CHAPTER 1

The Concept of Word

Sabda and pada both are synonymous in relation to each other. Among the theistic school of
philosophy, realist Naiyayika accepts a relation between a sabda and an artha. According to them,
sabda is also a means of valid cognition. But, in such context, sabda does not mean a word. Artha is
the meaning. Meaning is nothing but the object that is denoted by the word. If we render this
concept in Sanskrit it is called (signifier-signified relation). is the object and
is the word. In other words, it is the word and its meaning.
Different types of classifications of words are found in Sanskrit sastras as they have good
number of definitions on varieties of words. When we consider Yaskas 'Nirukta', the first Vedic
lexicon, it supplies four types of classification of words. They are (noun), (verb),
(affix) and (particle). Also, Yaska says that nouns are predominantly 'being' and verbs are
predominantly 'becoming'.
Patanjali, author of the mahabhashya, providies another sort of classification of sabda, as
follows- , , , , 1 The of a
word is categorized in four ways, they are subsequently
1. Universal
2. Property
3. Action
4. Name
In this context, Veluri Subbarao (1969) writes - There is at another division of the word into
those which express genus, action, quality and matter. Genus is that which is permanent one and
common to many. Quality is that which has genus in it and at the same time different from matter
and acting. Action is the non-inherent of contact itself (the cause) being different from contact
matter is the substratum of quality or action. Examples for the above class of words are
1 MB 1.1, page 113

1. (cow)
The word cow qualified the universal cowness () denotes an object () (which has a
shape ( )). Thus, this is called a padartha. On what is considered to be a padartha,
there are differences of opinions among philosophical schools. Grammarians unite with
2

2. (whitish)
To distinguish a viseshya word, words in this category are used. Example: (a white
cow) In this sentence, the guna word is It qualifies the viseshya
3. (moving)
This example denotes an object in action (). In Mahabhashya, it is said that
(action governs the activity of syntactic-semantic relations)
4. (a name, known on convention)
(a man named dittha comes here) Of late, people are fond of using
conventional names which has already been attested by Patanjali.
Dandi also says thus
3
As is stated earlier, Naiyayikas define also sabda as a means of communication by a trust
worthy person ( ). Keeping it as a aside, Naiyayikas classify word into four
types. They are as follows
1. (conventional)
2. (derivative)
3. (derivative-conventional) and
4. (derivative or conventional)
The author of , Jagadisa, also accepts four types of words which are

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But, in addition he proposes (metaphor) as the fifth one with a slight change in the order of
classification. Whatever may be the classification of sabda, Indian philosophers have discussed its
aspects in full length and breadth. Bhartrhari, Nagesa, Jagadeesa, Gadadhara and Kounda Bhatta are
remarkable in this context.
As discussed earlier, a word () denotes an object () and that is called a "padartha" in
Sanskrit. Padartha, bears the meaning of genitive tatpurusha compound in Sanskrit. The relation
between sabda and artha is eternal. Hence non-existing things in reality are not allowed such as the
'sky flower', 'rabbits horn' etc. Though the relation between sabda and artha is eternal, my aim is
not to discuss the eternality or non-eternality of sabda.
Naiyayikas have contributed a lot to the philosophy of language. Gadadhara's vyutpattivada
is such a text. "vyutpattivada presents the essence of the principle of linguistic understanding being
debated upon in an un broken tradition in India for several millennium5. This is a text focussed on
sabdabodha. Sabdabodha means verbal testimony which comes under the branch of epistemology.

Four types of words according to Naiyayikas:

1.

(conventional) is that, conventional usage dominates the etymological meaning. For instance, words

such as , , etc. are attributed with this category. So, the meaning of a word that is not
directly connected with its derivation is becoming a insted of depending on the part
meanings. The meaning of the word is determined independently. It is clear for the examples given
above. These are called s or derivable simple words.
2.

(derivative)In usage, when a word etymologically retains the vacakatva or signification and also "its

meaning is determined by those of its opponent part, as it does not signify anything more or less
than the meaning of its parts the example is the word pacaka here the root of this used connotes the
action of cooking and the suffix aka connotes the agent of action.
3.
5

(derivative-convention) VV Preface, vii

The intricacy of division lies in its (the totality of the denotative function is in
its group elements) In this classification of words, both the conventional and derivational
meaning of the word refers to the same entity or object. Based on the contact a derivative or
' (a lotus).
conventional meaning we can interpret. The famous example is the word '
According to the etymology, meaning of this word is 'a thing that grows in the mud' but by
convention, we assume it for a lotus. The conventional usage i.e. a thing that grows in mud is
restricted. Hence, there is a popular saying (conventional usage
dominates over derivative usage as it is quickly grasped) Nagesa also asserts the same in other
words, (rudhi takes away the meaning of the yogartha) Otherwise the term
pankaja might refer to anything that grows in mud. This is because when we hear the word pankaja
we recollect the conventional meaning immediately.
Another example in this category is which is a compound word. Etymologically the
word means a black-snake, but conventional usage dominates over the derivative use such as to
mean a poisonous cobra. Similarly,
-

(the water lily grows in mud) and

(a lotus is blossomed in the mud)

in these examples, depending on the proximity of other words, the word '' takes different senses
which is possible only through metaphor.
4.

(derivative or conventional)

When the meaning of the word can be ascertained either etymologically from the meanings
of its component parts, or conventionally from usage by the whole word taken together, it is called
Words in this category are capable to convey a derivative or conventional use of the
word established on the context.
An example word in this category is ' ' which etymologically means a sprout. But, when
we intend to use this word in its conventional sense it is the name of a sacrifice as seen in the
example (perform the udbhid named sacrifice). Another example in this category is the
word which conveys the meaning 'having the smell of a horse'. In its etymological sense
the given meaning is appropriate whereas in its conventional usage the above word should be
interpreted as the name of a particular plant in Ayurveda. "It is quite possible to consider that it is
an instance of two words with two different meanings having the same form one being and
4

the other "

However, all these words are used to denote a relevant meaning. Therefore, Kumarila
Bhatta in his says, s (Each word is being used to denote
their respective meaning.) After the word classification, Naiyayikas propose a relation
between a word and its meaning. (attach the diagram here?)

Sakti (Denotative Function):

Sakti is basically a part of vrutti (signification function). Vrutti has been defined as
. The other part is (metaphor). Sakti regulates the relation between a word
and its meaning ( ). Among the sabdabodha texts, Nyaya
siddhanta muktavali is very popular to get acquainted with the nyaya logic. It is divided in to five
sections. First verse in sabdakhanda, presents the process of verbal testimony in brief. The
instrumental cause of (of verbal knowledge) is cognition itself of words. Its operation is the
knowledge (i.e. recollection) of the meanings of words. Verbal knowledge is the result and the
knowledge of the denotative function is auxiliary (cause) (sakti)6 "and the final result of this
process is verbal knowledge which is the knowledge of the relation of the meanings of words"
Hence, "sakti" is a relation that exists between a word and its meaning7. Role of a relation
is to govern the qualificative cognition8. The mimamsaka theory of accepting sakti for a substance
has been refuted by the Naiyayikas.
The said relation cannot be the contact (The argument is discussed further). It is called
" (a condition between the primary signification function and the primary
meaning). Bhartrhari also attests sakti as that by which word should denote a meaning
9
Hence, sakti is same as 'yogyata' (semantic compatibility) the same is reiterated by
alankarikas with a different name, that is "abhidha (primary signification function).
(mutual expectancy), (semantic compatability), (proximity of words), these three
factors together with the denotative function, causes the verbal knowledge.
6
7
8
9

NPL, page 6
, NSM Page 293

VP 3.3.29

According to the Naiyayika, the meaning pertains either to pada or to sabda both are one
and the same. An object is called a padartha. The definition is '

'

(knowability and namability is the basic criteria of a word). So, a padartha should necessarily be a
knowable and nameable entity, unlike the sky flower etc. After considering the theories in regard of
sabda, it is evident that the contribution of the Naiyayikas to the philosophy of language is
tremendous.

Saktigraha (Primary Signification Function):

The instrumental cause (of) verbal knowledge is cognition. Its operation is the knowledge
(i. e recollected of the meaning of words. verbal knowledge is the result and knowledge of the
denotative function is auxiliary (cause)10. Thus, the same is stated in Nyaya Siddhanta Muktavali

1
In linguistics and psychology, there is a special study on how does one acquires language skills. A
child grabs the vocabulary by listening elders carefully. Educational methodology also emphasizes
listening is the first type of language learning skills. The next step is speaking followed by reading
that precedes writing which forms the systematic study of any language. Hence, this process is
abbreviated as LSRW. In our traditional sastras, child language acquisition skills have been
discussed lucidly.
When an older person instructs a middle person- 'bring the cow' and also instructs- 'tie the
cow', 'bring the horse' while a younger listens. In this context, the child acquires the meaning of the
words cow, bring, tie horse etc by using a technique called and
means assimilation and means dissimilation. He substitutes horse for cow and derives at a
meaning such as means bring. This way, the child uses the denotative function to learn the
meaning contextually.

How do we learn the meanings of words?

In Indian philosophy, there may be differences of opinions on the eternality of a word, but there
10

NPL Page 113

is a unanimous acceptance on how do we learn the meaning of the words. Bhatrhari in his
vakyapadiya says.


11 ?
When a word is uttered and what meaning has been cognized is itself the meaning of the uttered
word, nothing else.
It is presumed that we learn the meaning of words possibly by two ways First way of
learning is by self experience. Ex: 'honey is sweet in taste. The attribution of sweetness with honey
can only be understood after relishing and experiencing it. Unless we taste it, we do not know what
the sentential meaning is.
The second way of learning is by considering the word of a reliable person. Knowledge
under this category cannot be perceived or experienced. For instance, if we consider the case of
poison, we might or might not have seen it, but we learn from elders or reliable people that it kills
us if its consumed. Therefore, cognising such words is based on aptavakya (utterance of a reliable
person). Similarly, things like soul, god, celestial beings etc., cognised the same way just like
the previous example.

Relation of a word and its meaning:

There is a good debate on "what forms the relation between word and its meaning, whether
is it contact"? Before answering this, one should know the classification of sabda. According to
Tarka samgraha the sabda is classified into two. The former one is the physical sound, which is the
attribute of the ether (). For a Naiyayika, ether is a substance and it possesses sound as its
attribute or quality.
The later one is the varnamala (alphabet). Coming back to the question on whether contact
can become the relation between a word and its meaning, the same has been refuted by sage
Gautama in his nyayasutra.12 His refutation is described here. Broadly, this refutation is based on
two arguments
11
12

VP
NS 2.1.53

Weather the artha is in the premises of sabda ( ?) or

The sabda is in the premises of artha ( ?)
Considering the first argument, if one has uttered the words (food) ones mouth would have
been filled with . Similarly, if a word like (fire) is uttered, the utterers mouth would have
been burnt. Also, when one utters the word (sword), one's mouth would have been cut into
pieces. We do not have such experiences. Hence, the first argument is refuted.
The second argument also cannot be accepted, because the effort to produce the sound and
the articulation of speech both are not found in the premises of the object, but they are properties of
the person who utters. So, Gautama establishes this relation as the ''13

Padartha (word meaning):

A word can be defined like this (Words, with the help of vrtti, denotes
the meaning) Sakti belongs to vrtti. Corresponding to 'Laugakshi Bhaskara, the author of tarka
kaumudi, 'sakti' is synonymous with samketa. Gadadhara in his Saktivada, attests the same14. This
samketa has been described as the will of God by the old Naiyayikas. The neo Naiyayikas don't
accept this theory, but they agree that there is a will, apart from the Gods will. Then, it can be a will
of a lay man also.
In this juncture, what exactly a word like 'ghata' (a jar) denotes?
There is a big discussion on this issue among Indian schools of philosophy. The
meemamsakas says that 'samketa'or 'sakti' is denoted only by the universal. But the Naiyayikas
disagree and proposes that 'sakti' is denoted by the individual embedded with universal. So, this
theory refutes the Meemamsaka and the Buddhist theories on the same grounds. There are also
some objections prevailed over this theory. But, I am not going to discuss those aspects here.
A word has two types of division as samketa or sakti, the primary one and the secondary
one. The primary one is termed as the samaya or iccha etc. The secondary one is the
(metaphor).

13
14

(Metaphor):
NS 2.1.55
SV Page 1

Metaphor is a classification under vrutti ( ). Naiyayikas define as the

relation of the secondary meaning with the primary meaning, on the basic of the difficulty in
justifying the intention behind the utterance15 A popular example of in Sanskrit is the
expression - ' ' (a village in the Ganges). Here, the primary meaning of the word '' is
'in the river Ganges' which is not possible, though it has its own yougika meaning. Since the village
cannot actually be in the stream itself. Hence, an implied meaning of the word '' is taken for
'' (on the bank of the river Ganges). The relation between the normal meaning of the word
and its actual meaning here is one of proximity ()16.
Three types of metaphor is considered by Naiyayikas
1.
2.
3.
Examples of this classification are popular.
J.F. Staal gives an example from English in his review on the text, Indian Theories of
Meaning. The passage goes like this - For example, in the expression the roofs of Paris, the
abhidha of Paris is the city Paris, but its lakshana is the houses of this city... By looking at this
example, it is evident that metaphorical expressions are common to any language.

CHAPTER 2
Saktigrahopaya
Means of knowing denotative function
There are eight types of means of knowing denotative function. All of them are commonly
quoted in all theistic schools of philosophy. They consists of
1. (Grammar)
15
16

TMN Page 66
ITM page 232

2. (Analogy)
3. (Lexicon)
4. (An authoritative person's sentence)
5. (convention)
6. (remainder of a sentence)
7.

/ (explanation)

8. (proximity of a well known word)

is face of the language in which , and s have been dealt seriously than
other sastras. Hence, Mammata? Says Among eight s,
and are also means of valid cognition, according to Nyaya school of philosophy.
According to some philosophical schools, is not a Mimamsakas and Naiyayikas had
a good amount of discussion on has some special treatment in the hands of
Mimamsakas as they interpret essentially Vedic passages. On , it is said (a
commentary is like a teacher of teachers). and of s (fourteen
contextual factors of Bhartrhari), both exchange the concept of functioning while treating with
ambiguity. It is fascinating that all these contextual factors have contributed a lot to the philosophy f
language. A brief discussion is done here on means of knowing denotative function.
1.

:
We learn the meanings of the roots, suffixes and derivatives from the grammar17
For example, for the root 'Bhu', the meaning is '' (to be) is given in the (index
of roots). So, for the root 'Bhu', sakti is acquired in its meaning of 'to be'. Similarly, for the
word pacaka. Sakti is obtained in its root pac that means 'to cook' and on the inflective
suffix 'aka' denotes an agency. Knowledge of euphonic combination () is a must for a
Sanskrit reader. For instance, in case of a compound word like ' (lightning), unless
we know that there is a euphonic combination of consonants, we cannot separate two words
out of the given compound.
Thats why, there is popular saying in Sanskrit 'oh boy! You might have studied
enough of scriptures, but still you must read the grammar. Why because you should not be
confused while the usage of words such as (relatives), - (relatives of dog),
(everything), (a fragment), (once), and (excretion). Thus the
stanza goes

17

ITM Page 29

10



2.

Analogy is used to convey the meaning of the unknown object by pointing to a

known object. When a person who does not know what a '' animal is and has been told
by on authoritative person, that '
' (gavaya animal looks like the domestic cow),
having listened this statement, when the same person sees a cow like animal in the forest, he
immediately recollects the previous analogy given by the authoritative person and decides
that this is a '' animal. In this context, the denotative function helps him such a way that
the object '' is to be denoted by the word ( ). Identically, denotative
function can be acquired between the things like salt and camphor, Dog and wolf etc., by
applying analogy. Analogy is one the four pramanas accepted by Naiyaiyikas.

3.

Lexicon is also a means of knowing denotative function of words. Presumably, it

supplies what is meant by the primary significative power of the word. Metaphorical
meanings are not noted in a lexicon, unless they are already well-known and well
entrenched. When they become well-known in this way, they enjoy the status of alternative
lexical meaning18. Among the several types of lexicons, lexicons of synonyms are one type.
When we know a word such as '' and we do not know the word '', a dictionary of
synonyms helps us in conveying the '' as the characteristics of both the words is
one and the same. Similarly, for the synonymous words , , etc., the
will be the same. Amarakosha states a kind of condition on the usage of adjectival
words. When words like '' (whitish) intended to be used in the sense of a property, it
must be assigned the masculine gender. Wherein the guna word is used to mean substance,
it should be assigned be assigned the gender of the substance (viseshya) accordingly. (
19 )

4.
is a sentence uttered by an authoritative person. Objects like Heaven, God,
Soul, Rebirth etc., are not self experienced. One should rely on an authoritative persons
18
19

WW Page 13
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11

word to understand the things beyond our cognition ( ). Similarly, when we

here that the bird 'Cuckoo' is denoted by the word 'pika' the denotative function of 'cuckoo'
can be known from the word 'pika'.
5.

This feature has unanimously been accepted in all schools of philosophy. The
process involves not only both perception and inference, but also something else. This is in
the form of bodily gestures, utterance of words which causes action in the middle person.
When an older person instructs a middle person- 'bring the cow' and also instructs- 'tie the
cow', 'bring the horse' while a younger listens. In this context, the child acquires the meaning
of the words cow, bring, tie horse etc by using a technique called and
means assimilation and means dissimilation. He substitutes horse for cow
and derives at a meaning such as means bring which is a common verb to both the
sentences. Also, he understands the words horse and cow which refers different animals.
This way, the child uses the denotative function to learn the meaning contextually.

6.
Jaimini says that doubtful constructions in sentences can be disambiguated by the rest of
the passage ( 20 ). The special or specific meaning of a word (which may
be ambiguous in its use) may be learnt from our knowledge of the larger context. The word
'yava' means (1) long-bearded barley (in Arya's vocabulary) or (2) another kind of a seed (in
the mleccha's vocabulary). So when it is said 'the porridge is prepared from 'yava', we may
ascertain its exact meaning from the next sentence:
'When other plants droop down, these (yavas) stand up and flourish.
Contextual factors undoubtedly constitute the main source for resolving ambiguities in
acquiring a proper sentential meaning21. Identically, Sri Sankaracharya also used the
Meemamsakas aphorism on justifying In his commentary on -, while
interpreting a passage ' from , he says that effect does exist in the
cause in an un evolved condition of name and form. Even though doubt lurks in our mind
regarding the non-existence of the effect in its origination due to the occurrence of the sentence
20
21

MS 1.4.29
WW Page 14

12

' ' yet this doubt is removed by

the sentence which occurs later on the effect

So, succeeding with the latter sentence he takes refuge in

principle to remove the ambiguity caused by former sentence. Hence it is clear from the latter
passage that the which has essume? still named and formed in other words, when we are in
the ambiguity of meaning of a sentence, we should rely on the succeeding sentence to know the
contextual meaning.
7.

is a commentary of explanation. Patanjali says that the meaning of a word is to be

determined by the commentators explanation, especially in cases of doubt22. (
) For instance, people use the words and alternatively,
but Sankaracharya in his

commentary23, very clearly explains the difference in

meaning of these words. The word means knowledge whereas, the word means
knowledge with self experience. In a different example when we read a passage like '
' a corresponding synonymous word '' when replaced, then the sentence is '
' with this explanation we acquire the denotative function of '' in therefore,
we understand that the word has denotative function in jar24.
8.

Means syntactic connection with words already known. For instance, someone who does not
know the meaning of the word 'pika' and hears an utterance a 'pika' is sitting on this mango tree
and sings sweetly. In such utterance, the meaning of the word 'pika' is known to be 'cuckoo'
from the proximity of other words such as mango tree and sweet singing. Ultimately the
hearer acquires the denotative function of the word 'pika' for 'cuckoo' from its syntactical
connection with other known words.
plays an important role while defining what a padartha is. Its definition
and nature is briefed up here.

(property whose presence in an object leads to the

use of a word to refer to that object):

22
23
24

ITM Page 31
BG 7.2
NPL Page 17

13

Though with denotative function we obtain actual padartha, there are differences of
opinions on what exactly a padartha is. While refuting mimamsaka theory on sakti for a
padartha, the Naiyayikas argue that by accepting the denotative function in relations, relation of
meanings becomes the object of cognition. If it is stated as 'the object cow is to be denoted by
the word cow ( ), Naiyayikas believe that universal cowness () also obtained in
the individual cow. In other words, the padartha consists of jati (universal)-aakrti (structure)vyakti25 (individual). The universal property qualifies the individual which has a structure.
The universal cowness is the ' (delimiter) of the relation i.e. denotative
function. This is otherwise known as The Nyaya Kosha explains
this term as referring to something which allows the use of a word to signify a certain meaning,
and identifies it with the notion of sakyatavacchedaka26 Gadadhara in his Saktivada, defines
the same term as (that property which is
itself [a part of] the primary meaning, which resides in something that is also [a part of] the
primary meaning, and which appears as the principal qualifier in the cognition of the primary
meaning27). makes the distinction between words. The term is classified it four types
, , and Since is different, accordingly is also different. As
a result, , , and s
is very crucial in capturing the nucleolus meaning of polysemous words.
Though the noun connotes over two dozens of senses, the is the root meaning
- (to steal). In all the multiple senses of this intricacy is intertwined.

25
26
27

NS
NK page 580
TMN Page 56

14

CHAPTER 3
Contextual Factors
To construct a meaningful sentence, the elements should consist of a subject; an
object and a verb. Naturally, such units of a sentence are called words ( ). In usage,
sentences can be simple, compound, complex or mixed ones in any language. Sentence is the only
means in getting the meaning factor which is required for the sentential cognition. Natural
languages are abundant of ambiguities. What we speak is called a natural language. The
s form the Meta language, such as the Nyaya School of language. Basically, role of a

sentence is to convey the primary meaning. Words, which convey the primary meaning, are when in
associated with causes of verbal cognition such as mutual expectancy etc., they convey the
vakyartha. Contextually, qualifier-qualified relations also cause the vakyartha. There are
differences of opinions of sastrakaras on the definition of vakyartha. The prominent theories are
, , , etc.

Through lexicons, words in Sanskrit can be classified as synonyms and homonyms.

Homonymous words connote more than one meaning which gives rise to ambiguity in a given
context. Ambiguity in meaning arises because of the presence of the sense of polysemy. In Sanskrit
language, one can find numerous instances of polysemous words. Lexicons such as Anekartha
Samgraha, Medini Kosha etc., list such words. For example, the word Hari connotes more than
fourteen meanings established on its Its a challenge when sophisticated machines
like computer, processes the sentences those contain polysemy words in a natural language.
Etymology of the word cannot be of any help in such situations. We use our common sense and
other contextual factors to get the sentential meaning. But for a computer, it is not that easy with its
artificial intelligence.

(Intention):
In a spoken language, while communicating, speakers intention is more important
which is termed as tatparya ( - what the speaker intends to convey to the
hearer by a sentence). To substantiate the position of tatparya, we can consider the case of a
polysemy word, saindhava. This word has two meanings - 1. salt and 2. a horse. When a speaker
uses this word in a sentence (bring saindhava), then there is ambiguity of the sense. If
15

the speaker speaks this word in context of his eating, then the speakers intention is to be
understood for salt. This is the problem with words which have more than one meaning. The above
discussion can be depicted in a figure that is given below which is acceptable to Naiyayikas.

Word

Intention

Meaning

Fig. 1
Indian philosophers have emphasized the importance of contextual factors in
deciding the exact meaning in context of the polysemy words. Depending on the intention of the
speaker, some factors lead to the disambiguity in the meaning. Some of them are metaphor,
compounds, prefixes, samyoga etc. Hence, inferring the intention of the speaker helps in getting
vakyartha.

Various Contextual Factors:

It seems, a text called Brhaddevata has inspired them. Jaimini in his Mimamsa
Sutra explains the process of subordinating the details of a sacrifice is done by the six means of
proof28 They are
1. (A direct statement)
2. (implication from another word)
3. (Syntactic connection)
4. (Context of situation)
5. (Position)
6. s (Etymological meaning)
Of these, each preceding one is stronger than each succeeding one 29. Sage Jaimini
provides these concepts which helps in developing a theory of meaning for Vedic passages. So,
tatparya can be established based on the above six types of proof. Mimamsa deeply investigates the
meaning of sentences. But, it seems, the above mentioned concepts may not be very useful in
processing sentences from classical Sanskrit.
28
29

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ITM Page 49

16

Bhartrhari is one of the greatest figures in Indian philosophy that authored

Vakyapadiya. He has elaborately written on sabda and vkya. He says in vakyapadiya

VP ?

There is no cognition which is without language and our jnana seems as if interlaced with sabda.
Bhartrhari has provided a set of six contextual factors for vakyartha.

VP 2.314

Word and its meaning should be interpreted based on the linguistic context but not
merely on the word forms. Tools such as vakya (syntactic connection), prakarana (context of
situation), artha (meainig), auchitya (propriety), desa (location) and kala (time) are need to be
applied in such crisis.
Here, one thing is important that any contextual factor does not directly leads to the
Sabdabodha, but that only helps in acquiring the intention of the speaker.

Jayanta Bhatta opines that words in isolation do not bear any meaning. In
association with other words in a sentence only they denote their meaning [Matilal, PK Sen: 1988].

The Fourteen Contextual Factors:

Bhartrhari provides some fourteen other contextual factors which are widely
discussed by all sastrakaras. In case of ambiguity in meaning, one can apply these fourteen factors
to get the actual meaning. Gradually these disambiguating tools are explained here30
1.
30

(Association)
VP 2.315

17

 means a popular relation. By associating with some popular words, polysemous words

give the actual meaning. For some objects a popular relation is established in some
meanings. Due to this, we arrive correct at the sentential meaning. Between some entities
and objects, always there is a continuous relation. A Sanskrit maxim comes
handy here. is an elephant and is an elephant driver. When we see
immediately we remember its and also when we see a we immediately remember his
associate This is due to the continuous relation between these two.
According to Sanskrit lexicons, the word Hari has more than fourteen senses/meanings.
Polysemous senses for the word hari are

AK 3.3.174
Yama (the ruler of death), Anila (the Fire), Indra (the god of divine beings), Chandra (the
Moon), Arka (the Sun), Vishnu (Vishnu), Simha (a lion), Amsu (a ray), Horse (horse), Suka
(a parrot), Ahi (snake), Kapi (a monkey), Bheka (a frog), Kapila (tawny)
In an expression (Hari with a conch and disk), the sense of the
polysemous word hari is restricted to Vishnu only since the word is related with
Vishnus weapons conch and disk. Never can these two adjectives (conch and disk) be
associated with the remaining senses of the word hari. Mythologically, Vishnu is
attributed with conch and disk. Hence, association of words is considered here as the sense
disambiguating tool.
Similarly, is also a polysemy word which connotes (earth), (cow),
(a ray), (a horse), (speech) etc. In an expression (dhenu with its calf), the
word restricts the sense of the word to cow only. Because a dhenu can only have a
vatsa, no other sense of dhenu can be attributed with it. And when it is expressed like
(a dhenu with its colt), the word colt restricts the sense of dhenu to a horse only.

So, adjectives in association with a viseshya, drastically restricts and fix the senses to a
single sense alone.
2.

(Dissociation)
A popular relation in dissociation is called viprayoga. When we use the negative particle
18

 on the sentence it is (Hari without the conch and disk) and

the meaning is changed. In this sentence, the meaning of the word hari is again fixed with
Vishnu as the possibility of having dissociation can be found with him only. Similarly, in a
phrase , the same rule needs to be applied on the word dhenu to mean a cow.
Amarakosha states the meaning of vatsa for 31 (vatsa means a younger one of a
cow) etc.
3.

(Companionship)
Having a constant spatial and temporal relation of something is called In
regard of the usage of two sabdas in a sentence, when a word is polysemous, a paribhasha
says that between the congruent and incongruent only congruent one should be
accepted* *. That means if one word denotes more than
one meaning, then, with the help of the other word its meaning should be fixed. Therefore,
in the expression (Rama and Lakshmana), the word Lakshmana restricts the
sense of the word Rama to Dasaratha Rama. But not to Parasurama or Balarama.
Regarding the companionship, referring a popular verse from Panchatantra is not far from
context


This verse reminds us of a popular English maxim Birds of a feather flock
together.
In grammar also this factor can be used for sense disambiguation. In a Paninian
sutra, 32, the word when associated with the root , and in proximity with
the prefix , designated to have the meaning of a prefix (). Hence, delimits the
unintended meanings.

4.

(Opposition)
A very familiar hostility is In such cases, only a familiar hostility should be

31
32

AK 3.3.227,page 62
Panini Sutra 1.3.19

19

taken as the meaning. Thus in the phrase (Rama and Arjuna), meaning of the word
Rama should be taken for Parasurama and for Arjuna, it is Kartaviryarjuna.
Mythologically their enmity is well known. But these two words should be not be
misunderstood for Dasaratha Rama and Kaunteya Arjuna. Again, in a phrase
(Karna and Arjuna) the word Karna stands for that Karna who is the enemy of Kaunteya
Arjuna. Virodhita may also be explained as contrast as in chaya and light, where the term
chaya means shade and not beauty33. After consolidating the first four contextual
factors, it seems that they can be brought together under one unified meaning
association of meaning. Matilal had also expressed the same in his book Word and the
World.
5.

(Purpose served)
has another synonym as prayojana34. Our speech is purposive in nature and

words should denote a proper meaning. In the expression (worship Sthanu

for removing the hampering of worldly existence), the word Sthanu signifies the god Siva
but not a pillar. Though Sthanu can be a pillar, it is not capable to remove the hampering as
god only designated for the same. Nagesa explains the term artha as the meaning of
another word and gives the examples of
hands and

He offer oblation with folded

, He worships the sun with folded hands. Here,

in the former case the term anjali has to be taken in the sense of hands placed side by side
slightly hollowed so as to hold the oblation and in the latter case, in the sense of hands
fully folded palm to palm as a mark of salutation35.
6.

(Context of situation)
Patanjali says in Mahabhashya, However words can be polysemous, both artha and
prakarana decides the exact meaning36. An example of saindhavamanya has been
discussed a bit earlier. In a sentence, , (bring the gopalaka, to
teach a student), the word gopalaka has two meanings possible a cowherd and a noble
man. Since the context is meant for teaching, one may bring a noble man only but not the

33
ITM Page 52
34
S AK 3
35ITM Page 53
36

MB
6.1.84

20

cowherd. Patanjali says

VP 2.334
When a husband wants to spend some time with his wife in privacy, he speaks
dvaaram (door!) to his wife and the wife who knows the prakaranikartha, immediately
interprets for close (the door). Another popular example taken for prakarana is
(My lord knows everything). In this case, the meaning of the word deva is to be

decided from the context only. Prof. Kunjunni Raja states that the importance of the context
of situation is equally recognized by the modern writers in linguistics.
7.

(Indication)

A famous Vedic passage often quoted here for an example of indication which is
(the wet pebbles are placed on the altar) pebbles may be soaked in

any liquid, but since the context mentions clarified butter, we have to understand that is an
indicatory sign that the pebbles are first to be soaked (made wet) in clarified butter, and then
placed on the altar37.
When we utter the word peetambara, it means Krshna only as He is always attributed with a
yellow cloth.
Similarly,

(Makaradhvaja is angry) is sentence wherein

Makaradhvaja conveys two meanings 1. an ocean and 2. Manmatha and also in some
context, it means a medical preparation. Since the feeling anger is only applicable to
Manmatha, the other meanings are ruled out by indication. In this case the association need
not be a well-known one as in the case of samyoga, the attribute used being only for
rejecting the other meaning. *ITM Page 55*
8.

(The proximity of another word)

In proximity with other word, a word that conveys a common meaning could convey
a specific meaning. Here, prakarana also is intertwined with this factor. In an expression,
37

WW Page 26

21

Hey Krshna! Hey madhava! Hey sakhe! the sakhi sabda in proximity with the Krshna
sabda denotes the inclination of Krshna only.
Other examples:
-

(Rama, the descendent of Jamadagni), with the proximity of the word

Jamadagni, the word Rama should be taken for Parasurama only. In this example, the
together with the above factor lands us at the contextual meaning.

(of the god, the enemy of puras) The attribute deva restricts the sense of
purarati to god Siva, although any king can be called purarati.

(The naga shines by its kara) Interestingly, both the words kara and naga
are ambiguous. Kara can convey hand and trunk and naga can convey an elephant and
a snake. Either having an organ like hand or a trunk is not possible for a snake; both the
words mutually restrict their respective meanings The elephant is eye-catching with its
trunk.

9.

(Capacity)
- Fixing the meaning in one of the senses of a polysemy word and ruling out
other senses is called capacity. In a sentence, "(The Cuckoo is intoxicated
by Madhu), the sabda means honey as well as spring season. Since the viseshya is
Cuckoo, which can be intoxicated only due to spring season, the meaning of should be
fixed in spring season. Here,

in association with

functions to determine its position, as it seems. Capacity of functioning of both of these

looks one and the same for both the factors.
10.

(Propriety)
(signified-signifier relation) is important in this factor. In the example,

, when the speaker engaged in his meal, the hearer understands for salt but
not for the other meaning. This is what the propriety is. (May your
beloved girl's mukha protect you) In this sentence, mukha means sammukha (in persense
of) but not 'face' (mukha means 'mouth' also) according to propriety. Metaphor is not
appropriate in this case, because the sense is directly obtained through propriety. Bhartrhari
gives an example for propriety 22

VP 2.316

Vyaktiviveka deals with the problem of anauchitya (impropriety) and speaks of two
aspects of impropriety, referring to sabda and artha. He also speaks of propriety which is
antaranga (internal) and bahiranga (external) as it is with reference to the artha vishaya
(content of meaning) or sabda vishaya (content of word)38 Under the bahiranga category,
he states five types of s (faults) those can occur with regard to artha or sabda, vakya or
vakyartha. The five faults are
1. (Non discrimination of the predicate)
2. (Volition of uniformity of expression)
3. (Syntactical irregularity)
4. (Tautology)
5. (Omission of what must be expressed)
Among these, the third fault can be considered in this context. The below given example is
taken from Kavya Prakasa



KP
The word (humiliation) has the syntactical irregularity. Instead of
(this itself is nyakkaara), the construction could be (this is what
a nyakkaara) For the examples on remaining faults, Vyakarana, Mimamsa etc. may also
be referred.
11.

(Place)
Place is also one contextual factors. The example is (Here shines

Parameswara) the kriyaviseshana refers to the place that demonstrates the meaning of
38

EIL page 270

23

parameswara is a 'king' but not the god Parameswara. We cannot perceive the god but we
can perceive the other in this context. The factor

in association with

(Chandra shines in the sky) Here, the

governs the condition here.
location of is the sky. Hence, means moon only, but not camphor or some other
sense. Again, in functioning with is prominent in this example also.
12.

(Time)

When the sense of a word is in ambiguity, the factor time fixes the meaning. In the
expression, (Chitrabhanu is now shining), means 'Sun'. If the
sentence is uttered during day time it means 'the Sun shines now, and if the reference is
during night, it meant light of fire', since the visibility of Sun during night is never
experienced. It is appropriate to quote a verse from Vakyapadiya
VP 2.298
Similarly, in a sentence (check how much Ravi is remained),
speaker's intention refers to the time (kala) considering Ravi as a means.
13.

(Grammatical gender)
The grammatical gender is intended by Through word's gender, a regular
meaning is obtained. The example is ' ' and ' ' in the former sentence, the
word is in masculine gender and in the latter the same word is in neuter gender. Hence,
conveys the meaning 'sun' and conveys the meaning 'a friend'.

14.

(Accent)
is a Vedic accent or intonation . Three kinds of accents are widely used. They

are (acute), (circumflex), and s (grave) Patanjali refers to a famous

example

24

When a word is used improperly in its accent or in character, the same will not fetch the
intended result. That sort of mistake destroys the utterer only as in the case of ''
interestingly, a single word itself, when

is accented on last syllable, denotes the other

meaning. Again, if is on first syllable, it denotes a different meaning. In the example

'', on the compound word '', on first syllable generates the
Bahuvreehi compound; whereas accented on last syllable, generates the Tatpurusha
compound. As per Bahuvreehi compound, it means 'one whose killer is Indra. So, while
doing a sacrifice, this mistake as using accent on first syllable destroyed the daemon Vrutra.
Hence, incantation is very important in Vedic usage. Because of such restriction only now
also we access Vedas intact in their original form.
In Mahabharata, appropriate to context, it is said as follows

MB 1.1.204

To know the exact meaning of Vedas, one should refer to the epics and puranas.
Otherwise, Veda frightens from the less heard that, this fellow may degrades me (while
interpreting)!
The saktigrahopayas and all the fourteen contextual factors were unanimously
quoted in various sastras. Interestingly, in all the fourteen factors, the redundancy of
Prakarana (context of situation) is more notorious. So, it can be said that all of them are
s. While investigating it seems that that comes under s, and
which comes under fourteen contextual factors are one and the same. A kind of

overlapping is noticed among these factors, which has been commented at respective places
earlier.
Grammar is the central point to any language. Knowledge of the sentences spoken by a
speaker or the sentences penned by an author should lead the hearer/reader to a proper
sabdabodha. Saktigrahopayas and the fourteen contextual factors functions as connecting
tools between word and its meaning. This observation is depicted in the diagrams (fig. 2 and
25

fig. 3) given below.

The process of sabdabodha

(After considering

26

and

Fig. 2

Layers in sabdabodha

27

Fig. 3

Chapter 4

Application of contextual factors

In Natural Language Processing, the accuracy of output is very important. Sanskrit

28

language is highly in flexional. Ambiguity with word senses is a common phenomenon. It is odd to
see when computer generates all the multiple meanings of a polysemous word such as Hari.
Hence, restricting to a single sense of such words, contextually, will make effective the
morphological analyzer. This is being handled in other languages with a module called WSD.
Also, ontology of the words plays a crucial role that may be reflected through,
upamana, vyavahara, samyoga, auchitya, artha,anyasabda sannidhi factors. Hence, it become the
basic idea is to apply all fourteen contextual factors and eight Saktigrahopayas on polysemous
words used in Sanskrit literature. In deciding the meaning and ruling out other possible senses,
- (qualified-qualifier relation) on the backdrop of all contextual factors, become the
useful tool. A brief explanation is presented here on the same.

(Qualified-Qualifier Relation)
- occupies a significant place in deciding the meaning in association

with contextual factors. The qualifier, verb etc., follow the qualified in a sentence. By a qualified,
jati, guna, kriya, vyakti etc., are cognized and a qualifier signifies the qualification in the qualified.
Gender, person, case and number all these features will apply equally to the qualified and the
qualifier. Thus it is said

Some examples for the above verse are (a good looking boy), (a
beautiful creeper), (he is a boy), (the consumed food) etc., Naiyayikas say that
this qualifier-qualified relation is delimited by the self linking relation and has contact with objects
through sensual organs. For instance, (a man with a stick) Between the danda and
purusha there is the qualifier-qualified relation. The - (determined-determiner
relation) is also embedded in the above relation. Naiyayikas consider three types of qualifiers 39
which is given at fig. 5. The italicized word is the respective example.

39

NK Page 789

29

Fig. 2

Ex:

Ex:

Ex:

Fig. 5
Naiyayikas define the qualifier as (being attributed with the
qualified, that which distinguishes its qualified from other things is viseshana)

Word analysis on Hari

So, marking the qualifier in a sentence/verse, will certainly remove the congestion in
parsing Sanskrit sentences by a computer. Some examples are considered from Sanskrit texts to
apply the contextual factors in case of ambiguity. The polysemous word Hari is considered for
testing. We searched around thirty Sanskrit books that consists all pancha mahakavyas. These
books include both prose and poetry. So, it is assumed that about 40% of the literature has been
searched to get the sentences where the word had been used. Very interestingly, not more than four
senses of Hari are found among the fourteen odd senses.

Different Senses of Hari:

The word Hari, being polysemous, it has about 25 senses corresponding to Sanskrit lexicons.
Progressively all of them are compiled here for convenience.
1. Amara Kosha
30


AK 3.3.174
-

Yama (the ruler of death)

Anila (the Fire)

Indra (the god of divine beings)

Chandra (the Moon)

Arka (the Sun)

Vishnu (Vishnu)

Simha (a lion)

Amsu (a ray)

Horse (horse)

Suka (a parrot)

Ahi (snake)

Kapi (a monkey)

Bheka (a frog)

Kapila (tawny, mfn)

2. Vachaspatyam
Senses are used in locative case , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , ,
, ,
-

Vishnu (Vishnu)

Simha (Lion)

Sarpa (Snake)

Vaanara (Monkey)

Bheka (Frog)

Suka (Parrot)

Khaga (bird)

Chandra (Moon)

Surya (Sun)

Vayu (Air)

Asva (Horse)

Yama (The ruler of death)

31

Hara (Siva)

Brahman (Brahma)

Kirana (a ray)

Jambu dviipa (the Jambu Iceland)

Varshabheda (name of a year)

Indra (Indra)

Mayura (Peacock)

Kokila (Cuckoo)

Hamsa (Swan)

Vahni (Fire)

Pandita (Bhartrhari)

Pingala (Reddish Brown)

Harit (Green)

Peeta (Yellow)

3. Sabdaratnakara:
In the sense of Vishnu

Chakri, Kaitabhajit, Sarojanayana, Ananata, Mukunda, Hari

In the sense of Indra

Swarat, Duschyavana, Sachisahachara, Jishnu, Marutvat, Hari

In the sense of Lion

Panchamukha, Hari, Mrgapati, Kanthirava, Kesari

In the sense of king of perfume

Chandataka, Hari, Kshema, Ganahasa, Rakshasi
In the sense of Horse
32


Gandharva, Viiti, Ghotaka, Hari, Arvan, Sriija, Heshin
4. Medini Kosha


-

Chandra (Moon)

Arka (Sun)

Vaata (Air)

Asva (Horse)

Suka (Parrot)

Bheka (Frog)

Yama (the ruler of death)

Ahi (Snake)

Kapi (Monkey)

Simha (Lion)

Hara (Siva)

Aja (the god of love)

Amsu (a ray)

Sakra (Indra)

Lokaantara (another planet)

Example 1, Sense 1 Vishnu

Contextual Factors applied in deciding the meaning:
-

Vyakarana

Example:

33

Explication:
In fact, word order is not important in this verse as all of the words are used in accusative
case.
Saint Tulasidas, a great poet, who authored Ramcharitamanas in a local language is also
well versed in Sanskrit. In the verse given below, he had used numerous adjectives for the viseshya
Rama. This is found in the Sundara Kanda of Ramcharitamanas.
Comment:
In the third line, Rama () specified as the viseshya since thats the more
familiar word than others. One of the adjectives used is 'Hari'. Though this word is polysemous,
based on the meanings of other adjectives, it should refer to the sense 'Vishnu' only. As, the
immediate preceding word is (an illusory human being), ontologically and mythologically,
it is related to Vishnu only. Adjectives which are in accusative case are in agreement with the verb
. We fix the meaning based on the proximity of other words which are appearing under
qualifier-qualified relations. The factor Prakarana is also be applied.

Example 2, Sense 1 Vishnu

Contextual Factors applied in deciding the meaning:
-

Vyakarana

Desa

Artha

Prakarana

Anyasabda Sannidhi

Samsarga

Example:
-

(just over the lokas is Hari) SK 1.4.48

(Hari dwells in heaven) SK 1.4.48

, , ,

(Hari lies down in, occupies or rules the

Vaikuntha) SK 1.4.46 (page 335)

-

(the gods are inferior to Hari) SK 1.4.86

34

(the gods are inferior to Hari) SK 1.4.87

Bhattoji Dikshita, in explaining the karmapravachaniya, comments on some

examples from Katyayana vartika. I considered seven sentences following S.C. Vasus English
translation. The first set of examples is
Comment:
In fact, Katyanana or Dikshita intended to refer to god Vishnu only! Technically, by
applying the factor Desa, in the above examples, at least senses related to animals etc., are
elided from context. But Hari connotes more celestial meanings other than Vishnu.
Philosophically, Vishnu is the supreme self ( ). Therefore, other senses such as
Indra, Vayu etc., are also elided from context using the factor Artha. Finally, Prakarna and
Anyasabda sannidhi fixes the meaning to Vishnu. Mechanically when we process, simply we
can specify that whenever upasargas, , , , are affixed and samsarga with Hari,
then generate its meaning in the sense of Vishnu after declaring the respective meanings of the
prefixes used.

The second set of examples

Contextual Factors applied in deciding the meaning:
-

Anyasabda sannidhi

Prakarana

Vakyasesha

Example:
(There can be no happiness without Hari)40

(Hari is between thee and me)41

Comment:
Since Vishnu can only bestow the prosperity, in the former sentence, it is obvious
that the word Hari stands for Vishnu. There should be samarthya in bestowing prosperity.
Also, with the particle, , the factor
40
41

SK 2.3.4 Page 336

SK 2.3.4 Page 336

35

is prominent.

In the latter sentence, no philosophical meaning can be derived. If the sentence is

the meaning of

followed by another sentence, then using the contextual factor

Hari can be fixed, but when this condition fails, then based on the

factor, meaning

can be fixed. This sentence is similar to the example My lord knows everything [page no?]

Example 3; Sense 1 Lion

Contextual Factors applied in deciding the meaning:

Example:

'

SN 2.9
Subhashita neevi of Vedanta Desika consists of twelve chapters. This example has been
taken from the second chapter. This is one of the very INTERESTING examples we found.
Explication:
, , ,

Meaning:
A lion is powerful. When a jackal desiring resemblance in strength with a lion which is
adequate to break the temple of an elephant, will not equal with the lion, though lion and jackal
reside in the same forest, both have paws and both eat the flesh of a killed elephant.
Comment:
This verse is very similar to the example (the naga shines by its kara)
under

. In that case, both words and restricted each others multiple

senses. But here in the verse, words those have the space for ambiguity are and . The poet
36

has used upamaalankara between a jackal and a Hari. First of all, deciding the meaning of will
give way to decide the meaning of .
Two adjectives, (Superior in strength, the -) and (capable to
break the temple of a , the -) are attributed with which are bahuvreehi compounds. This
compound is very productive in nature. Ontologically speaking, as means both snake and an
elephant, the organ (temple) can only be attributed to an elephant but not with a snake. So
means an elephant. Then comes the word viseshya word Hari. Being superior in strength
and capacity to break the temple of an elephant is only possible to a lion, based on the given
adjectives. Also, the enmity () between a lion and an elephant is natural. This aspect triggers
and

the contextual factors,

. To achieve this definition

mechanically, compound word tagging should be done on first. The same is shown here.
<->_Bs3 <<->_T6->_Bs3
<->_T6
Since there is an agreement between noun and the verb , the agency by default goes
to . This has been substantiated by the tag Bs3 (Instrumental Bahuvreehi).

Example 4, Sense 2 Lion

Contextual Factors applied in deciding the meaning:
-

Example:

BK 1.2.9
Explication:
, , , , ,

37

This example has been considered from otherwise known as

Bhatti has divided this text into six chapters. Present example is from the second chapter. The
author illustrates the animals, flora and fauna of the forest during Sri Ramas search of her wife
Sita.
Meaning:
In a mountain-copse that is pervaded by water, a lion roars. After hearing the resounds and looking
into the water, it thinks that another lion is roaring at him. Getting angry, it takes the position to
attack (the illusory lion).
Comment:
Crying can be done almost by every entity in the group of the polysemous senses of
Hari, but roaring can only do by a lion. is a kriya viseshana to the lion.
In the next line, has been used in the objects position. If lion is not the
meaning for the , then the compound is grammatically wrong. Since, is a
synonym for lion only not to any other senses of and the expression another lion is not
possible. Using these grammatical inputs, the meaning is attributed with lion. The mentioned two
arguments have the

and

Also, the word is a

for , whos meaning can be obtained from the

Example 5, Sense 1 Indra

Contextual Factors applied in deciding the meaning:
-

Example:

BK 4.16.5
Explication:
, , ,
Meaning:
38

This example also has been considered from Ravana laments during the war, all of my
kith and kin are slaughtered by Sri Rama and his army. I become destitute and weak. Seeing my
plight, Indra will become fearless, accepts the ritualistic oblations offered by sages, motivates his
army and finally he raises his weapon Vajra on me.
Comment:

feature can easily be applied on this example. As Vishnu is always

attributed with a conch and disk, Indra is also attributed with the vajra(ayudha) named weapon in
similar lines. He is the authority to accept the sacrificial oblations being the king of celestial beings.
The expression denotes this meaning in order to facilitate

Example 5, Sense 2 Indra

Contextual Factors applied in deciding the meaning:
-

Example:

RV

3.43

Explication:
, , , , , , , ,
Meaning:
King Raghu plans for a horse sacrifice for the welfare of the people. Indra, thinking
that He may equal him in power after the sacrifice, steals away the sacrificial horse. But King
Raghu identifies him based on some signs hundred eyes, without winking and accompanied
by brown/tawny horses.
Comment:
This is also an interesting example on the usage of the word Hari. Obviously, the
meaning considered is Indra. The arguments are
Hari has hundred eyes,
39

Hari is without winking and

Hari is accompanied by brown/tawny coloured horses
All of these adjectives together rules out other sense of Hari and helps in fixing the meaning with
Indra, hence, contextual factors

and

altogether

form the basis of argument. The adjective had been used in instrumental case. This looks like
a noun, but contextually it is an adjective. The rule is, a polysemous cannot be used twice in a
sentence.

Example 6, Sense 1 Pig

Contextual Factors applied in deciding the meaning:
-

Example:

19.26.4

Explication:

, (), , ( ) ,
()

Meaning:
of Somadeva. When daemon ? asura folded the entire
This verse is extracted from
globe like a mat and thrown it in to the sea, god Vishnu incarnated in the form of Hari (pig) and
lifted the globe out of ocean and killed the daemon to sustain the order of creation. King Surya
Prabha who rules the city vakrolakam, was also happily rules his city such a way that Varaha
protected the globe with ease.
Comment:
To acquire the meaning pig from the word , the argument has
been taken from puranas. The first line is little complicated as the agent need
to be (an act of supplying the grammatical element in order to fill the
ellipsis in a construction). This works in connection with the pronoun . But an
40

analogy has been demonstrated between . In analogy, an upamana

requires an upameya. Therefore, is the upamana and the pronoun
with word is the upameya. Information on the upameya may be
available with the previous verse or following verse. Contextual factors

,
X

, and

, are

applied in acquiring the desired meaning.

One thing is certain that at any given context, only one sense is valid for any
polysemy word. Other senses are non contextual which has been attested by the Bhatta school of
Mimamsakas.

Problems in analysis:
Some of the conditions suggested, based on contextual factors, in
the previous examples with multiple sentences, may work only with single word
units. When a polysemous word such as Hari is compounded with another
word, then it will be little difficult to solve the issue. A compound is formed of
two words. When processing a compound in which a polysemous word is a
divisible unit, then the first task is to separate the stem followed by marking
the and Apparently, and compounds are more frequent
in such cases. Using their respective compounding rules with regard to
generation, ambiguity of compounded polysemous words can be reduced,
significantly. We have compiled some of those sentences here for future
reference.

Problem 1

Text name:
Verse:

RV 12.67
Meaning:
Sri Rama along with his monkey army, rushed towards the Lanka to conquer Ravana
and bring back Sita. He was not only accompanied by the pedestrian army, but also by the air force.
41

Suggestion:
is a productive compound. Parsing can be done based on the indications
as said above.

Problem 2
Text name: Anonymous
Subject: --
Sentence:

This is an example of paronomasia () in connection with analogy. In the sentence, the

declensional form might be based on which means the moon or that means
a lotus. A Sanskrit maxim says (a word spoken once conveys
its meaning once only). But paronomasia kind of constructions violates this condition and provides
space to interpret otherwise. This is due to the intention of the speaker or contextual situation.
VK Chari writes - when a word, having several meanings, has the range of its
expression restricted by its connection and such other conditions [i.e. the contextual factors], if
there appears the cognition of a meaning other than the directly expressed, that function which
brings about this cognition is suggestion42. But this definition has a limited acceptance as
suggestion is considered only in school.

Problem 3
Text name:
Verse:

Meaning:
Sage Badarayana is another Brahma (without having four heads), is another Vishnu
(with only having two hands), is another Maheswara (without having the third eye) and he equals
the trinity.
Suggestion:
in this verse, neither is a part of a compound nor an independent word. An
42

SC Page 108

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analogy is expressed between sage Vyasa and the trinity. The negative particle had been used
with compounds and in analogy; similarly, adjectives and
are attached to Using these pointers, a condition can be framed in parsing such verses.

43

Conclusion
English language also has numerous polysemous words. Words such as paper
line etc., belongs to this category. It is identified that the word line has 26 different senses. For
example the verb "to get" can mean "take" (I'll get the drinks), "become" (she got scared), "have"
(I've got three dollars), "understand" (I get it) etc. Also, English uses a figure of speech called
zeugma to govern two or more words though appropriate to only one. This needs to be compared
with sastric metaphor or with paronomasia.
An experiment has been done using MEG technique at Newyork University School
of Medicine, U.S., on how people retain the senses of polysemous words psychologically in their
mental lexicon. Results showed that our minds store distinct representations for each different
sense*The Representation of Polysemy: The MEG evidence43, We feel this is the basic distinction
between a natural intelligence and an artificial intelligence.
In the present dissertation, I could not exhibit with more examples where contextual
factors can be shown relevant. Some Sanskrit roots have more than one sense, for instance, , ,
, , etc. No example has been demonstrated using such roots. Also, examples from prose
were not demonstrated due to the limited demonstration of single polysemous word Hari.
Incidentally, and did not show any word frequency on Hari in other senses
except for Vishnu.
Few words, , , , , have been used in Sanskrit literature in a
polysemous sense. These words are more frequently used than other nouns like , which means
either the sky or a ghost (Anekartha Samgraha). In future, someone may attempt on these issues
using this material.
Sanskrit literature is abundant with polysemous words. When a computer parses
such words, it may not generate expected results. Metaphorical usages, meanings those denote
suggestion, paronomasia etc., will have to be to handled separately. Though, for Word Sense
Disambiguation (WSD) in NLP, enough work is being done for other languages, for Sanskrit,
preparing a rule base to remove the lexical ambiguity will be a useful module in language
43

Liina Pylkaanen, Rodolfo Llinas and Gregary L. Murphy, Journal of Cognitive Neuro Science 18:1,
pp 97-109, MIT 2006

44

processing. This is not an easy task. Sometime, these observations can be converted to relevant
algorithms.

45

Abbreations Used
AK

Amara Kosha

EIL

Enscyclopedia of Indian Literature

MK

Medini Kosha

SR

Sabdra Ratnakara

NK

Nyaya Kosha

NPL

Nyaya Pholosophy of Language

ITM

Indian Theories of Meaning

TMN =

the Meaning of Nouns

MB

Mahabhashya

SC

Sanskrit Criticism

SK

Sidhanta Koumudi

WW

The Word and the World

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Glossary
Sanskrit term

Meaning in English

Meaning

Word

Delimiter

Expectancy

Verbal affix

An authoritative person's sentence

Assimilation

Preposition

Dissimilation

Genus

Particle

Derivative

Derivative conventional

Derivative or conventional

Convention

Implication

Signifier
47

Signified

Potentiality

Substantive

Attribute

Convention

Remainder of a sentence

commentary

Denotative potentiality or denotation

The which is endowed with potentiality

Denotative function

Verbal import

Syntactical connection

Syntactic Proximity

Proximity

Combination

That which is the substratum of potentiality by being

its theme

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Web links:

http://iu.ff.cuni.cz/pandanus/electronictexts/
http://sarit.indology.info/
http://sa.wikibooks.org/wiki/
http://books.google.com/

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