3 and Core i5 processors. If we are editing multiple
files in Adobe Flash, with virtualization software, we may notice the Core i5 to be
snappier.
Technically, Core i5 processors are marketed a bit differently. There are two main
types of Core i5 Processors, dual core, and quad core. Dual core i5 processors
have 32nm technology, hyper threading support, virtualization support, and Turbo
Boost technology. Quad core i5 processors have 45nm technology, virtualization
support and Turbo Boost technology, but do not have hyper threading support.
Both types of Core i5 processors offer similar performance. However, one may be
better than another when running multi-threaded applications.
Core i5s offer enough performance to do stuff like video editing and gaming, and
more than enough performance to do basic stuff like word processing, internet
surfing, and email. A Core i5 processor is a great, mid-range priced processor for
people who use their computers frequently and often multi task.

Advantages of an LED Monitor

LCD monitors are made with fluorescent lights and LED monitors with LED
diodes, there are numerous advantages that just may make an LED monitor a more
sound investment.

Longer Life-span

The fluorescent lights used in LCD monitors have a relatively short lifespan: after
three to five years, LCD display may be noticeably dimmer than when first
purchased the monitor. Fluorescent lights deteriorate over time, and the monitors
are not designed for easy replacement of failing lights. While a fluorescent bulb
may last approximately 10,000 hours, an LED bulb will likely last for more than
100,000 hours of usage.
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Size

Because LED monitors don't use fluorescent bulbs, they can be thinner and lighter
than LCD monitors. The fluorescent bulbs are not only heavier, but larger and can
make an LCD monitor much more bulky than an LED monitor. Also, side lit LED
monitors are even thinner than LED backlit monitors and are much lighter and
easier to manage if we need to move the monitor to another room.

Picture Quality

LED monitors outperform LCD monitors when it comes to picture quality in the
areas of motion blurring and color intensity. LCD monitors tend to suffer from an
issue called "motion blur," where the image momentarily blurs in times of intense
motion on the screen. Also, LCD monitors have a lower contrast ratio and color
gamut than LED monitors. The LED advantage with regard to color is due to the
fact that LED monitors use red, green and blue diodes that mix the light in correct
ratios to obtain true-to-life color. Also, contrast for blacks and darker colors is
more crisp and true in an LED monitor since LCD monitors only attempt to block
incoming light by "closing" pixels, and sometimes this light leaks. An LED
monitor actually dims the appropriate diodes to create darker images.

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TASK 03
Contents

Page No

The operating system

17

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THE OPERATING SYSTEM

Introduction
An operating system (OS) is the software component of a computer system that is
responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of
the resources of the computer. The OS acts as a host for application programs that
are run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an OS is to handle the
details of the operation of the hardware. This relieves application programs from
having to manage these details and makes it easier to write applications. Almost
all computers use an OS of some type.
Common contemporary OS include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux.
Microsoft Windows has a significant majority of market share in the desktop and
notebook computer markets, while the server and embedded device markets are
split amongst several OS.

Functions of Operating System

Providing user interface
When we work with a computer we can see a set of items on the screen. These
items are called user interface.
E.g.; Recycle bin ,Internet explorer
Two most kind of user interfaces are graphical user interface (GUI) and command
line interface/Character User interface (CUI)/Test user interface (TUI).
Most modern Operating Systems are Graphical User Interface. We can control a
Graphical User Interface based system by clicking graphical object on the screen.
In a typical Graphical User Interface all objects and resources appear on a
background called desktop.
In Graphical User Interface we can access programs and other resources in
rectangular frame called Windows. Application running under the same Operating
System use many of the same graphical elements, so we can see a familiar
interface no matter what program we are using some older OS use a Character
User Interface which the user control by typing at a prompt.
E.g.: MS DOS
Running programs
The Operating System providing consistent interface between application
programs and the user, it also interface between those programs and other
computer resources, such as memory, printer etc.

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Programmers write computer program with built in instruction called system calls.
They request serves from the program.
E.g.: If we want to retrieve a file we use the open dialogue box to list the program
calls on the Operating System. The Operating System goes to the same process to
build a list of files.
Sharing information
Many type of applications provides to move blocks of data from one place to
another.
For e.g.; if we want to copy a chart from Excel to Word processor, we can select
the copy command and then apply the paste command. Thus the OS provide the
data movement facilities.
Managing hardware
When programs run they need to use the computer's memory, monitor, disk drives
and printer. The Operating System is the intermediary between programs and the
hardware. In a computer network the Operating System also mediate between our
computer and other devices on the network.
Processing interrupt
The Operating System response to request to use memory and other devices keeps
track of which program has access to devices and co-ordinate everything the
hardware done. So that various activities do not overlap. The Operating System
uses interrupt request (IRQS) to help CPU coordinate the process.
Working with device drivers
The Operating System provides programs for working with special devices such
as printers. These programs are called drivers. Because they allow the Operating
System and other programs to activate and use drive is a hardware device. Most
new software in work with our printer, monitor and other equipment without
requiring to install any special drivers.

Classification of Operating Systems

As computers have progressed and developed so have the operating systems.
Below is a basic list of the different operating systems and a few examples of
operating systems that fall into each of the categories. Many computer operating
systems will fall into more than one of the below categories.
GUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains
graphics and icons and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. See
the GUI definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of GUI
Operating Systems.

System 3.x
Windows 98

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Windows CE

Multi-User - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the
same computer at the same time and different times. See the multi-user definition
for a complete definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of
multi-user operating systems.

Linux
UNIX
Windows 2000

Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more

than one computer processor. Below are some examples of multiprocessing
operating systems.

Linux
UNIX
Windows 2000

Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software

processes to run at the same time. Below are some examples of multitasking
operating systems.

UNIX
Windows 2000

Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of software

program to run concurrently. Operating systems that would fall into this category
are:

Linux
UNIX
Windows 2000

Troubleshooting
Common questions and answers to operating systems in general can be found on
the below operating system question and answers. All other questions relating to
an operating system in particular can be found through the operating system page.

Linux and Variants

Mac OS
MS-DOS
IBM OS/2 Warp
UNIX and Variants

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Windows CE
Windows 3.x
Windows 95
Windows 98
Windows 98 SE
Windows ME
Windows NT
Windows 2000
Windows XP
Windows Vista
Windows 7

Operating System Concerns

As mentioned previously, an operating system is a computer program. Operating
systems are written by human programmers who make mistakes. Therefore there
can be errors in the code even though there may be some testing before the
product is released. Some companies have better software quality control and
testing than others so you may notice varying levels of quality from operating
system to operating system. Errors in operating systems cause three main types of
problems:
System crashes and instabilities - These can happen due to a software bug
typically in the operating system, although computer programs being run on the
operating system can make the system more unstable or may even crash the
system by themselves. This varies depending on the type of operating system. A
system crash is the act of a system freezing and becoming unresponsive which
would cause the user to need to reboot.
Security flaws - Some software errors leave a door open for the system to be
broken into by unauthorized intruders. As these flaws are discovered,
unauthorized intruders may try to use these to gain illegal access to your system.
Patching these flaws often will help keep your computer system secure. How this
is done will be explained later. Sometimes errors in the operating system will
cause the computer not to work correctly with some peripheral devices such as
printers.

Comparison of Operating System

1. Windows
To overcome the limitations of DOS, Microsoft has developed a new graphical
based operating system called windows. It is the worlds most popular operating
system. Its main objectives are to provide an easier way for a user to work with
PC.
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Characteristics of Windows

It is a graphical user interface based Operating System.

It is very easy to use.
It support long file name.
It gives multimedia technology such as audio, video, textual, graphical tools
on a single platform.
It incorporate graphs, charts music, video clipart and so on.

Different versions of Windows operating systems are available, such as windows

2.1/3.1, Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 2000 etc. Windows 3.1 was the
predecessor of Windows 95. The basic difference between Windows 3.X when
compared to Windows 95 was that it required DOS to be installed, whereas
Windows 95 has DOS integrated within it. Of course there are several major
improvements in Windows 95 as compared to Windows 3.X. Windows is named
so because you can work on several Windows at the same time.
Windows 3.0 was released in 1990. Windows 3.0 was the operating environment
that convinced people to switch from DOS based program to native Windows
program. Windows 3.1 was released in 1992. The operating system was more
stable in the version, which also included multimedia support. In the same year
Windows for workgroups 3.1 and 3.11 were released. These versions had added
Microsoft mail and better networking integration, to the existing one. Microsoft
knew that an entirely new and to provide better multi tasking and network facility,
Windows NT 3.1 was first released in 1993. Work on Windows 95 was started in
1992 and it came into the market in August 1995. Windows 95 incorporated many
features of Windows 3.X family as well as the features from the Windows NT
family, Windows 95 continues to be the most popular operating system for many
reasons such as its ease of use, low hardware requirement etc.
In Windows 98, Windows 95 uses a similar graphical user interface of Windows
3.X. Windows ME is used for home based computers and which is allows home
networking and shared networking. Windows NT replaces to come another
operating system called Windows 2000. This operating system is mostly used for
servers and business workstations and which is support for wireless devices. Then
the Windows 2000 and Windows ME replaced to come a new operating system
called Windows XP. In this version Microsoft improved the capabilities like
photo, video and music editing, network etc. And this operating system has a large
number of users. Later Microsoft was release Windows Vista. Windows 7 is the
latest operating system among the Windows family. In the case of Windows vista
Microsoft included the features like animation, live thumbnails, instant search,
sidebar etc. And in this operating system Microsoft improved multimedia,
networking and hardware requirements.
Windows 7 is the new version of Windows released on 2009. This operating
system is faster than Vista. And this operating system is improved home
networking capabilities. And which is included the features like gadgets and jump
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lists etc. The server version of Windows is called Windows server. 2008 is the
most recent version of Windows server.

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2. Linux
Linux is an operating system for Intel based PCs. The system has been designed
and builds by hundreds of programmers scattered around the world. LINUX was
developed in the early 1990's by Linux Torvald along with other programmers
around the world.
As an operating system, it performs many of the same functions as DOS or
Windows. However LINUX is distinguished by its power and flexibility. It is free.
Unlike the official operating system, LINUX is distributed freely. LINUX also
comes with source code, so you can change or customize the software to adapt
your own needs. LINUX is a great operating system that is rich in features
adapted from other versions of UNIX. It is a powerful UNIX like Operating
System. It is a fast growing Operating System .LINUX enhance the PC on which
the titanic movies animations where created. It includes all UNIX features such as
multitasking multiprocessor support Internet support Graphical user interface. It is
a full 32 bit, 64 bit multitasking OS that support multiple users and multiple
processors. LINUX can run on any computer and can support any kind of
application. LINUX uses a command line interface, and also windows base
Graphical User Interface environment.
The main non technical difference between LINUX and UNIX is its price. It is a
freeware Operating System. The most popular LINUX vendors are Redhat and
Ubuntu. Both offer special LINUX bundles for desktop computers as well as for
servers. For all these reasons, LINUX has become a popular OS. Students and
teachers have flocked to LINUX to participate in the global community that has
built up around the Operating System .This community invites LINUX users and
developers to contribute modifications and enhancement, and it freely share
information about UNIX and LINUX related issues. LINUX is mostly used with
severs, personal computers and super computers. This operating system is less
expensive than Windows.
I recommend the operating system LINUX. Because this operating system uses a
command line interface and also windows base Graphical User Interface
environment. So LINUX is best to avoid viruses, spam and spyware. LINUX can
run on any computer and can support any kind of application.

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TASK 04
Contents

Page No

File and directory structure

24

Tailoring of user interface

25

Backup

26

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FILE AND DIRECTORY STRUCTURE

In computing, a directory structure is the way an operating system's file system
and its files are displayed to the user. Files are typically displayed in a hierarchical
tree structure.

File Names and Extensions

A filename is a string used to uniquely identify a file stored on the file system of a
computer. Before the advent of 32-bit operating systems, file names were typically
limited to short names (6 to 14 characters in size). Modern operating systems now
typically allow much longer filenames (more than 250 characters per pathname
element).

Windows, DOS and OS/2

In DOS, Windows, and OS/2, the root directory is "drive:\", for example, the root
directory is usually "C:\". The directory separator is usually a "\", but the
operating system also internally recognizes a "/". Physical and virtual drives are
named by a drive letter, as opposed to being combined as one.[1] This means that
there is no "formal" root directory, but rather that there are independent root
directories on each drive. However, it is possible to combine two drives into one
virtual drive letter, by setting a hard drive into a RAID setting of 0.

Common Windows Directory Structure

$Recycle.Bin
Boot
Documents and Settings
inetpub
IIS folder (if installed)
PerfLogs
Program Data
Program Files
Program Files (x86)
Recovery
System Volume Information
Users
Windows

UNIX
UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems use the file system Hierarchy Standard as
the common form for their directory structures. All files and directories appear
under the root directory "/", even if they are stored on different physical devices.
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TAILORING OF USER INTERFACE

Introduction
A lot of recent work in the area of device-independent authoring has been
dedicated to user interface transposing systems. Transcending is the process where
content is translated or converted from one representation to another. However,
the content is generally visualized unaltered on each platform, from a
compositional, navigational layout point of view.
The challenge is to remodel the widgets of a window into a new composition of
windows with a reasonable flow of transitions between them (c.f. Figure 4.1) by
integrating size and semantic information between widgets. Semantic information
may be expressed with relations such as " A depends on B ", " A contains B " etc..

Figure 4.1: Tailoring a window into a new set of windows

Principle
User interfaces should be tailored to accommodate the different presentation
capacity of a user's device. Device independent content authoring needs content to
be tailored according to the presentation capacity characteristic of the device (e.g.,
device's screen size) and the semantic relation between widgets (c.f. Figure 4.2).
However, no markup-based user interface description language allows the
definition of semantic relation between widgets.

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Figure 4.2: Definition of semantic information concerning the relationship of widgets.
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Concepts
The concepts presented in this section help answering the following aspects of
user interface tailoring:

Mechanism to tailor a user interface

Integration of semantic information into a markup-language based user
interface description

BACKUP
In information technology, a backup, or the process of backing up, refers to the
copying and archiving of computer data so it may be used to restore the original
after a data loss event. The verb form is to back up in two words, whereas the
noun is backup.
Backups have two distinct purposes. The primary purpose is to recover data after
its loss, be it by data deletion or corruption. Data loss can be a common
experience of computer users. The secondary purpose of backups is to recover
data from an earlier time, according to a user-defined data retention policy,
typically configured within a backup application for how long copies of data are
required. Though backups popularly represent a simple form of disaster recovery,
and should be part of a disaster recovery plan, by themselves, backups should not
alone be considered disaster recovery. One reason for this is that not all backup
systems or backup applications are able to reconstitute a computer system or other
complex configurations such as a computer cluster, active directory servers, or a
database server, by restoring only data from a backup.
Since a backup system contains at least one copy of all data worth saving, the data
storage requirements can be significant. Organizing this storage space and
managing the backup process can be a complicated undertaking. A data repository
model can be used to provide structure to the storage. Nowadays, there are many
different types of data storage devices that are useful for making backups. There
are also many different ways in which these devices can be arranged to provide
geographic redundancy, data security, and portability.
Before data is sent to its storage location, it is selected, extracted, and
manipulated. Many different techniques have been developed to optimize the
backup procedure. These include optimizations for dealing with open files and
live data sources as well as compression, encryption, and de-duplication, among
others. Every backup scheme should include dry runs that validate the reliability
of the data being backed up. It is important to recognize the limitations and human
factors involved in any backup scheme.

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Storage Media
Regardless of the repository model that is used, the data has to be stored on some
data storage medium somewhere.

1. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape has long been the most commonly used medium for bulk data
storage, backup, archiving, and interchange. Tape has typically had an order of
magnitude better capacity/price ratio when compared to hard disk, but recently the
ratios for tape and hard disk have become a lot closer. There are myriad formats,
many of which are proprietary or specific to certain markets like mainframes or a
particular brand of personal computer. Tape is a sequential access medium, so
even though access times may be poor, the rate of continuously writing or reading
data can actually be very fast. Some new tape drives are even faster than modern
hard disks. A principal advantage of tape is that it has been used for this purpose
for decades (much longer than any alternative) and its characteristics are well
understood.

2. Hard Disk
The capacity/price ratio of hard disk has been rapidly improving for many years.
This is making it more competitive with magnetic tape as a bulk storage medium.
The main advantages of hard disk storage are low access times, availability,
capacity and ease of use. External disks can be connected via local interfaces like
SCSI, USB, FireWire, or e SATA, or via longer distance technologies like
Ethernet, i SCSI, or Fibre Channel. Some disk-based backup systems, such as
Virtual Tape Libraries, support data deduplication which can dramatically reduce
the amount of disk storage capacity consumed by daily and weekly backup data.
The main disadvantages of hard disk backups are that they are easily damaged,
especially while being transported (e.g., for off-site backups), and that their
stability over periods of years is a relative unknown.

3. Optical Storage
Recordable CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs are commonly used with personal
computers and generally have low media unit costs. However, the capacities and
speeds of these and other optical discs are typically an order of magnitude lower
than hard disk or tape. Many optical disk formats are WORM type, which makes
them useful for archival purposes since the data cannot be changed. The use of an
auto-changer or jukebox can make optical discs a feasible option for larger-scale
backup systems. Some optical storage systems allow for cataloged data backups
without human contact with the discs, allowing for longer data integrity.

4. Floppy Disk
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During the 1980s and early 1990s, many personal/home computer users associated
backing up mostly with copying to floppy disks. However, the data capacity of
floppy disks failed to catch up with growing demands, rendering them unpopular
and obsolete.

5. Solid State Storage

Also known as flash memory, thumb drives, USB flash drives, Compact Flash,
Smart Media, Memory Stick, Secure Digital cards, etc., these devices are
relatively expensive for their low capacity. A solid state drive does not contain any
movable parts unlike its magnetic drive counterpart and can have huge throughput
in the order of 500Mbit/s to 6Gbit/s. SSD drives are now available in the order of
500GB to TBs.

6. Remote Backup Service

As broadband internet access becomes more widespread, remote backup services
are gaining in popularity. Backing up via the internet to a remote location can
protect against some worst-case scenarios such as fires, floods, or earthquakes
which would destroy any backups in the immediate vicinity along with everything
else. There are, however, a number of drawbacks to remote backup services. First,
Internet connections are usually slower than local data storage devices.
Residential broadband is especially problematic as routine backups must use an
upstream link that's usually much slower than the downstream link used only
occasionally to retrieve a file from backup. This tends to limit the use of such
services to relatively small amounts of high value data. Secondly, users must trust
a third party service provider to maintain the privacy and integrity of their data,
although confidentiality can be assured by encrypting the data before transmission
to the backup service with an encryption key known only to the user. Ultimately
the backup service must itself use one of the above methods so this could be seen
as a more complex way of doing traditional backups.

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TASK 05
Contents

Page No

Computer processor & its characteristics

30

Design a computer system

30

System bus

33

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COMPUTER PROCESSOR & ITS CHARACTERISTICS

Computer processors, also known as CPUs (Central Processing Units) are
essential components in computers--in fact, a computer cannot function without a
computer processor. They are present in all computers, whether they are pocket
PCs or powerful gaming desktop computers.

Processor Speed
Your computer's central processing unit (CPU), also known as a processor, can be
thought of as the brain of the computer. Fast processors typically offer better
performance than slower processors, and they are especially useful for running
multimedia programs, such as games or audio and video editing programs.
A computer's processor speed describes the maximum number of calculations per
second the processor can perform, and is given in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz
(GHz). Generally, the larger the number, the faster and more powerful the
processor.

Processor Characteristics

Multiple issues
Multiple outstanding caches misses
On-chip cache controllers
Separate interface to the runway system bus
Cache characteristics
Direct mapped
Virtually indexed
Off-chip tag rams
Off-chip cache RAMs
Highly tuned CPU/cache interface
32 byte cache line size

DESIGN A COMPUTER SYSTEM

CPUs provide the fundamental digital computer trait of programmability, and are
one of the necessary components found in computers of any era, along with
primary storage and input/output facilities

Hardware - Main Memory

Main memory is where anything that the computer is working with is kept. For
example, at the moment, this web page is being stored in your computer's main
memory, along with your web browser software and any other programs you have
running. There are two types of main memory; RAM and ROM.
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RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM can be written to and read from.
All the data and programs are stored in RAM while in use. It is a good idea when
you buy a computer to get one with as much RAM as possible as this improves the
performance of your computer.
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. You cannot write anything to ROM. It holds
programs used when the computer is switched on that, if lost would make the
computer useless.
Differences between ROM and RAM
ROM

RAM

Non-volatile - Data is never lost

Volatile - Data is lost if the computer crashes

or is turned off
Data is temporary - it is only there as long as
the computer is on and it can be changed
Data can be written to or read from.

Data is permanent - it can

never be changed
Data can only be read

Table 5.1

Memory Organization
Memory is made up of lots of storage locations.
Each location can hold a word. A word is the term given to the number of bits that
can be processed by the computer in a single operation.
So the correct data can be found in main memory, each storage location has its
own unique address. This is just like each house having its own unique address so
that the postman can deliver letters to the right person. This concept is called
addressability.

Computer External Storage Devices

In computing, external storage comprises devices that temporarily store
information for transporting [citation needed] from computer to computer. Such
devices are not permanently fixed inside a computer.
Semiconductor memories are not sufficient to provide the whole storage capacity
required in computers. The major limitation in using semiconductor memories is
the cost per bit of the stored information. So to fulfill the large storage
requirements of computers, magnetic disks, optical disks are generally used.

Advantages of External Storage

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External storage devices provide additional storage other than that available in
computer. Data can be transported easily from one place to another. It is useful to
store software and data that is not needed frequently. External storage also works
as data backup. This back up may prove useful at times such as fire or theft
because important data is not lost.

Types of External Storage

Magnetic storage
Cassette tape
Floppy disk
Optical storage

Optical media are the media that use laser light technology for data storage and
retrieval.

Optical Storage Devices

CD stands for compact disk. The speed is much less than a hard disk. The storage
capacity is 700 MB. Types of CDs include:

CD-ROM
CD-Recordable
CD-Rewritable

DVD stands for digital versatile disk. Its speed is much faster than CD but not as
fast as hard disk. The standard DVD-5 technology has a storage capacity of 4.7
GB. The storage capacity changes with the standard used. Its storage capacity (4.7
GB) is much higher than a CD (700 MB). It is achieved by a number of design
changes.

Solid State Storage

Solid state storage (SSS) is a type of computer storage media that is made from
silicon microchips. SSS stores data electronically instead of magnetically, as
spinning hard disk drives or magnetic oxide tape do.

Flash Memory
Flash memory is what's called solid state memory. As opposed to hard drives,
which are made of spinning platters that store data and an arm that accesses the
platters to the read the data, flash memory is a single, solid chip with no moving
parts. Because of this, it's more durable, less likely to break or skip when dropped
or jostled, and transfers data at a faster speed. Flash memory is also much smaller
than a hard drive, often less than the size of a piece of gum and offering a smaller
weight.
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As a result of its small size and light weight, it is often used in mobile devices
where those factors are at a premium. It is also beginning to be used in traditional
computers, like the Macbook Air.
For many years, Flash memory didn't afford large capacity storage at prices
competitive with hard drives. Advances in technology, and the benefits provided
by Flash memory, have combined to drive increases in the capacity of Flash
memory and reduce its cost.
Advantages of Flash Memory

Flash is very tough and will not break when dropped or exposed to heat (it is a
solid-state device)
It is very reliable as there are no moving parts, the data should be held for
decades.
It is very compact and can store gigabytes of data in a small space.
It is very fast. As there are no moving parts needed to get to the data it is much
quicker than hard disk or DVD.

Disadvantages of Flash Memory

Data can only be stored in chunks, typically 512 to 2048 Bytes at a time. This
means it is fine as a secondary storage method, just like floppy disks, hard
disks and DVD's but it is no good as main memory like RAM and ROM.
It does wear out over time. You can write to it roughly a million times before it
fails. In practice this is plenty for most applications.

What Uses Flash Technology

It can be found in many forms

Memory sticks
Jump Drives
Camera memory cards
Solid state hard drives

SYSTEM BUS
A system bus is a single computer bus that connects the major components of a
computer system. The technique was developed to reduce costs and improve
modularity. It combines the functions of a data bus to carry information, an
address bus to determine where it should be sent, and a control bus to determine
its operation. Although popular in the 1970s and 1980s, modern computers use a
variety of separate buses adapted to more specific needs
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Given these changes, the classical terms "system", "expansion" and "peripheral"
no longer have the same connotations. Other common categorization systems are
based on the buses primary role, connecting devices internally or externally, PCI
vs. SCSI for instance. However, many common modern bus systems can be used
for both; SATA and the associated e SATA are one example of a system that would
formerly be described as internal, while in certain automotive applications use the
primarily external IEEE 1394 in a fashion more similar to a system bus.

Internal Bus
Internal bus, also known as internal data bus, memory bus or system bus or frontSide-Bus, connects all the internal components of a computer, such as CPU and
memory, to the motherboard. Internal data buses are also referred to as a local bus,
because they are intended to connect to local devices. This bus is typically rather
quick and is independent of the rest of the computer operations.

External Bus
The external bus, also known as expansion bus, is made up of the electronic
pathways that connect the different external devices, such as monitor, printer etc.,
to the computer.
To further confuse issues, it was common in the past to classify bus systems based
on the communications system they used, serial or parallel. Many modern systems
can operate in either mode, depending on the application.

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TASK 06
Contents

Page No

Power supply

36

Display

36

Color capability

36

Sharpness and view ability

37

The size of the screen

37

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POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is a hardware component that supplies power to an electrical
device. It receives power from an electrical outlet and converts the current from
AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current), which is what the computer
requires. It also regulates the voltage to an adequate amount, which allows the
computer to run smoothly without overheating. The power supplies an integral
part of any computer and must function correctly for the rest of the components to
work.
You can locate the power supply on a system unit by simply finding the input
where the power cord is plugged in. Without opening your computer, this is
typically the only part of the power supply you will see. If you were to remove the
power supply, it would look like a metal box with a fan inside and some cables
attached to it. Of course, you should never have to remove the power supply, so
it's best to leave it in the case.
While most computers have internal power supplies, many electronic devices use
external ones. For example, some monitors and external hard drives have power
supplies that reside outside the main unit. These power supplies are connected
directly to the cable that plugs into the wall. They often include another cable that
connects the device to the power supply. Some power supplies, often called "AC
adaptors," are connected directly to the plug (which can make them difficult to
plug in where space is limited). Both of these designs allow the main device to be
smaller or sleeker by moving the power supply outside the unit.

DISPLAY
The display is usually considered to include the screen or projection surface and
the device that produces the information on the screen. In some computers, the
display is packaged in a separate unit called a monitor. In other computers, the
display is integrated into a unit with the processor and other parts of the computer.
(Some sources make the distinction that the monitor includes other signalhandling devices that feed and control the display or projection device. However,
this distinction disappears when all these parts become integrated into a total unit,
as in the case of notebook computers.) Displays (and monitors) are also
sometimes called video display terminals (VDTs). The terms display and monitor
are often used interchangeably.

COLOR CAPABILITY
Today, most desktop displays provide color. Notebook and smaller computers
sometimes have a less expensive monochrome display. Displays can usually
operate in one of several displays that determine how many bits are used to
describe color and how many colors can be displayed. A display that can operate
in Super VGA mode can display up to 16,777,216 colors because it can process a
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24-bit long description of a pixel. The number of bits used to describe a pixel is
known as its bit-depth. The 24-bit bit-depth is also known as true color . It allows
eight bits for each of the three additive primary colors - red, green, and blue.
Although human beings can't really distinguish that many colors, the 24-bit
system is convenient for graphic designers since it allocates one byte for each
color. The Visual Graphics Array (VGA) mode is the lowest common denominator
of display modes. Depending on the resolution setting, it can provide up to 256
colors.

SHARPNESS AND VIEW ABILITY

The absolute physical limitation on the potential image sharpness of a screen
image is the dot pitch, which is the size of an individual beam that gets through to
light up a point of phosphor on the screen. (The shape of this beam can be round
or a vertical, slot-shaped rectangle depending on the display technology.) Displays
typically come with a dot pitch of .28 mm (millimeters) or smaller. The smaller
the dot pitches in millimeters, the greater the potential image sharpness.
The actual sharpness of any particular overall display image is measured in dotsper-inch (dots per inch). The dots-per-inch is determined by a combination of the
screen resolution (how many pixel s are projected on the screen horizontally and
vertically) and the physical screen size. The same resolution spread out over a
larger screen offers reduced sharpness. On the other hand, a high-resolution
setting on a smaller surface will produce a sharper image, but text readability will
become more difficult.
View ability includes the ability to see the screen image well from different
angles. Displays with cathode ray tubes (CRT) generally provide good view
ability from angles other than straight on. Flat-panel displays, including those
using light-emitting diode and liquid crystal display technology, are often harder
to see at angles other than straight on.

THE SIZE OF THE SCREEN

On desktop computers, the display screen width relative to height, known as the
aspect ratio, is generally standardized at 4 to 3 (usually indicated as "4:3"). Screen
sizes are measured in either millimeters or inches diagonally from one corner to
the opposite corner. Popular desktop screen sizes are 12-, 13-, 15-, and 17-inch.
Notebook screen sizes are somewhat smaller.

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TASK 07
Contents

Page No

Testing of software

39

The box approach

39

Testing levels

42

Test target

42

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TESTING OF SOFTWARE
Software testing is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with
information about the quality of the product or service under test. Software testing
can also provide an objective, independent view of the software to allow the
business to appreciate and understand the risks of software implementation. Test
techniques include, but are not limited to, the process of executing a program or
application with the intent of finding software (errors or other defects).
Software testing can be stated as the process of validating and verifying that a
software program/application/product:

Meets the requirements that guided its design and development;

Works as expected;
Can be implemented with the same characteristics.
Satisfies the needs of stakeholders

Software testing, depending on the testing method employed, can be implemented

at any time in the development process. Traditionally most of the test effort occurs
after the requirements have been defined and the coding process has been
completed, but in the agile approaches most of the test effort is on-going. As such,
the methodology of the test is governed by the chosen software development
methodology.
Different software development models will focus the test effort at different points
in the development process. Newer development models, such as Agile, often
employ test driven development and place an increased portion of the testing in
the hands of the developer, before it reaches a formal team of testers. In a more
traditional model, most of the test execution occurs after the requirements have
been defined and the coding process has been completed.

THE BOX APPROACH

Software testing methods are traditionally divided into white- and black-box
testing. These two approaches are used to describe the point of view that a test
engineer takes when designing test cases.

White-Box Testing
White-box testing is when the tester has access to the internal data structures and
algorithms including the code that implements these.

Types of White-Box Testing

The following types of white-box testing exist:
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API testing (application programming interface) - testing of the application

using public and private APIs
Code coverage - creating tests to satisfy some criteria of code coverage (e.g.,
the test designer can create tests to cause all statements in the program to be
executed at least once)
Fault injection methods - intentionally introducing faults to gauge the
efficacy of testing strategies
Mutation testing methods
Static testing - All types

Test Coverage
White-box testing methods can also be used to evaluate the completeness of a test
suite that was created with black-box testing methods. This allows the software
team to examine parts of a system that are rarely tested and ensures that the most
important function points have been tested.
Two common forms of code coverage are:

Function coverage, which reports on functions executed

Statement coverage, which reports on the number of lines executed to
complete the test

They both return code coverage metric, measured as a percentage.

Black-Box Testing
Black-box testing treats the software as a "black box"without any knowledge of
internal implementation. Black-box testing methods include: equivalence
partitioning, analysis, all, fuzz testing, model-based testing, exploratory testing
and specification-based testing.
Specification-based testing: Aims to test the functionality of software according
to the applicable requirements. Thus, the tester inputs data into, and only sees the
output from, the test object. This level of testing usually requires thorough test
cases to be provided to the tester, who then can simply verify that for a given
input, the output value (or behavior), either "is" or "is not" the same as the
expected value specified in the test case.
Specification-based testing is necessary, but it is insufficient to guard against
certain risks.
Advantages and disadvantages: The black-box tester has no "bonds" with the
code, and a tester's perception is very simple: a code must have bugs. Using the
principle, "Ask and you shall receive," black-box testers find bugs where
programmers do not. On the other hand, black-box testing has been said to be
"like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight," because the tester doesn't
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know how the software being tested was actually constructed. As a result, there
are situations when (1) a tester writes many test cases to check something that
could have been tested by only one test case, and/or (2) some parts of the backend are not tested at all.
Therefore, black-box testing has the advantage of "an unaffiliated opinion", on the
one hand, and the disadvantage of "blind exploring", on the other.

Grey-Box Testing
Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) involves having
knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing
tests, while executing those tests at the user, or black-box level. The tester is not
required to have full access to the software's source code.] Manipulating input
data and formatting output do not qualify as grey-box, because the input and
output are clearly outside of the "black box" that we are calling the system under
test. This distinction is particularly important when conducting integration testing
between two modules of code written by two different developers, where only the
interfaces are exposed for test. However, modifying a data repository does qualify
as grey-box, as the user would not normally be able to change the data outside of
the system under test. Grey-box testing may also include reverse engineering to
determine, for instance, boundary values or error messages.
By knowing the underlying concepts of how the software works, the tester makes
better-informed testing choices while testing the software from outside. Typically,
a grey-box tester will be permitted to set up his testing environment; for instance,
seeding a database; and the tester can observe the state of the product being tested
after performing certain actions. For instance, in testing a database product he/she
may fire an SQL query on the database and then observe the database, to ensure
that the expected changes have been reflected. Grey-box testing implements
intelligent test scenarios, based on limited information. This will particularly
apply to data type handling, exception handling, and so on.

Visual Testing
The aim of visual testing is to provide developers with the ability to examine what
was happening at the point of software failure by presenting the data in such a
way that the developer can easily find the information he requires, and the
information is expressed clearly.
At the core of visual testing is the idea that showing someone a problem (or a test
failure), rather than just describing it, greatly increases clarity and understanding.
Visual testing therefore requires the recording of the entire test process capturing
everything that occurs on the test system in video format. Output videos are
supplemented by real-time tester input via picture-in-a-picture webcam and audio
commentary from microphones.

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Visual testing provides a number of advantages. The quality of communication is

increased dramatically because testers can show the problem (and the events
leading up to it) to the developer as opposed to just describing it and the need to
replicate test failures will cease to exist in many cases. The developer will have all
the evidence he requires of a test failure and can instead focus on the cause of the
fault and how it should be fixed.
Visual testing is particularly well-suited for environments that deploy agile
methods in their development of software, since agile methods require greater
communication between testers and developers and collaboration within small
teams.
Ad hoc testing and exploratory testing are important methodologies for checking
software integrity, because they require less preparation time to implement, whilst
important bugs can be found quickly. In ad hoc testing, where testing takes place
in an improvised, impromptu way, the ability of a test tool to visually record
everything that occurs on a system becomes very important.
Visual testing is gathering recognition in customer acceptance and usability
testing, because the test can be used by many individuals involved in the
development process. For the customer, it becomes easy to provide detailed bug
reports and feedback, and for program users, visual testing can record user actions
on screen, as well as their voice and image, to provide a complete picture at the
time of software failure for the developer.

TESTING LEVELS
Tests are frequently grouped by where they are added in the software development
process, or by the level of specificity of the test. The main levels during the
development process as defined by the SWEBOK guide are unit-, integration-,
and system testing that are distinguished by the test target without implying a
specific process model. Other test levels are classified by the testing objective.

TEST TARGET
Unit Testing
Unit testing, also known as component testing refers to tests that verify the
functionality of a specific section of code, usually at the function level. In an
object-oriented environment, this is usually at the class level, and the minimal unit
tests include the constructors and destructors.
These types of tests are usually written by developers as they work on code
(white-box style), to ensure that the specific function is working as expected. One
function might have multiple tests, to catch corner cases or other branches in the
code. Unit testing alone cannot verify the functionality of a piece of software, but
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rather is used to assure that the building blocks the software uses work
independently of each other.

Integration Testing
Integration testing is any type of software testing that seeks to verify the interfaces
between components against a software design. Software components may be
integrated in an iterative way or all together ("big bang"). Normally the former is
considered a better practice since it allows interface issues to be localized more
quickly and fixed.
Integration testing works to expose defects in the interfaces and interaction
between integrated components (modules). Progressively larger groups of tested
software components corresponding to elements of the architectural design are
integrated and tested until the software works as a system.

System Testing
System testing tests a completely integrated system to verify that it meets its
requirements.

System Integration Testing

System integration testing verifies that a system is integrated to any external or
third-party systems defined in the system requirements.

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TASK 08
Contents

Page No

Help desk

45

Helpline

45

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HELP DESK
There are also in-house help desks geared toward providing the same kind of help
to a company's employees. Some schools offer classes in which they perform
similar tasks as a help desk. In the Information Technology Infrastructure Library,
within companies adhering to ISO/IEC 20000 or seeking to implement IT Service
Management best practice, a help desk may offer a wider range of user centric
services and be part of a larger Service Desk.
In a business enterprise, a help desk is a place that a user of information
technology can call to get help with a problem. In many companies, a help desk is
simply one person with a phone number and a more or less organized idea of how
to handle the problems that come in. In larger companies, a help desk may consist
of a group of experts using software to help track the status of problems and other
special software to help analyze problems (for example, the status of a company's
telecommunications network).

HELPLINE
A helpline is a telephone service which offers help to those who call. Many
helpline services now offer more than telephone support - offering access to
information, advice or customer service via telephone, email, web or SMS.
Increasingly often customers require a high quality, efficient support service 24
hours a day, regardless of their geographical location.
In order for the business to be able to develop properly it is essential that
customers and users perceive themselves to be receiving a rapid and customized
service that helps them by:

Resolving service interruptions rapidly

Raising service requests
Reporting on compliance with the SLAs
Being the first port of call for sales information

The point of contact with the customer may take various forms, depending on the
breadth and depth of the services offered:
Call Centre: The aim is to manage a high volume of calls and redirect users
(except in trivial cases) to other levels of support and/or sales.
The Help Desk: Its main objective is to provide a first line of supporting
resolving service interruptions as quickly as possible.
The Service Desk: This is customers' and users' interface with the whole range of
IT services offered by the organization focusing on business processes. Apart from
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offering the services mentioned above, it provides customers, users and the IT
organization itself additional services such as:

Supervising maintenance and service level contracts

Channeling customers' Service Requests
Software license management
Centralizing all the processes associated with IT management.

The main benefits of implementing an effective Service Desk include:

Reducing costs by ensuring efficient allocation of resources

Better customer care, leading to greater satisfaction and loyalty
Opening up new business opportunities
Centralizing of processes improving communication and information
management
Proactive service support

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TASK 09
Contents

Page No

Logical security

48

Type of authentication

48

Backup and recovery

49

Encryption

53

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LOGICAL SECURITY
Logical Security consists of software safeguards for an organizations systems,
including user identification and password access, authentication, access rights
and authority levels. These measures are to ensure that only authorized users are
able to perform actions or access information in a network or a workstation. It is a
subset of computer security.

Elements of Logical Security

Elements of logical security include:
User IDs, also known as logins, user names, logons or accounts, are unique
personal identifiers for agents of a computer program or network that is accessible
by more than one agent. These identifiers are based on short strings of
alphanumeric characters, and are either assigned or chosen by the users.
Authentication is the process used by a computer program, computer, or network
to attempt to confirm the identity of a user. Blind credentials (anonymous users)
have no identity, but are allowed to enter the system. The confirmation of
identities is essential to the concept of access control, which gives access to the
authorized and excludes the unauthorized.
Biometrics authentication is the measuring of a users physiological or
behavioral features to attempt to confirm his/her identity. Physiological aspects
that are used include fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, voice patterns, facial
patterns, and hand measurements. Behavioral aspects that are used include
signature recognition, gait recognition, speaker recognition and typing pattern
recognition. When a user registers with the system which he/she will attempt to
access later, one or more of his/her physiological characteristics are obtained and
processed by a numerical algorithm. This number is then entered into a database,
and the features of the user attempting to match the stored features must match up
to a certain error rate.

TYPE OF AUTHENTICATION
Token Authentication
Token Authentication comprises security tokens which are small devices that
authorized users of computer systems or networks carry to assist in identifying
that who is logging in to a computer or network system is actually authorized.
They can also store cryptographic keys and biometric data. The most popular type
of security token (RSAs Secure ID) displays a number which changes every
minute. Users are authenticated by entering a personal identification number and
the number on the token. The token contains a time of day clock and a unique seed
value, and the number displayed is a cryptographic hash of the seed value and the
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time of day. The computer which is being accessed also contains the same
algorithm and is able to match the number by matching the users seed and time of
day. Clock error is taken into account, and values a few minutes off are sometimes
accepted. Another similar type of token (CRYPTO Card) can produce a value each
time a button is pressed. Other security tokens can connect directly to the
computer through USB, Smart card or Bluetooth ports, or through special purpose
interfaces. Cell phones and PDA's can also be used as security tokens with proper
programming.

Password Authentication
Password Authentication uses secret data to control access to a particular resource.
Usually, the user attempting to access the network, computer or computer program
is queried on whether they know the password or not, and is granted or denied
access accordingly. Passwords are either created by the user or assigned, similar to
usernames. However, once assigned a password, the user usually is given the
option to change the password to something of his/her choice. Depending on the
restrictions of the system or network, the user may change his/her password to any
alphanumeric sequence. Usually, limitations to password creation include length
restrictions, a requirement of a number, uppercase letter or special character, or
not being able to use the past four or five changed passwords associated with the
username. In addition, the system may force a user to change his/her password
after a given amount of time.

Two-Way Authentication
Two-Way Authentication involves both the user and system or network
convincing each other that they know the shared password without transmitting
this password over any communication channel. This is done by using the
password as the encryption key to transmit a randomly generated piece of
information, or the challenge. The other side must then return a similarly
encrypted value which is some predetermined function of the originally offered
information, his/her - response, which proves that he/she was able to decrypt the
challenge. Kerberos (a computer network authentication protocol) is a good
example of this, as it sends an encrypted integer N, and the response must be the
encrypted integer N + 1.

BACKUP AND RECOVERY

A computer backup is a copy of electronic data stored separately from the original
files. In the event that the original data set gets corrupted, damaged, deleted or
lost, the backup can be used to recover or restore the data. A backup therefore
minimizes the risk of irretrievably losing data.
Backups are necessary because data has value. Whether this is sentimental,
commercial, or legal value, a backup is a way of securing valuable information. In
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a world where a great deal of information is traded digitally, almost everyone

owns data that has financial value, for example purchased music or eBooks.

Creating a Backup and Recovery Plan

Data backup is an insurance plan. Important files are accidentally deleted all the
time. Mission-critical data can become corrupt. Natural disasters can leave your
office in ruin. With a solid backup and recovery plan, you can recover from any of
these. Without one, you're left with nothing to fall back on.

Figuring Out a Backup Plan

It takes time to create and implement a backup and recovery plan. We'll need to
figure out what data needs to be backed up, how often the data should be backed
up, and more. Following factors are to help create a plan;

What type of information does the data contain? Data that doesn't seem
important to us may be very important to someone else. Thus, the type of
information the data contains can help us determine if we need to back up the
data - as well as when and how the data should be backed up.

How often does the data change? The frequency of change can affect the
decision on how often the data should be backed up. For example, data that
changes daily should be backed up daily.

How quickly do we need to recover the data? Time is an important factor in

creating a backup plan. For critical systems, we may need to get back online
swiftly. To do this, we may need to alter the backup plan.

Do we have the equipment to perform backups? We must have backup

hardware to perform backups. To perform timely backups, we may need
several backup devices and several sets of backup media. Backup hardware
includes tape drives, optical drives, and removable disk drives. Generally, tape
drives are less expensive but slower than other types of drives.

Who will be responsible for the backup and recovery plan? Ideally,
someone should be a primary contact for the organization's backup and
recovery plan. This person may also be responsible for performing the actual
backup and recovery of data.

What is the best time to schedule backups? Scheduling backups when

system use is as low as possible will speed the backup process. However, we
can't always schedule backups for off-peak hours. So we'll need to carefully
plan when key system data is backed up.

Do we need to store backups off-site? Storing copies of backup tapes off-site

is essential to recovering the systems in the case of a natural disaster. In the

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off-site storage location, we should also include copies of the software we may
need to install to reestablish operational systems.

Detailed Backup Checklist

Take the follow checklist as a rough outline and personalize it to reflect the
individual system setup. If we find that the files are all over the place, consider the
next chapter and take some time to organize the files and folders in a smart way.
We will find that small changes will increase the safety of the files and make
backup project easier.
We can break down the list into three categories:

Personal Files - default locations for files you personally created

Media Files - default location for media files you have copied or downloaded
Application Data - default locations of software user profiles and settings

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The Basic Types of Backup

There are many techniques for backing up files.

Normal/full backups - All files that have been selected are backed up,
regardless of the setting of the archive attribute. When a file is backed up, the
archive attribute is cleared. If the file is later modified, this attribute is set,
which indicates that the file needs to be backed up.

Copy backups - All files that have been selected are backed up, regardless of
the setting of the archive attribute. Unlike a normal backup, the archive
attribute on files isn't modified. This allows you to perform other types of
backups on the files at a later date.

Differential backups - Designed to create backup copies of files that have

changed since the last normal backup. The presence of the archive attribute
indicates that the file has been modified and only files with this attribute are
backed up. However, the archive attribute on files isn't modified. This allows
you to perform other types of backups on the files at a later date.

Incremental backups - Designed to create backups of files that have changed

since the most recent normal or incremental backup. The presence of the
archive attribute indicates that the file has been modified and only files with
this attribute are backed up. When a file is backed up, the archive attribute is
cleared. If the file is later modified, this attribute is set, which indicates that
the file needs to be backed up.

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Daily backups - Designed to back up files using the modification date on the
file itself. If a file has been modified on the same day as the backup, the file
will be backed up. This technique doesn't change the archive attributes of files.

Backing up the Data

Microsoft Windows 7 provides a backup utility, called Backup, for creating
backups on local and remote systems. We use Backup to archive files and folders,
restore archived files and folders, access media pools reserved for Backup, access
remote resources through My Network Places, create snapshots of the system state
for backup and restore, schedule backups through the Task Scheduler, and create
emergency repair disks.

Recovering Data Using the Restore Wizard

We can restore files with the Windows 7 Backup utility using the Restore Wizard
or the Restore tab.

Disaster Recovery And Preparation

Backups are only one part of a comprehensive disaster recovery plan. We also
need to have Emergency Repair disks and Boot disks on hand to ensure that we
can recover systems in a wide variety of situations. We may also need to install
the Recovery Console.
When we set out to recover a system, we should follow these steps:

Try to start the system in Safe Mode.

Try to recover the system using the Emergency Repair disk (if available).
Try to recover the system using the Recovery Console.
Restore the system from backup. Be sure to restore the system state data as
well as any essential files.

ENCRYPTION
Encryption is the conversion of data into a form, called a cipher text that cannot be
easily understood by unauthorized people. Decryption is the process of converting
encrypted data back into its original form, so it can be understood.
The use of encryption/decryption is as old as the art of communication. In
wartime, a cipher, often incorrectly called a code, can be employed to keep the
enemy from obtaining the contents of transmissions. (Technically, a code is a
means of representing a signal without the intent of keeping it secret; examples
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are Morse code and ASCII.) Simple ciphers include the substitution of letters for
numbers, the rotation of letters in the alphabet, and the "scrambling" of voice
signals by inverting the sideband frequencies. More complex ciphers work
according to sophisticated computer algorithms that rearrange the data bits in
digital signals.
In order to easily recover the contents of an encrypted signal, the correct
decryption key is required. The key is an algorithm that undoes the work of the
encryption algorithm. Alternatively, a computer can be used in an attempt to break
the cipher. The more complex the encryption algorithm, the more difficult it
becomes to eavesdrop on the communications without access to the key.
Encryption/decryption is especially important in wireless communications. This is
because wireless circuits are easier to tap than their hard-wired counterparts.
Nevertheless, encryption/decryption is a good idea when carrying out any kind of
sensitive transaction, such as a credit-card purchase online, or the discussion of a
company secret between different departments in the organization. The stronger
the cipher -- that is, the harder it is for unauthorized people to break it -- the better,
in general. However, as the strength of encryption/decryption increases, so does
the cost.
In recent years, a controversy has arisen over so-called strong encryption. This
refers to ciphers that are essentially unbreakable without the decryption keys.
While most companies and their customers view it as a means of keeping secrets
and minimizing fraud, some governments view strong encryption as a potential
vehicle by which terrorists might evade authorities. These governments, including
that of the United States, want to set up a key-escrow arrangement. This means
everyone who uses a cipher would be required to provide the government with a
copy of the key. Decryption keys would be stored in a supposedly secure place,
used only by authorities, and used only if backed up by a court order. Opponents
of this scheme argue that criminals could hack into the key-escrow database and
illegally obtain, steal, or alter the keys. Supporters claim that while this is a
possibility, implementing the key escrow scheme would be better than doing
nothing to prevent criminals from freely using encryption/decryption.

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REFERENCES
__________________________________________________________________
http://www.techterms.com/definition/mips
http://www.kitchentablecomputers.com/processor2.php
http://www.ehow.com/facts_7232619_processor-speed-performance.html
http://www.webopedia.com/term/c/CD_ROM.html
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-dvd-rom.htm
http://www.igcseict.info/theory/3/optic/index.html
http://tutor2u.net/business/ict/intro_information_data_storage.htm
http://www.techterms.com/definition/storagecapacity
http://www.scribd.com/doc/46461476/secondary-storage-devices
http://openbookproject.net/courses/intro2ict/hardware/peripherals.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitor
http://www.techterms.com/definition/vram
http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/p/printer.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directory_structure
http://www.w3.org/2002/07/DIAT/posn/salzburg.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup
http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/solid-state-storage
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57 - 57

(IDM City Campus #3/HND/Sem1/Computer Platforms/Parklands Garden Supplies)

YOKANATHAN PREMANANTH

- Edexcel Reg. No. CH56848