Torsion Design

of Structural Concrete
Based on ACI 318-05
By Mahmoud E. Kamara, Ph.D., and Basile G. Rabbat, Ph.D., S.E.

PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
SERIES

September 2007

Professional Development Series

Torsion Design of Structural Concrete

By Mahmoud E. Kamara, Ph.D.,
Based on ACI 318-05

and Basile G. Rabbat, Ph.D., S.E.

orsional moment develops in structural concrete

members as a result of asymmetrical loading or
member geometry, or as a result of structural framing. For example, spandrel beams built integrally
with the floor slab are subject to torsional moment resulting
from the restraining negative bending moment at the exterior end of the slab. The restraining moment is proportional
to the torsional stiffness of the spandrel beam. In complex
structures such as helical stairways, curved beams, and eccentrically loaded box beams, torsional effects dominate the
structural behavior. Torsional moment tends to twist the
structural member around its longitudinal axis, inducing shear
stresses. However, structural members are rarely subjected to
pure torsional moment. In most cases, torsional moments act
concurrently with bending moment and shear forces.
During the first half of the twentieth century, structural
codes were silent regarding torsion design. Torsion was looked
at as a secondary effect that was covered in the factor of safety
considered in the design. Demand for more complex structures, improved methods of analysis, new design approaches,
and the need for more economical design required a better
understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete members
subjected to torsion. In the second half of the twentieth
century, research activities helped engineers understand many
aspects of behavior of concrete members under torsion.
This article focuses on torsion in solid and hollow closed

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sections. Thin, open C- and U-shaped sections subject to

torsion suffer distortions (referred to as Vlasov torsion), and
are not covered in this article. The procedure presented herein
reflects the provisions of the American Concrete Institutes
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI
318-05) (Reference 1) and those of the soon-to-be-published
ACI 318-08. All section numbers within this article refer to
ACI 318-05. Note that the fourth edition of the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
Load and Resistance Factor Design (AASHTO LRFD) Bridge
Design Specifications prescribes torsion design approaches
for structural concrete members slightly different from those
of ACI 318.

Equilibrium versus compatibility torsion

It is important for designers to distinguish between
two types of torsions: equilibrium torsion and compatibility torsion (References 2 and 3). Equilibrium torsion occurs
when the torsional resistance is required to maintain static
equilibrium. For this case, if sufficient torsional resistance
is not provided, the structure will become unstable and
collapse. External loads have no alternative load path and
must be resisted by torsion.
Compatibility torsion develops where redistribution of
torsional moments to adjacent members can occur. The term
compatibility refers to the compatibility of deformation between

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Learning Objectives
This article discusses torsion in
concrete structures. Upon reading the
article and completing the quiz, the
reader should be able to understand
the behavior and design of structural concrete members subjected
to torsion. The article presents the
American Concrete Institutes Building
Code (ACI 318-05) design provisions
and detailing requirements for torsion
design. All referenced items are from
ACI 318-05, unless noted otherwise.
Also, all notations and definitions in
the article are in accordance with
Chapter 2 of ACI 318-05.

Professional Development
Series Sponsor
Portland Cement Association

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Torsion Design of Structural Concrete

adjacent parts of
a structure. As an
example, consider
a spandrel beam
supporting an exterior slab. As load on
Figure 1: Thin-wall tube analogy
the slab increases,
so does the negative slab end
moment, which
induces torsion in
the spandrel beam.
The negative slab
end moment will
be proportional to
the torsional stiffFigure 2: Space truss analogy
ness of the spandrel beam. When
the magnitude of the torsional moment exceeds the cracking
torque, torsional cracks spiral around the member, and the
cracked torsional stiffness of the spandrel beam is significantly
reduced (Reference 4). As a result, some of the slab negative
end moment is redistributed to the slab midspan.
In cases where equilibrium torsion exists or torsional
behavior dominates the structural actions, the designer must
design for the maximum torsional moments.

Behavior of beams in torsion

Prior to cracking, a torsional moment applied to a concrete
member is resisted by internal shear stresses. The largest shear
stresses occur in the middle of the outside faces or perimeter
of the cross section. Shear stresses lead to diagonal principal
tensile and compressive stresses. When the diagonal tension
exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete, diagonal cracking occurs. It has been observed in experiments on beams
subject to torsion that once the crack initiates, it spirals
around the perimeter of the member. Simultaneously, the
beam torsional stiffness drops significantly. It takes significant
twisting before recovering the cracking torque. Upon further
torsional loading, excessive twisting deformations lead to
spalling of the concrete cover over the transverse reinforcement. Hence, transverse reinforcement must be properly
anchored with 135-degree hooks.
It has further been observed experimentally that solid
and hollow beams of similar external cross section and with
similar longitudinal and transverse reinforcement achieve
comparable torsional strengths (References 5 and 6). Thus,
in a solid beam, part of the concrete core separates from
the outer shell (inside the transverse reinforcement) and
becomes inefficient. Therefore, when the torsional strength
of a beam is reached, a solid section can be represented by a
hollow section of the same external dimensions.

Evolution of torsion design provisions

The first design provision for torsion appeared in ACI 31863. It consisted of one sentence, which prescribed the use of
closed stirrups in edge and spandrel beams and one longi

tudinal bar in each corner of those closed

stirrups. Comprehensive design provisions
for torsion were introduced in the 1971
code. These design requirements remained
essentially unchanged through the 1992 code.
These first-generation provisions were semi-empirical
and applied only to reinforced, non-prestressed concrete
members. The design procedure for torsion was analogous to
that for shear. Torsional strength consisted of a contribution
from concrete, Tc , and a contribution from stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement, Ts, based on a skew bending model.
The design provisions for torsion were completely revised
in the 1995 code and remain essentially unchanged since
then. The design procedure for solid and hollow members is
based on a thin-walled tube, space truss analogy. This unified
approach applies equally to non-prestressed and prestressed
concrete members.

Background of torsion design

For design purposes, the center portion of a solid beam can
conservatively be neglected. This assumption is supported
by test results reported in References 5 and 6. Therefore,
the beam is idealized as a tube. Torsion is resisted through
T
constant shear flow, q= 2Ao , acting around the centerline of
the tube as shown in Figure 1. By definition, shear flow is a
force per unit length of wall centerline, where Ao is the area
enclosed within the wall centerline.
When a concrete beam is subjected to a torsional moment,
shear stresses lead to diagonal tensile stresses. When the
diagonal tension exceeds 4 fca , where f c = the specified
compressive strength of concrete in pounds per square inch
(psi), diagonal cracks spiral around the beam. After cracking, the tube is idealized as a space truss as shown in Figure
2. In this truss, diagonal members are inclined at an angle
. For members with longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, inclination of the diagonals is assumed to be the
same in all tube walls. Note that this angle is not necessarily 45 degrees. The resultant of the shear flow in each tube
wall induces forces in the truss members. A basic premise
for structural concrete design is that concrete is strong in
compression, while steel is strong in tension. Therefore, in
the truss analogy, truss members that are in tension consist
of steel reinforcement or tension ties. Truss diagonals and
other members that are in compression consist of concrete
compression struts. Forces in the truss members can be
determined from equilibrium conditions. These forces are
used to proportion and detail the reinforcement.
Figure 3 depicts a free body extracted from the front vertical wall of the truss of Figure 2. Shear force, V2, is equal to the
shear flow, q, times the height of the wall, yo. To achieve ductility in structural concrete members, reinforcement is designed
to yield before the concrete crushes. Stirrups are designed to
yield when the maximum torque is reached. The number of
stirrups intersected is a function of the stirrup spacing, s, and
the horizontal projection, yocot of the inclined surface.
A free body diagram for horizontal equilibrium is shown
in Figure 4 (page PDH5). The vertical shear force, Vi , in wall

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Torsion Design of Structural Concrete

i is equal to the product of the shear flow,
q, times the length of the wall, yi . Vector Vi
can be replaced by two vectors: a diagonal
component, Di , with an inclination equal to
the angle of the truss diagonals; and a horizontal
component, Ni , centered at the mid height of the wall
as shown in the figure.
Torsion can be neglected if the factored torque, Tu , is less
than fTcr /4, where
Acp2
Tcr 4fc a pcp

is the cracking torque (Section 11.6.1); f = strength reduction factor for torsion; Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross section, including the void of hollow
cross-sections; and pcp = outside perimeter of concrete
cross-section. The cracking torque corresponds to a principal
tensile stress of 4 fca .
Whether a reinforced concrete
member is subject
to torsion only,
or
to
flexure
combined with
shear, the stiffness
of that member
will
decrease
Figure 3: Free body diagram for vertical
after
cracking.
equilibrium
The reduction in
torsional stiffness
after cracking of a member subject to torsion only is much
larger than the reduction in flexural stiffness after cracking of
a member subject to bending only. If the torsional moment,
Tu , in a member cannot be reduced by redistribution of
internal forces in the structure (equilibrium torsion), that
member must be designed for the full torsional moment,
Tu (Section 11.6.2.1). If redistribution of internal forces can
occur, as in indeterminate structures (compatibility torsion),
the design torque can be reduced. Members subject to
compatibility torsion need not be designed for a torque
larger than the product of the cracking torque times the
strength reduction factor f (which is 0.75 for torsion,). For
cases of compatibility torsion where Tu > fTcr , the member
can be designed for fTcr only, provided redistribution of
internal forces is accounted for in the design of the other
members of the structure (Section 11.6.2.2).

Torsional moment strength

The design torsional strength should be equal to or greater
than the required torsional strength: jTn Tu. The nominal
torsional moment strength in terms of stirrup yield strength is:
2Ao At fyt
Tn =
cot R
s
where Ao = 0.85Aoh and Aoh = area enclosed by centerline
of the outermost closed transverse torsional reinforcement
having a yield strength fyt , as illustrated in Figure 5; and
= angle of compression diagonal, ranges between 30 and
60 degrees. It is suggested in Section 11.6.3.6 to use = 45
degrees for non-prestressed members and = 37.5 degrees
for prestressed members with prestress force greater than 40
percent of tensile strength of the longitudinal reinforcement.
To resist torsion, transverse as well as longitudinal reinforcement is required. The total area of longitudinal reinforcement
Al distributed around the perimeter is computed from:

( ) ( )

At
fyt
A!  s ph f cot 2 R
y
where At = area of transverse torsional reinforcement at spacing s; ph = perimeter of outermost transverse reinforcement;
and fy = yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement.

Maximum torsional capacity

To reduce unsightly cracking and prevent crushing of the
concrete compression struts before yielding of the reinforcement, Section 11.6.3.1 prescribes an upper limit for the
maximum nominal shear stress due to shear and torsion,
analogous to that due to shear only. In solid sections, stresses
due to shear act over the full width of the section, while
stresses due to torsion are assumed resisted by a thin-walled
tube. Thus, Section 11.6.3.1 specifies an elliptical interaction
between stresses due to shear and those due to torsion for
solid sections as follows:

( bV d )2+(1.7AT p )2bG( bV d +8
u
w

u h
oh2

c
w

f ca

For hollow sections, the interaction is linear and expressed as:

Tp
( bV d )+(1.7A
)bG( bV d +8
u
w

u h
oh2

c
w

f ca

where Vc is the contribution of concrete to shear strength of

non-prestressed and prestressed concrete members.

Critical section

Details of torsional reinforcement

In non-prestressed members, the critical section for torsion

design is at distance d (effective depth) from the face of
support. Sections located at a distance less than d from the
face of support must be designed for the torque at distance d
from the support. Where a cross beam frames into a girder at
a distance less than d from the support, a concentrated torque
occurs in the girder within distance d. In such cases, the
design torque must be taken at the face of support. The same
rule applies to prestressed members, except that h/2 replaces
d, where h is the overall height of composite section.

Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement are required

to resist torsion. Longitudinal reinforcement may consist
of non-prestressed or prestressed reinforcement. Transverse
reinforcement may consist of stirrups, welded wire reinforcement, or spiral reinforcement. To control widths of diagonal
cracks, the design yield strength of longitudinal and transverse torsional reinforcement must not exceed 60,000 psi
(Section 11.6.3.4).
In the truss analogy illustrated in Figure 2, the diagonal
compression strut forces bear against the longitudinal corner

 PDH

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Torsion Design of Structural Concrete

r e i n f o rc e m e n t .
In each wall, the
component of the
diagonal struts,
perpendicular to
the longitudinal
Figure 4: Free body diagram for horireinforcement is
zontal equilibrium
transferred from
the longitudinal
reinforcement to
the transverse reinforcement. It has
been observed in
torsional tests of
beams loaded to
destruction that
as the maximum
torque is reached,
the concrete cover
spalls. The forces
in the compression struts outside
of the stirrups, for
example within
Figure 5: Definition of Aoh
the concrete cover,
push out the
concrete shell. Based on this observation, Section 11.6.4.2
specifies that the stirrups should be closed, with 135-degree
hooks or seismic hooks as defined in Section 21.1. Stirrups with
90-degree hooks become ineffective when the concrete cover
spalls. Similarly, lapped U-shaped stirrups have been found to
be inadequate for resisting torsion due to lack of bond when
the concrete cover spalls. Additionally, for hollow sections, the
distance from the centerline of the transverse torsional reinforcement to the inside face of the wall of the hollow section
must not be less than 0.5Aoh /ph (Section 11.6.4.4).

Minimum torsion reinforcement

To ensure ductility of non-prestressed and prestressed
concrete members, minimum reinforcement is specified
for flexure (Section 10.5) and for shear (Section 11.5.6).
Similarly, minimum transverse and longitudinal reinforcement is specified in Section 11.6.5 whenever Tu > fTcr /4.
Usually, a member subject to torsion will also be simultaneously subjected to shear. The minimum area of stirrups for
shear and torsion is computed from:
(Av + 2At) = 0.75

bw s 50bw s
f ca f r f
yt
yt

The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement is computed

from:
A!,min =

f ca Acp

fy

( )

fyt
At
- s ph fy

where At /s (due to torsion only) must not be taken less

than 25bw /fyt.

Spacing of torsion
reinforcement
Spacing of stirrups must not exceed the
smaller of ph /8 and 12 inches. For a square
beam subject to torsion, this maximum spacing is analogous to a spacing of about d/2 in a beam
subject to shear.
The longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion must
be distributed around the perimeter of the closed stirrups,
at a maximum spacing of 12 inches. In the truss analogy, the compression struts push against the longitudinal
reinforcement, which transfers the transverse forces to the
stirrups. Thus, the longitudinal bars should be inside the
stirrups. There should be at least one longitudinal bar or
tendon in each corner of the stirrups to help transmit the
forces from the compression struts to the transverse reinforcement. To avoid buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement due to the transverse component of the compression
struts, the longitudinal reinforcement must have a diameter
not less than 1/24 of the stirrup spacing, but not less than
3/8 of an inch.

Summary of ACI 318-05 Code Design

Approach
The following steps summarize the design provisions
outlined in Chapter 11 of ACI 318-05 for members subjected
to the combined effects of flexure, shear, and torsion. The
same provisions appear in ACI 318-08 except that the
sections have been renumbered.
Step 1 Determine the maximum factored torsional
moment, Tu , at the critical section of the member from
structural analysis of the framing system, based on the applicable factored load combination(s).
Step 2 Determine whether torsional effects need to
be considered by comparing the factored torsional moment
Tu to fTcr /4, where Tcr is calculated as follows for nonprestressed members:

(A )
cp2

Tcr = G4 fca Pcp

inch-pounds (in.-lb); and

for prestressed members:

(A )
cp2

Tcr = G4 fca Pcp

fpc

1+ 4 f a
c

in.-lb.

If Tu < Tcr /4, then torsional effects need not be considered, and the member must be designed for the effects of
flexure and shear only (Section 11.6.1). However, if Tu
Tcr /4, the section must be designed for the effects of flexure,
shear, and torsion. The following steps apply when torsional
effects must be considered.
Step 3 Ascertain whether the torsional moment Tu
determined in Step 1 can be reduced by redistribution of
internal forces after torsional cracking. For members in a
statically indeterminate structure where redistribution of
forces can occur, the maximum factored torsional moment
at the critical section can be reduced to fTcr where Tcr is as
computed in Step 2.

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Torsion Design of Structural Concrete

It is important to note that the redistribution of internal forces must be considered in the design of the adjoining members
(Section 11.6.2.2); the reactions from the
adjoining members after redistribution must be
transferred to the member that is subjected to the
torsional moments.
When fTcr /4 < Tu < fTcr , the section should be designed
to resist Tu . For members in which redistribution of the forces
is not possible, the maximum factored torsional moment,
Tu , at the critical section determined in Step 1 cannot be
reduced (Section 11.6.2.1).
Step 4 Check adequacy of cross-sectional dimensions
(Section 11.6.3) as follows for solid sections:
T p 2
( bV d )2+(1.7A
) bG( bV d +8
u
w

u h
oh2

c
w

f ca

) in.-lb; and

f ca

) in.-lb.

for hollow sections:

T p
( bV d )+(1.7A
)bG( bV d +8
u
w

u h
oh2

c
w

The nominal shear strength provided by the concrete,

Vc , can be determined from ACI 318-05 Equation 11-3 for
non-prestressed members and Equation 11-9 for prestressed
members with an effective prestress force not less than 40
percent of the tensile strength of the flexural reinforcement.
The cross-sectional dimensions must be adjusted when the
above applicable equation is not satisfied.
Step 5 Determine transverse reinforcement required
for torsion (Section 11.6.3.6):
Tu
At
s = G2Ao fyt cot R
where Ao = 0.85Aoh and = 45 degrees for non-prestressed
members, 37.5 degrees for prestressed members with an
effective prestress force not less than 40 percent of the tensile
strength of the longitudinal reinforcement. Note that fyt
must not exceed 60,000 psi (Section 11.6.3.4). Values of
At /s can be determined at various locations along the span,
depending on the variation of Tu .
Step 6 Determine transverse reinforcement required
for shear (Section 11.5.6):
Av Vu - GVc
=
2s 2Gfyt d
Values of Av /2s can be determined at various locations
along the span, depending on the variation of Vu , and, for
prestressed members, also depending on the variation of Vc
(see Equation 11-9).
Step 7 Determine the total required transverse reinforcement per leg and the maximum allowable spacing,
considering the most restrictive requirements for shear and
torsion (Sections 11.6.3.8, 11.6.5.2, and 11.6.6.1):
At Av 25bw
+ r f
in.-lb;
s 2s
yt
where the maximum closed stirrup spacing, s, is the smaller
 PDH

of ph /8; 12 inches; and d/2 for non-prestressed members, or

3h /4 for prestressed members.
Step 8 Determine longitudinal reinforcement required
for torsion (Sections 11.6.3.7, 11.6.5.3):

( ) ( )

At
fyt
A!  s ph f cot 2 R
r
A!,min
y
where
A!,min =

f ca Acp

fy

( )

fyt
At
- s ph fy in.-lb.

Step 9 Combine the longitudinal reinforcement

required for torsion with that which is required for flexure (Section 11.6.3.8). To achieve a uniform distribution of
reinforcement around the perimeter of the section, assign
approximately one-quarter of Al to each face. For nonprestressed members, provide an area of steel equal to at
least Al /4 on each side face of the section, and add Al/4
to the negative and positive flexural reinforcement at the
top and bottom of the section, respectively. For prestressed
members, provide additional reinforcing bars with a tensile
capacity of Alfy , or use any overcapacity of the tendons to
resist some of the axial force Alfy .

Selected References
1) ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete (ACI 318-05) and Commentary (ACI
318R-05), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Mich., 2005.
2) Fanella, D. A. and Rabbat, B.G., Design of Concrete Beams
for Torsion, Engineering Bulletin EB106.02D, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, Ill., 1997.
3) Kamara, M.E., and Rabbat, B.G., editors, Notes on ACI 31805 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete with
Design Applications, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
Ill., EB705, 2005.
4) Lampert, Paul, Post-cracking Stiffness of Reinforced Concrete
Beams in Torsion and Bending, ACI Special Publication SP35, pages 385-433, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Mich., 1973.
5) Lampert, P., and Thurlimann, B., Torsionsversuch an
Stahlbetonbalken (Torsion Tests of Reinforced Concrete
Beams), Bericht Nr. 6506-2, 101 pages, Institute of Baustatik,
ETH, Zurich, Switzerland (in German), 1968.
6) MacGregor, J. G., and Ghoneim, M. G., Design for Torsion,
ACI Structural Journal, V. 92, No. 2, pages 211-218, Mar.Apr. 1995.

Mahmoud E. Kamara, Ph.D., is a senior structural engineer at

the Portland Cement Association in Skokie, Ill. He can be reached
at [email protected]. Basile G. Rabbat, Ph.D., S.E., is the
manager of structural codes at the Portland Cement Association.

Special Advertising Section Portland Cement Association

Torsion Design of Structural Concrete

Quiz Instructions
On the Professional Development Series Reporting Form below,
circle the correct answer for each of the following questions.
1. P
 rior to cracking, a torsional moment applied to a concrete
member is resisted by internal shear stresses. The largest
shear stresses occur at:

a) the middle of the outside faces of the section

b) the corners of the section
c) the center of the section
d) none of the above

a) transverse reinforcement
b) longitudinal reinforcement
c) transverse reinforcement and longitudinal reinforcement
d) none of the above

a) moment distribution
b) thin-walled tube, space truss analogy
c) finite element
d) virtual work

a) with 90-degree hook

b) with 135-degree hook
c) to the longitudinal reinforcement
d) in the compression zone

a) 7.5

f ca

b) 6.7

f ca

c) 4

f ca

c) Tcr /4

d) Tu /4

a) d/2

b) h/2

c) h

d) d

d) 2

f ca

a) d/2
b) the smaller of ph /8 and 12 inches
c) the smaller of ph /8 and 8 inches
d) 18 inches

9. T
 he longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion must
be distributed around the perimeter of the closed stirrups,
at a maximum spacing not to exceed:
a) d

b) 6 inches

c) 12 inches

d) 18 inches

10. A
 rectangular cross section in a statically indeterminate
member, where redistribution of forces is possible, is
subjected to a factored torsional moment Tu = 80 footkips. Assuming that the sections cracking moment multiplied by strength reduction factor Tcr = 100 foot-kips,
which of the following statements is correct:

5. In beams subjected to torsional moment, diagonal cracks

form when diagonal tension exceeds (in psi units):

b) Tcr

7. In non-prestressed members, the critical section for torsion

design is at distance:

4. T
 ransverse reinforcement required for torsion must be
anchored:

a) Tcr

8. Spacing of stirrups required for torsion must not exceed:

3. The current ACI 318 design provisions for torsion are based on:

2. Reinforcement required to resist torsion consists of:

6. F
 or members in a statically indeterminate structure where redistribution of
forces can occur, the maximum factored
torsional moment at the critical section can
be reduced to:

a) torsional effects need not be considered

b) the section must be designed for torsional moment = 80
foot-kips
c) the section must be designed for torsional moment = 100
foot-kips
d) the section must be designed for torsional moment = 25
foot-kips

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Structural Engineers Professional Development Series Reporting Form

Article Title: Torsion Design of Structural Concrete Based on ACI 318-05
Sponsor: Portland Cement Association

Publication Date: September 2007

Valid for credit until: September 2009

Instructions:

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Fax this Reporting Form to 847-972-9059. (You do not need to send the Quiz; only this Reporting Form is necessary to be submitted.)
1.

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2.

6.

10.

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7.

4.

8.

Required contact information

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