Calculus Class Notes for the Combined Calculus and

Physics Course
Semester I
Kelly Black
December 14, 2001

Support provided by the National Science Foundation - NSF-DUE-9752485

Section 0

Contents
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Average Rate of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Derivaitve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Derivatives of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anti-Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shifted Functions and Their Derivatives . . . . . . . .
Slope and Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Product and Quotient Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Composition of Functions and the Chain Rule . . . . .
Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Taylor Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Area Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . .
Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unconstrained Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constrained Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Impulse-Momentum Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . .
Working with Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Derivatives

In Search of Newton

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135
140

Calculus and Physics

Section 1

Average Rate of Change

The definition of a function is given and explored on this day. The definition of
average velocity is also given, and the idea of the derivative is briefly explored. Almost
all of the examples that are explored in the first third of this semester are functions given
in terms of time, t, not x. This is important since almost everything in the physics class
is in terms of time.
In the first mini-lecture the definition of a function is given as well as the definition
for the average velocity. In the second mini-lecture the idea of decreasing the change in
the domain is briefly explored leading up to the idea of the slope of the tangent line at a
point on a function. Finally, in the third mini-lecture an overview of the average velocity
is given.
This is a relatively light day, and the activities are relatively straight-forward. As the
course progresses the activities will get much more difficult, but in these first couple of
days the activities are not too difficult so that students who are not familiar with this
approach are not simply thrown to the wolves.
1.1 Mini-Lecture I The definition of function is given as well as the definition for
the average velocity. Note the the definition for the domain and the range is given in the
third mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes

Definition: The word function is a generic term. A function is a method or a rule. A function defines the way to
provide one particular item given some initial item. Most of
the functions that we will deal with in this course will provide
a number given another number. For example, the following
method defines a function:

Given a number between 0 and 1, multiply the number

by 3 and add one to the result.

Mathematicians are big into compression and prefer simpler

representations. The definiton above could also be written as
f (t) = 3t + 1, for 0 < t < 1.
For example, given the number 12 , the function returns 52 . Note
In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 1

that we gave this function a name, f (t). This is so that we can

refer to it later.
Definition: The average velocity is
change in distance
.
change in time

Example: It takes 30 mintes to go 5 miles. What is the

average velocity?
miles
5 miles
=
10
(Note the units.)
1
hours
hour
2
If x(t) is the position (in metres) at a given time, t (in hours),
then we can also take a graphical view of the average rate of
change.

The average velocity is the slope of the line through two points.
End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 1

1.2 Mini-Lecture II The average velocity is examined again, and the basic idea of
the derivative is given.
Begin Class Notes

The average velocity is also called the average rate of change,

4x
.
4t
(The 4 is shorthand for change.)
We can also think of this as the slope of a secant line. (A secant
line is a line that goes through two specific points on a curve.)

The question that is being asked is what happens to 4x

4t as 4t
gets closer and closer to zero. Note that both 4x and 4t both
get closer and closer to zero, but their ratio does something
else.
Note: We have already seen two different ways to express a
function. The first is with a formula, and the second is using
a graph. There are many other ways. One way that we will
In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 1

make use of is a table.

t (sec.)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5

x (m.)
0.0
2.0
3.0
2.0

Given a specific time, 0, 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5, the distance can be found
from the cooresponding value in the right column. Note that when
you graph this function you do not connect the dots. The only
information that we have is for specific points. If you connect the
dots you are implying information that is not given.
End Class Notes
1.3 Mini-Lecture III The final mini-lecture provides an overview of function and
average rate of change as well as some more formal definitions.
Begin Class Notes

Given the average velocity we can get the total change in disance.
Example: The average speed for a 3 hour trip was 45 miles
per hour.
Total distance = 45mph 3hr.
= 135 miles.
We need some definitions and will refer to some things throughout the year. We assume that x(t) is the position given a time, t:

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 2

Domain
= Valid times that we can put into the function.
Range
= Valid distances that can be returned by the function.
Total Change = Difference in a function over a given interval.
in functions range .
Average rate = Change
Change in the domain
Tangent Line = The line that just touches a curve at one point. (Locally)
End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 2

Sequences

The definition of the derivative will be the limit definition. In order to motivate
limits we will first examine sequences. This day will begin by defining and working with
sequences of numbers and will end with the formal definition of the limit.
The first mini-lecture will focus on sequences and will provide a small amount of
motivation as to why we are looking at sequences. The second mini-lecture begins to
examine the limit, and the final mini-lecture relates this work back to the derivative.
2.1 Mini-Lecture I This is a relatively straight-forward introduction to sequences.
Begin Class Notes

We will be looking at the average rate of change.

If we are finding the slopes of these lines we are really generating

a sequence of numbers:.
.333, .400, .444, .472, .485, . . .
The question that we will ask today is what does it mean to
examine a sequence of these slopes? How do we analyze the
sequence?
Definition: A sequence of numbes is an ordered list of numbers.
In Search of Newton

A more
formal
Calculus and Physics definition
can be found
in the book
that

Section 2

Example:
2 3 4 5 6
n
=
, ,
,
,
,...
2
n 1 n=2
3 8 15 24 35

These numbers can be graphed:

Note that they can be easily graphed in matlab:

>> n = 2:1:10;
>> f = n./(n.^2-1);
>> plot(n,f,*)

End Class Notes

2.2 Mini-Lecture II Examples with the definition of the limit are given here.
Begin Class Notes

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Calculus and Physics

Section 2

10

Given any value of  > 0, if there is an N such that every

number in the sequence falls within the interval awe say that
the sequence converges.
Example:
n
1 3 7 15
1

=
0,
,
, , ,
, ...
1

2 n=0
2 4 8 16

This sequence converges to 1. Even though none of the numbers actually is 1, the numbers in the sequence get arbitrarily
close to 1.
Since none of the numbers in the sequence are 1 we have to
show that they get close. We ask if the numbers are close
to one


n


1


1 1 < .




2
We can simplify the left hand side





 n 
1

1 = 1

 n
1

1 =

 n 
1 
2 

 n
1

Can I get this number to be smaller that ? If so, is it smaller

than  for all numbers bigger than some value?
Given  can I find a value of N such that this value is less than
 for all values of n > N ?
n
1

< 
2
n
1
ln < ln()
2
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Calculus and Physics

Section 2

11

1
n ln < ln()
2
ln()
 .
n >
ln 12

So for any n >

ln()
ln( 12 )

we have that

1 n


1
1 < .
2

End Class Notes

2.3 Mini-Lecture III Limits are examined again, only this time it is in the context
of the derivative.
Begin Class Notes
2

Suppose that we have a function, f (t) = t , and we want to

examine what happens to the average rate of change as the
change in time gets closer and closer to zero. The average rate
of change of f (t) is
f (t + 4t) f (t)
.
4t
Does this look like 2t as 4t gets close to zero? Let 4t =
From the activity we have that









for every n >

t+

ln()
.
ln( 12 )

 n 
1

 n
1

 n
1

2t < ,

This means that as n gets large, the

average rate of change gets closer to 2t.

Note that the both the numerator and the denominator of the
average rate of change goes to zero, but the ratio does not.
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Calculus and Physics

Section 2

12

Given a parabola, what is the slope of the tangent line at any

time, t?

As 4t gets close to zero, the slope of the secant lines approach

2t. For example at t = 5 the slope of the tangent line is 10.
End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 3

13

The Derivaitve

The limit definition of the derivative is motivated but is not given on this day. The
average rate of change is examined at the beginning of the day using some numerical
examples. During the second mini-lecture the numerical values are related to the slope
of the tangent line. The principle aim of this approach is to demonstrate that the ideas
behind the limit are about the process of finding a limit. During the third mini-lecture
a definition of the derivative is given and some examples are also given.
3.1 Mini-Lecture I The average rate of change is examined once again. The idea
that this is the slope of a secant line is emphasized.
Begin Class Notes

The average velocity is the change in the distance divided by

the change in the time. We have the following observations:

Tells us how distance changes as time changes.

For us it has been discrete in nature. (This isnt really the
case in general.)
We would like to quantify what happens during one point in
time.

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Calculus and Physics

Section 3

14

The average rate of change is the change in the range divided by

the change in the domain. This is the same as the slope of the
secant line.
To get at the rate of change at a point in time, we can look at
what happens as the change in the domain gets closer and closer
to zero.
At this point I like to do the pre-class work on an overhead
emphasizing the difference between total change and average
rate of change.
End Class Notes
3.2 Mini-Lecture II The average rate of change for f (t) = t2 is derived, and the
idea of the tangent line is introduced.
Begin Class Notes
2

The average rate of change for f (t) = t is

(t + h)2 t2
t2 + 2th + h2 t2
=
h
h
2
2th + h
=
h
= 2t + h.
What happens as h gets closer and closer to zero?

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Calculus and Physics

Section 3

15

Graphically, we are finding secant lines.

As h gets closer and closer to zero the secant lines get closer
and closer to the tangent line. The tangent line at a point,
(f (t0), t0), is the straight line that just touches the curve at
the point but does not cross through the curve.
The secant lines above get closer and closer to the tangent line,
and the average rates of changes get closer and closer to the slope
of the tangent line.
End Class Notes
3.3 Mini-Lecture III A definition of the derivative is given and several examples
are given.
Begin Class Notes
2

If f (t) = t then

f (t + h) f (t)
= 2t + h.
h
The slope of the tangent line at any point is 2t.

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Some
students get
confused
between the
difference
between the
tangent line
and the
derivative.
This is the
reason that I
try to
emphasize
the
difference
between the
tangent line
and the
slopes of the
secant lines.

Section 4

16

If g(t) = t3 then
g(t + h) g(t)
= 3t2 + 3th + h2,
h
The slope of the tangent line at any point is 3t2.
In general, the slope of the tangent line to the function tn is
ntn1.
Definition: The derivative of a function at t is the slope of
the tangent line at t.
Notation: The derivative of a function, x(t) is denoted

x(t),
x0(t),
dx
(t).
dt
it is important to note that this is just notation. For example,
the notation dx
dt is not dx divided by dt. This is just a way to
indicate that we are finding the slope of the derivative. Also,
the notation dtd (g(t)) indicates that you are being asked to
find the derivative of the function g(t).
Examples:
 
What is dtd t4 ?


d
10
What is dt t ?

In Search of Newton

d
7
t
?
dt 

d
15
?
dt t
End Class Notes

What is
What is

Calculus and Physics

Section 4

17

Derivatives of Polynomials

The derivative of a polynomial is found on this day. During the first mini-lecture the
general notion of the derivative is reinforced. During the second mini-lecture the idea
that the derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of the derivatives of the two
functions is examined. Finally, in the final mini-lecture the general form of the derivative
of a polynomial is given.
4.1 Mini-Lecture I The graphical nature of the derivative is re-examined. An
example of a function that is not differentiable is also given.
Begin Class Notes

The average rate of change of f (t) from t to t + h is

f (t + h) f (t)
.
h

The average rate of change is the change in the range divided

by the change in the domain. This is the same as the slope of
the secant line. Moreover, as h gets close to zero, the secant
line approaches the tangent line.

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 4

18

Does a tangent line always exist?

Does a unique tangent line exist at t = 0?

In the next activity we will look at what happens when you try
to find the derivative of the sum of two functions, f (t) + g(t).
We will start out by looking at a specific example. Recall that
the averarge rate of change for a function is
f (t + h) f (t)
.
h
Quick Note: The factorial notation is defined to be
n! = n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) 3 2 1.
For example 5! = 5 4 3 2 1 = 120.
End Class Notes
4.2 Mini-Lecture II The idea that the derivative of the sum of two functions is
the sum of the derivative of both functions.
Begin Class Notes
2

What is the derivative of t + t?

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 4

19

If I have f (t) + g(t) what is

d
dt

(f (t) + g(t))?

d
(f (t) + g(t)) = f 0(t) + g 0(t).
dt
Note that this implies that
d
(f1(t) + f2(t) + f3(t) + fn(t)) = f10 (t) + f20 (t) + f30 (t) + fn0 (t).
dt
Also note that when looking at the average rate of change for a
function multiplied by a constant, cf (t), we get that
cf (t + h) cf (t)
f (t + h) f (t)
= c
.
h
h
This implies that the derivative of cf (t) is cf 0(t).
Example:

d
dt

4t2 = 8t.

Example:

d
dt

t + 4t5 = 1 + 20t4.

Example:

d
dt

1 + 8t9 = 72t8.

End Class Notes

4.3 Mini-Lecture III Derivatives of non-trivial polynomials are examined.

Begin Class Notes

In the activity we looked at the polynomial

Q(t)
= a0 + a1t + a2t2 + a3t3 + + antn.

Note that Q(0)

= a0.
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Calculus and Physics

Section 4

20

What happens to the derivatives?

0(t) = a1 + 2a2t + 3a3t2 + 4a4t3 + 5a5t4 + + nantn1.
Q
0(0) = a1.
So Q
00(t) = 2a2 + 3 2a3t + 4 3a4t2 + 5 4a5t3 + + n (n 1)antn2
Q
00(0) = 2a2.
Q
000(t) = 3 2a3 + 4 3 2a4t + 5 4 3a5t2 + +
Q
n (n 1) (n 2) antn3,
000(0) = 3 2a2.
Q
IV (t) = 4 3 2a4 + 5 4 3 2a5t + +
Q
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) antn4,
IV (0) = 4 3 2a4.
Q
If I know that

Q(0)
0(0)
Q
00(0)
Q
000(0)
Q
IV (0)
Q

=
=
=
=
=

1,
4,
3,
12,
6,

can I find a formula for Q(t)?

If there is time I like to ask the students to graph out and
play with the function
t9
t2 t3 t4
1 + t + + + + + .
2 3! 4!
9!
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Calculus and Physics

Section 4

21

It is interesting to note that for t close to zero the derivative

of this function looks a lot like the original function.
End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 5

22

Anti-Derivatives

The anti-derivative is introduced on this day. It is important to introduce the antiderivative as soon as possible because the physics class is making use of the kinematic
equations.
The first mini-lecture introduces the idea of going backwards given that you know the
derivative of a function but not the function itself. This idea is addressed again in the
second mini-lecture and the definition of the anti-derivative is given. An example of the
derivation of the kinematics equations is given during the second mini-lecture. Finally,
an introduction to differential equations is given in the third mini-lecture.
it is unusual to discuss differential equations so soon in a calculus class, but this is one
of the continuing themes that brings the physics and the calculus class together. We will
emphasize the role that Newtons second law has on developing mathematical models for
physical phenomenon. Newtons second law is used to develop the differential equations
that describe how things move.
5.1 Mini-Lecture I A brief introduction to the anti-derivative is given. The basic
rule is not given, rather this is just a brief way to introduce the idea that it is possible to
go backwards. The idea is re-examined in the second mini-lecture so this is just a brief
overview of the basic idea.
Begin Class Notes

What are the following derivatives?


d 6
3
t +t t = ?
dt
!
d 1
2
t2 t + 1 = ?
dt
!
d 2
t 3 4t + 7 = ?
dt
!
d 4
t 3 t + 323 = ?
dt
Note that the addition of a constant does not change the slope
of the graph, it only shifts the graph up or down.

Suppose that I know that

d
(f (t)) = 1.
dt
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Calculus and Physics

Section 5

23

What is f (t)? Notice that

d
(t + c) = 1,
dt
where c is any constant.
Suppose that I know that
d
(f (t)) = t + 1,
dt
what is f (t)? Notice that
d 1 2
t + t + c = t + 1,
dt 2
where c is any constant.

This idea is explored in the activity, and we will discuss how to

find f (t) given its derivative in the second mini-lecture.
End Class Notes
5.2 Mini-Lecture II The anti-derivative is defined and further explored at this
time. An example is given in which the kinematic equations for constant acceleration are
derived.
Begin Class Notes
If you know that dtd (f (t)) is a given function the process of

funding f (t) itself is called finding the anti-derivative.

For example, if
d
(f (t)) = t3,
dt
then
44
f (t) =
+c
t
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Calculus and Physics

Section 5

24

where c is a constant.
If
d
(f (t)) = t6,
dt
then
f (t) =

7
+ c,
t7

where c is a constant.
In general if
d
(f (t)) = tn,
dt
then
f (t) =

1 n+1
t
+ c,
n+1

where c is a constant.
Example: Assume that an object has a constant downward
acceleration. Can I find its velocity and position if its initial
velocity is v0 and its initial position is y0?

From Netwons second law we get that

ma = mg,
a = g.
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Calculus and Physics

Section 5

25

Finding the anti-derivative we have that

v(t) = gt + c1,
but
v(0) = v0
= g(0) + c1 c1 = v0,
v(t) = gt + v0.
Finding the anti-derivative again we have that
but
y(t) = 12 gt2 + v0t + c2
y(0) = y0
= 21 g(0)2 + v0(0) + c2 c2 = y0,
y(t) = 21 gt2 + v0t + y0.
These formulas are the kinematic equations for constant acceleration.
End Class Notes
5.3 Mini-Lecture III An overview of Newtons second law is given. The connection
between the second law and differential equations is discussed as well.
Begin Class Notes

Newtons Second Law: The mass times the acceleration of

an object is equal to the sum of all of the forces (Note that the
acceleration and the forces are all vectors.) This is expressed
symbolically as
m~a =

F~i.

The thing to notice is that the derivative of the velocity is the

acceleration.
Example: A car of mass m kg has a force of t2 t N acting
on it. Find the position of the car if its initial velocity is 2
metres per second, and its initial position is 0 m.
max = t2 t,

1 2
d
v(t) =
t t
dt
m
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Calculus and Physics

Section 6

26

v(t) =
v(0) =
2 =
v(t) =

1 1 3 1 2
t t + c1
m 3
2
1
(0 0) + c1
m
c1

1 1 3 1 2
t t + 2.
m 3
2

The position is found in the same manner

d
1 1 3 1 2
x(t) =
t t +2
dt
m 3
2
1 1 4 1 3
x(t) =
t t + 2t + c2
m 12
6
1
(0 0) + 0 + c2
x(0) =
m
0 = c2

1 1 4 1 3
t t + 2t
x(t) =
m 12
6

When you have a relation that includes the derivative of a function the relationship is called a differential equation. The
differential equation that we started out with above was
max = t2 t,

d
1 2
v(t) =
t t .
dt
m
Newtons second law related the derivative of the velocity with the
forces acting on the system. Newtons second law is a differential
equation.
End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 6

27

Shifted Functions and Their Derivatives

The derivative of functions that are shifted to the left or right in their domain is
explored. The main goal for this day is to find the derivatives and anti-derivatives of
P (t a) where P (t) is a polynomial.
The first mini-lecture is a very simply overview of what happens to a function when
there is a shift in the domain. This is mainly a graphical interpretation. The second
mini-lecture covers the derivative of a polynomial that has been shifted while the third
mini-lecture focuses on the anti-derivative of a shifted polynomial.
6.1 Mini-Lecture I A graphical overview of what it means to shift a function
is given. This is a very short and very straightforward discussion. The students are
expected to graph the tangent lines to the shifted graphs in the activity and deduce that
d
f (t a) = f 0 (t a).
dt
Begin Class Notes

Given a function, f (t), how do you find f (t a)?

The graph of f (t a) is just like the graph of f (t) only it is

shifted to the right a units.
End Class Notes
6.2 Mini-Lecture II This is another unusually short mini-lecture. The basic idea
is given and several examples are stated.
Begin Class Notes

Given f (t) the graph of f (t a) is just shifted a units to the

right.

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Calculus and Physics

Section 6

28

Given f 0(t) how can we find

t a.

d
dt

(f (t))? It is just f 0 evaluated at

Examples: Find the following derivatives:

1.

d
dt

2.

d
dt

(t + 4)

3.

d
dt

(t 14)2 .

t3 .
75

End Class Notes

6.3 Mini-Lecture III This is another straight-forward mini-lecture. The antiderivative for general polynomials is given.
Begin Class Notes

Note that

d 
2
15
4
3 + (t 1) + (t 1) + 6t = 2(t 1) + 5(t 1)4 + 24t3.
dt
Example from the activity: v(t) = (t 1)2 + t, x(0) = 3
1
1
x(t) = (t 1)3 + t2 + c.
3
2
At t = 0, x(0) = 3.

1
(1)3 + 0 + c,
3
1
= + c.
3

x(0) =

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 6

29

To satisfy the boundary conditions

1
3 = + c,
3
1
c = 3+ ,
3
10
=
.
3

x(t) =

1
1
10
(t 1)3 + t2 + .
3
2
3

Example from the activity: v(t) =

t + 4, x(0) = 1.

(t + 4)3/2
x(t) =
+ c.
3/2
At t = 0, x(0) = 1.
43/2
x(0) =
+ c,
3/2
8
=
+ c,
3/2
16
=
+ c.
3
To satisfy the boundary conditions
16
1 =
+ c,
3
16
c = 1 ,
3
13
= .
3
In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 6

30

(t + 4)3/2 13
x(t) =
.
3/2
3

In General: If
d
(f (t)) = c0 + c1(t a) + c2(t a)2 + c3(t a)3 + . . . + cn(t a)n,
dt
where cn and a are all constants, then
(t a)2
(t a)3
(t a)3
+ c2
+ c3
+ ... +
f (t) = k + c0(t a) + c1
2
3
4
(t a)n+1
,
cn
n+1
where k is a constant.
Example: What is the antiderivative of
4

3 3
(t 1)4 + (t 7)18 6 t ?
2

End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 7

31

Slope and Concavity

The derivative is examined on this day as well as concavity. The discussions in class
focus on the meaning that can be attributed to the values of the derivatives. In particular
the shape of a curve given knowledge about the derivatives of the function is one of the
important aspect of this days activities.
During the first mini-lecture the idea that a positive derivative means that the function
increases is discussed as well as how the concavity affects the shape of the graph of a
function. The second mini-lecture focuses on how derivative information can be used to
determine the shape of the original function. The third mini-lecture a broad overview of
the days activities is given.
7.1 Mini-Lecture I The relationship between the derivative and whether or not a
function is increasing or decreasing is given. These ramificiations are examined in terms
of the concavity.
Begin Class Notes

What is happening to a function if the derivative is positive?

What is happening to a function if the derivative is negative?

Note that if f 0(t) goes from positive to negative the function

reaches a local max.
If f 0(t) goes from negative to positive the function reaches a
local min.
In Search of Newton

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Section 7

32

If f 0(t) is positive then the function is increasing. If f 0(t) is

decreasing then the function is decreasing. If f 00(t) is positive
then f 0(t) is increasing so...

if the derivative is positive then the function is increasing at

a faster rate,
if the derivative is negative then the function is decreasing at
a slower rate.

These things imply that the graph of the function is concave up.

If f 00(t) is negative then the function is concave down.

In Search of Newton

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Section 7

33

End Class Notes

7.2 Mini-Lecture II The idea that the derivaitve gives you a great deal about the
original function is explored during this mini-lecture. This is mainly a graphical view of
what information the derivaitve gives you.
Begin Class Notes

Given the derivative you know a lot about the original function.
If the derivative is postive the function is increasing. If the
derivative is negative the function is decreasing. If the derivative is increasing the function is concave up. If the derivative
is decreasing the function is concave down. If the derivative
changes sign you have a local max or local min.

In Search of Newton

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Section 7

34

Note that if there is a cusp in the original function the derivative is discontinuous.
End Class Notes
7.3 Mini-Lecture III An overview of the days activities is given. The main goal is
to simply reinforce some of the ideas of what the derivative is and the difference between
the derivative and concavity.
Begin Class Notes

There is a difference between concavity and the derivative.

In Search of Newton

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Section 7

35

If there is time do the following graphical problem. Plot the

velocity and then discuss how to get the acceleration and the
position. Provide hints such as do the acceleration first since
it can help with the shape of the position.

In Search of Newton

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Section 7

36

End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 8

37

Product and Quotient Rules

The product and quotient rules are introduced and examined on this day. By the end
of the day the students should have some experience using both rules and should have
worked out several examples. The examples include graphical and analytic views of the
two methods of differentiation.
During the first mini-lecture the product rule is given. The introduction relies on the
students to finish the pre-class activity. The second mini-lecture provides an example of
the product rule, and the quotient rule is derived from the product rule. The focus of
the final mini-lecture is the quotient rule as well as what happens when the denominator
approaches zero.
8.1 Mini-Lecture I The product rule is introduced. This mini-lecture relies heavily
on the pre-class activity.
Begin Class Notes

Suppose we multiply two functions

h(t) = f (t)g(t).
From the pre-class work we have that
h(t2) h(t1)
f (t2) f (t1)
g(t2) g(t1)
= g(t2)
+ f (t1)
.
t2 t1
t2 t1
t2 t1
As t2 gets closer and closer to t1 what happens?

If f (t) and g(t) are continuous and differentiable then

d
(f (t)g(t)) = f 0(t)g(t) + f (t)g 0(t).
dt

This is called the Product Rule.

Examples:

1.

d
dt

((t + 37)(t + 47))

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 8
d
dt

38

(4t + 7t2)(t + 300)17




d
2
3. dt t + 3 t + 1



d
4. dt (18t) t + 5
2.

End Class Notes

8.2 Mini-Lecture II Examples from the product rule are given, and the quotient
rule is derived. Note that the case when the denominator goes to zero is not examined
here. That case will be examined in the third mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes

Product Rule: The hard part is recognizing when to use it.

For example:

1.

d
dt

(t 3t + 1)(t + 5t + 1)

2.

d
dt

(t + 4)(t2 + 3t + 2)(t + 1)500




Note that the product rule implies that we can do the last example out in one step, dtd (f (t)g(t)h(t)) = f 0(t)g(t)h(t) +
f (t)g 0(t)h(t) + f (t)g(t)h0(t).
Example:
d f (t)
d
h(t) =
dt
dt g(t)
Yikes! We cant do this. We can rearrange things so that we can
use the product rule, though,
h(t)g(t) = f (t),
In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 8

39

d
d
(h(t)g(t)) =
f (t),
dt
dt
h0(t)g(t) + h(t)g 0(t) = f 0(t),
h0(t)g(t) = f 0(t) h(t)g 0(t),
f (t) 0
h0(t)g(t) = f 0(t)
g (t),
g(t)
f (t) 0
0
f
(t)

g(t) g (t)
h0(t) =
,
g(t)
f 0(t)g(t) f (t)g 0(t)
0
.
h (t) =
g 2(t)

If f (t) and g(t) are continuous and differentiable then

d f (t) f 0(t)g(t) f (t)g 0(t)

=
.
dt g(t)
g 2(t)

This is called the Quotient Rule.

Examples:

1.
2.

3t2 +5t
4+t .


d t+1
.
dt
t1
d
dt

End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 8

40

8.3 Mini-Lecture III Several examples are given that require the quotient rule.
Begin Class Notes

The hard part about the quotient rule is to know how to recognize it:

1.

d
dt

2.

d
dt

3.

d
dt

 2

t 3t+2
t3 +6

4t
t

r

1
t

d
dt

t1
t

d
dt

t1

Note: What happens when the denominator gets close to zero?

d
dt

t
t1

(t1)t(1)
(t1)2

1
.
(t1)2

As t gets close to 1, what happens?

Moral of the story: be careful! Things break down when the

denominator gets close to zero.
In Search of Newton

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Section 9

41

Note: The anti-derivative of (t 1)2 is

this be consistant with the example above?

1
t1

+ c. How can

1
1
ct c
+c =
+
t1
t1 t1
ct c + 1
=
.
t1
If you let c = 1 you get the result from the example above. Moral
of the story: (1) be careful and (2) the constant matters!
End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 9

42

Composition of Functions and the Chain Rule

The main focus of this day is the composition of functions. The first activity focuses
on compositions, and the second activity provides an example that demonstrates how
composition of functions can be used to simplify a difficult problem.
The first mini-lecture provides a definition of composition and is relatively straightforward. The second mini-lecture focuses on how to recognize which functions are being
composed given a composition, and in the final mini-lecture the chain rule is stated.
9.1 Mini-Lecture I The definition for composition of functions is given. Several
examples are given.
Begin Class Notes

The composition of two functions, f (t) and g(t), is defined to

be
g f (t) = g(f (t)).

Example:

g(t) = t + 3,
f (t) = t3 + 4,

3
g f (t) = g(f (t)) = t + 4 + 3 = t3 + 7.

Example:
g(t) =
t2 + t + 1,
f (t) = t,
g f (t) = g(f (t))

2

t+1 = t+

t + 1.

Note that
f g(t) =

t2 + t2 + 1 = t + t2 + 1.

A couple of things to note about this. First, f (g(t)) is not equal

to g(f (t)). Also, sometimes their can be a bit of ambiguity about
In Search of Newton

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Section 9

43

what the result is. In the example above, I can put in a + or a

- in front of the t and the answer is correct.

Given that t2 = 4 is t = 2 or is t = 2?
End Class Notes
9.2 Mini-Lecture II Compositions are examined once again. At this time the idea
of identifying the functions that are being composed is examined.
Begin Class Notes

Given that
h(t) =

t2 + 3t + 5,

can we find an f (t) and a g(t) so that h(t) = f (g(t))?

It is important to know which operation is done last. This
will identify the f (t) and everything else is g(t).
You can think about this in terms of your calculator. If you
were to program a calculator what would you have to at the
very end?
In this example the last thing that is done is to take the square
root of some number. This indicates that

f (t) = t and
g(t) = t2 + 3t + 5.
In Search of Newton

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Section 9

44

Example:


h(t) =


2 3

t + 4t + t

Outside Function = t3,

Inside Function = t + 4t + t2.

Example:
h(t) =

15t 4t +

4

t1

Outside Function = t4,

2
Inside Function = 15t 4t + t 1.
Again, you have to be very careful here because the order matters.
End Class Notes
9.3 Mini-Lecture III The chain rule is introduced and several examples are given.
Begin Class Notes

Be careful about units! If f (t) has a domain that is measured in seconds and a range that is measured in metres, and
g(t) has a domain that is measured in meteres and a range
that is measured in metres per second, then the composition
g(f (t)) makes sense, but it cannot be done the other way.
Note: Given that h(t) = f (g(t)) how can we find the derivative?
h(t+h)h(t)
h

In Search of Newton

f (g(t+h))f (g(t))
h

f (g(t+h))f (g(t))
g(t+h)g(t)

g(t+h)g(t)
.
h

Calculus and Physics

Section 9

45

If f (t) and g(t) are continuous and differentiable then

d
(f (g(t))) = f 0(g(t))g 0(t).
dt

This is called the Chain Rule.

Examples:

1.

d
dt

2.

d
dt



3.

d
dt

18

5.

d
dt

30

6.


d

t2

+1

6 

t + 4t + 1

(4t + 1)


d
2
4. dt t t 1

dt

(1 t)

2t (1 4t)

1
10 3

End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 10

46

10

Exponential Functions

On this day exponential functions are introduced and examined. The basic properties
are not discussed in great detail. It is assumed that some students know these and others
have forgotten them. Students should be able to work on these on their own.
The first mini-lecture is very brief. It is a simple introduction to exponentials. The
second mini-lecture examines differential equations and slope fields. The graphs from
this exercise should look a lot like the plots done in the first activity.
The second activity and the second mini-lecture can take more time than usual. For
this reason the first mini-lecture is kept very short, and it is a good thing to cut off all of
the students on this first activity. The last activity is not critical. If most of the students
can do most of the work on the third problem the activity can be stopped.
The final mini-lecture just focuses on the solutions approximated from the slope fields.
The similarity between the resulting approximations and exponential functions is given
at the very end.
10.1 Mini-Lecture I This is an extremely brief mini-lecture because the second
activity and the second mini-lecture are longer than usual. This mini-lecture is literally
2 minutes long. This is a very brief introduction to the exponential function. The main
thing is that most of the students at least start on the third problem in the first activity.
Begin Class Notes

In polynomial function we take a number and raise that number

to a fixed degree.
In an exponential function we take a fixed number and raise it
to a variable power. For example
f (t) = 2t.
In this function f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 9. Note that
f (3.5) = 23.5 = 2321/2. Since we can find integer powers and
find roots, it is no problem to just find the exponential for any
number.
End Class Notes
10.2 Mini-Lecture II Differential equations are introduced and the general idea
about slope fields is introduced.
Begin Class Notes

Newtons Law is really a differential equation

X
m~a =
F~ .
i

In Search of Newton

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Section 10

47

What makes this a differential equation is that the acceleration

is really the derivative of the velocity. If you have an equation
that has the derivative of a function in it, the equation is called
a differential equation. The basic idea is to find an unkown
function that satisfies the equation.
There are times when the acceleration depends on the velocity.
For example, if there is air resistance, the force due to the air
resistance is proportional to the velocity squared. So if the
velocity is doubled the force due to air friction goes up by a
factor of four.
The question is how do we find the function to the differential
equation if we do not know the original equation? There are
two different things that we do:

1. Qualitative Aspect. We can try to get a feel for the behavior of the solution based on the equation.
2. Quantitative Aspect. Use the insight gained in the first
step and our knowledge of calculus to find the analytic formula
for the function satisfying the differential equation.

Today we will concentrate on the first aspect.

Example: Suppose that we are given that
a(t) = v 2(t).
In Search of Newton

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Section 10

48

Given the velocity at any time we can find the acceleration. So

if v(t0) is equal to 2, then the acceleration is -4. Note that this
means that the slope of the velocity is -4 if v(t0) is 2. A tangent
line to the curve at this time is
y 2 = 4(t t0).

Locally, we know the shape of the function, v(t), near this point.

Why not draw a potential tangent line at every point in the

plane? If you can do that, you have the tangent line at any point
which will tell you the shape of the curve at any point. The way
In Search of Newton

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Section 10

49

that you do this is to start at some initial point and then move to
the right in the direction indicated by the slope field.
I like to go through and do a couple of examples on an overhead with the next graph.

End Class Notes

10.3 Mini-Lecture III Some of the acitivities are examined.
Begin Class Notes

The slope field gives you the idea of what shape the solutions
might have. If you have an idea of what the functions look
like, then you can get an idea of what kind of function to look
for in the solution of the original differential equation.
Example: A ball is dropped, and the force of friction is proportional to one-third of its velocity.

In Search of Newton

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Section 10

50

From Newtons Second Law we get

ma = mg Ff ,
1
a = g
v.
3m
If the acceleration is zero what is the velocity?
1
v,
3m
v = 3mg.
0 = g

If the velocity approachs 3mg then the acceleration gets close

to zero. This is the steady state for the ball.
Sketch different solutions on the following graph on an overhead:

In Search of Newton

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Section 11

51

Note that the solutions increase or decrease to the steady state.

Is this consistant with the equation?
1
v.
3m
If v > 3mg then the acceleration is negative so the velocity decreases. Likewise, if v < 3mg then the acceleration is positive so
the velocity increases. All solutions get closer to the steady state.
a = g

End Class Notes

In Search of Newton

Calculus and Physics

Section 11

52

11

Exponential Functions

This day represents a continuation of the previous days activities. The focus on this
day is on exponential functions. Special attention is paid to the range and domain of
these functions as well as their inverses.
The first mini-lecture focuses on exponential functions and provides several examples.
The second mini-lecture goes back to the differential equation that is motivating the use
of exponential functions, and the last mini-lecture focuses on derivatives of exponential
functions.
11.1 Mini-Lecture I Exponential functions are given and explored by looking at
several examples. The main focus is on the difference between exponential decay and
exponential growth. In terms of decay, we look at functions that include an exponential
decay term and ask about the long-term behavior of the function. This is done because
of students confusion when faced with functions that have only one decay term in the
later activities.
Begin Class Notes

Exponential Functions:
f (t) = 2t
Notice that f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 16. The
function grows really fast in time. We call this exponential
growth.

f (t) = 3t
In Search of Newton

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Section 11

53

1
1
Notice that f (1) = 13 , f (2) = 19 , f (3) = 27
, f (4) = 81
. The
function decays really fast in time. We call this exponential decay.

Properties of exponential functions:

24 23
2t 3t
5t+7
7t+c
6t
2t

=
=
=
=
=

23+4
= 27.
(2 3)t = 6t.
5t 57.
7t 7c.
 t
6
t
=
3
.
2

Note that with exponential decay, anything that looks like ct

gets closer to zero as t gets large. For example, what happens to
the function f (t) = 5 7t in time? The function gets closer and
closer to 5.

In Search of Newton

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Section 11

54

End Class Notes

11.2 Mini-Lecture II The differential equation that is used to motivate exponential
functions is re-examined. This is a very brief overview that includes a reminder about
how derivatives are found. The actual derivatives of exponential functions are given in
the last mini-lecture. This is just an overview to motivate how we find the derivatives.
Begin Class Notes

Newtons Second Law:

m~a =

F~ , or

d
X
v(t) =
Fi.
dt
i
Newtons Second Law gives us a differential equation that provides a mathematical model of some physical phenomena. The
goal is to find a function, v(t), that satisfies the equation.
m

Example: The force due to friction on a car rolling across a

flat surface is one half its velocity, and this is the only force
acting on the object,
1
ma = v,
2
1
a =
v,
2m
In Search of Newton

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Section 11

55

d
1
v(t) =
v(t).
dt
2m
The goal here is to find a function, v(t), whose derivative is
directly proportional to the function itself! Can we find such
a function? It turns out that exponential functions hold the
key to this question.
Before starting the activity we need a couple of notes for the
next activity. The average rate of change for a function from
a to b is defined to be
f (b) f (a)
.
ba
To get the derivative of the function we look at
f (t + h) f (t)
h
and let h get closer and closer to zero.
End Class Notes
11.3 Mini-Lecture III The derivatives of exponential functions are examined.
Begin Class Notes
t

Let f (t) = 2 . Then

f (t+h)f (t)
h

2t+h 2t
h

2t 2h 2t
h

"

h
2t 2 h1

Note that the fraction on the right does not depend on t

in any way! The derivative looks like the original function
multiplied by some constant.
In general,
bt+h bt
h
In Search of Newton

bt bh bt
h

"

h
bt b h1

.
Calculus and Physics

Section 11

56

The derivative of an exponential is the original exponential

multiplied by some constant.
Lets see
h
1
1/2
1/4
1/8
1/16
1/32
1/64

what
2h 1
h

1
.83
.76
.724
.708
.701
.700

bh 1
h

is for different values of b:

3h 1
2.7h 1
h
h
h
h
1
2
1
1.7
1/2 1.46 1/2 1.29
1/4 1.26 1/4 1.13
1/8 1.18 1/8 1.06
1/16 1.14 1/16 1.03
1/32 1.12 1/32 1.01
1/64 1.10 1/64 1.00

There is a number, approximately 2.718 - oh heck lets just call

it e, such that
d t
e = et.
dt
Examples:
d 2t
e
dt
d  t
e
dt
d  t
te
dt

d 2
t
t + 7e
dt
d t2 !
e
dt
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57

Note to the lecturer: we do not give the general formula

for dtd bt just yet. It will be examined once the natural log is
found.
End Class Notes

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Section 12

58

12

Inverse Functions

The definition of a function is revisited as well as the range and domain of a function.
The main thrust of the days activities is to relate these ideas to the inverse of a function.
The examples focus on the inverses of exponential functions. Note that the activities on
this day are shorter than usual and there is more lecture time than normal.
The first mini-lecture focuses on the definition of a function and its inverse. The
second mini-lecture focuses on inverse functions with examples of exponentials, and the
last mini-lecture focuses on derivatives of inverse functions.
12.1 Mini-Lecture I The definition of a function and its inverse are given. The
range and domain of a function are formally defined.
Begin Class Notes

Suppose that f (t) is a function. Then for every number, t, that

is acceptable to the function there is another number, y, for
which y = f (t).
Example: f (t) is the square of t. (Given a number, t, the
function returns t2).

Example: f (t) is the number, b, that satisfies b2 = t.

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Section 12

59

For any given positive number, t, there are two numbers that
satisfy b2 = t. This is not a function.
We will have to be careful. So far we have played things fast
and loose and should have been more precise. We will have to
clean up the mess now or else we will be in big trouble.
Definition: The set of all possible values of t that can be used
in f (t) is called the domain of f (t).
Definition: The set of all possible values that can be returned
by f (t) is called the range of f (t).
Example: f (t) = t2 + 1

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The domain is the set of all real numbers. The range is all
numbers equal to or bigger than one.
Example: f (t) = 3t

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The domain is the set of all real numbers. The range is all
numbers strictly bigger than zero.
Example: f (t) =

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The domain is the set of all non-negative numbers. The range

is all numbers equal to or bigger than zero.
Definition: A function, f 1(t), is the inverse of f (t) if the
following are true:
f (f 1(t)) = t,
f 1(f (t)) = t.

Example: The inverse of t is t2. (We will see later that we

have to be more careful in terms of the range and domain of these
two functions, though.)
End Class Notes
12.2 Mini-Lecture II The inverse is explored further. The logarithm is defined
during this mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes
2

Is the function f (t) = t + 5t + 2 invertible?

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For almost any value of f , there are two different values of

t that return the same number. The inverse is not a function!
Note: At the bottom of the parabola the derivative of the
function is zero:
5
f 0(t) = 2t + 5 t = .
2
The domain of the function is all of the real numbers. The
range
of the function is all numbers greater than or equal to


f 52 .
If I limit the domain to all t 5
2 then on this new domain I
can find an inverse since I am only looking at the right half of
the parabola:
y = t2 +5t + 2
t =

5+

254(2y)
2

= f 1(y).

The last equation is the inverse of f when the domain is

restricted.
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Example: The exponential function y = et.

It is invertible, but how do we find the inverse of this monster?

Definition: Given that y = et the function to find t given a
value for y is called the natural logarithm. We will denote
this function as ln(y). From this definition we have that


ln e

= t,

eln(t) = t.
Note that
f (t) = et

Domain is all real numbers.

Range is all positive numbers.
f 1(t) = ln(t) Domain is all positive numbers.
Range is all real numbers.

Properities of the natural log.

ln(a b) = ?
= y, then
y
ln(ab)
e = e
= ab
= eln(a)eln(b) = eln(a)+ln(b),
ln(a b) = ln(a) + ln(b).
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ln a

= ?

= y, then
ln(ab )

e = e
= a
 
ln ab = b ln(a).


ln(a) b

= eb ln(a),

These two results imply that

ln

 

a
b

= ln(a) ln(b).

Note:
d f (t)
dt e

=?

Do not forget the chain rule!

Finally, in the activity it is important to ask if
ef (t) = t,
then what is f (t)?
End Class Notes
12.3 Mini-Lecture III The derivative of the natural log is explored and several
examples are given.
Begin Class Notes

We have that if
eln(t) = t,
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66

then
d ln(t)
e
dt
d
eln(t) ln(t)
dt
d
t ln(t)
dt
d
ln(t)
dt

= 1, or
= 1,
= 1,
=

1
.
t

In general we have that

t


ln(a) t

a = e
= et ln(a)
dtd at = et ln(a) ln(a)
d t
t
dt a = a ln(a).

Examples:
d t
4 = ?
dt
d
(18.7)t = ?
dt
d
(.25)t = ?
dt
Why should the derivative be negative for that last one?
The general formula for logs can also be found:
y(t) = loga t
ay(t) = t,
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67

(ay ln(a))

d
y(t) = 1,
dt
d
1
y(t) = y(t)
,
dt
a ln(a)
1
=
.
t ln(a)

Examples:
d  t
t3 =?
dt

 
d 
t + 1 log10 t2 = ?
dt

d  t
14 log37.1(t) = ?
dt

One last note:

The anti-derivative of et is et + c.
The anti-derivative of 1t is ln(t) + c.

End Class Notes

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68

13

Taylor Polynomials

The focus for this day is on the derivation of Taylor polynomials. The day begins by
graphing polynomials whose derivatives match the logarithm at t = 1, and by the end of
the day the general form for the Taylor series is derived.
The first mini-lecture only covers the derivatives of polynomials. This is done in such
a way as to motivate the use of polynomials in a form that is useful in the later parts of
this days class. The second mini-lecture is a review of the first activity, and the general
form for the Taylor polynomial is given. In the final mini-lecture the idea of linearizations
are examined with an eye towards the use of Newtons method.
13.1 Mini-Lecture I The derivatives of a particular polynomial are examined. This
is used to motivate the general form for the Taylor Series.
Begin Class Notes

Define a polynomial to be
1
1
P (t) = 5 + 6(t 1) + 7 (t 1)2 + 8 (t 1)3
2
3!
1
1
+9 (t 1)4 + 10 (t 1)5.
4!
5!
We will make note of some of the properties of this polynomials.
First what is the value of the polynomial at t = 1?
P (1) = 5.

What about the first derivative?

1
1
1
P 0(t) = 6 + 7(t 1) + 8 (t 1)2 + 9 (t 1)3 + 10 (t 1)4,
2!
3!
4!
0
P (1) = 6.

Okay, what about the second derivative?

1
1
1
P 00(t) = 7 + 8 (t 1) + 9 (t 1)2 + 10 (t 1)3,
1!
2!
3!
00
P (1) = 7.
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The third derivative?

1
1
P 000(t) = +8 + 9 (t 1)1 + 10 (t 1)2,
1!
2!
000
P (1) = 8.

The fourth derivative?

1
P 0000(t) = 9 + 10 (t 1)1,
1!
0000
P (1) = 8.

Finally, the fifth derivative?

P V (t) = 10,
P V (1) = 10.

Wow! Notice how those derivatives match up with the coeficients above?
End Class Notes
13.2 Mini-Lecture II An overview of the first activity is given, and the general
form for Taylor polynomials is given.
Begin Class Notes

I like to put up the following plots:

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73

Definition:

The Taylor polynomial of degree N for a function f (t)

around the fixed point t0 is
1
PN (t) = f (t0) + f 0(t0)(t t0) + f 00(t0) (t t0)2
2
1
1
+f 000(t0) (t t0)3 + f IV (t0) (t t0)4
3!
4!
1
1
+f V (t0) (t t0)5 + + f (N )(t0) (t t0)N
5!
N!

This is a polynomial. The function and its derivatives are

evaluated at some constant, t0, so the coefficients are all constants. If t0 = 0 then the polynomial is also called the
Maclaren polynomial.

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74

Example: Find the Taylor polynomial for the differential

equation
d
y = 2y(t),
dt
y(1) = 1.

y 0(t)
y 00(t)
y 000(t)
y (4)(t)

=
=
=
=
...
y (n)(t) =

2y(t)
2y 0(t)
4y 0(t)
8y 0(t)

= 4y(t)
= 8y(t)
= 16y(t)

2N 1y 0(t) = 2N y(t)

y 0(0)
y 00(0)
y 000(0)
y (4)(0)

= 2,
= 4,
= 8,
= 16,

y (n)(0) =

1,

1
1
1
1
1
P6(t) = 1 + t + t2 + t3 + t4 + t5 + t6
2
3!
4!
5!
6!
Finally, note that if N = 1 you get a line. This line is called
the linearization of the function at a point.
End Class Notes
13.3 Mini-Lecture III The second activity is discussed with an emphasis on linearizations and an introduction to Newtons method. I like to have everybody running
Matlab or other software package at this time and step through the calculations as I do
them on the board.
Begin Class Notes

The linearization of of f (t) at a point t0 is the first Taylor

polynomial at the given point,
P1(t) = f (t0) + f 0(t0)(t t0).
This is the point-slope form for a line!
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75

We can use this to find the points at which a function crosses

the t-axis. For example, suppose I want to find a value of t
that satisfies t3/2 7t2 = 0? I cannot solve this analytically,
so I have to play a game:
t3/2 = 7t + 2,
t3 = (7t + 2)2, let
g(t) = t3 (7t + 2)2.
I can find the linearization by finding the derivative of g
g 0(t) = 3t 14(7t + 2)3.
The linearization about a point can now be found.
We will try to find the point, t, which satisfies the original
equation. First graph g(t) and make an intial estimate. Here
we will let t = 48 and proceed:

>> t = 48;
>> g = t.^3 - (7*t+2).^2
g =
-3652
>> gp = 3*t.^2-14*(7*t+2)
gp =

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76

2180
>> t = t - g/gp
t =
49.6752

Cycle through this until t gets close to the root which should
only take two more iterations.
This process is called the Newton-Raphson Method.
End Class Notes

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77

14

The Area Function

The main idea for this idea is the area function. The integral is motivated in terms
of calculating change in distance given the velocity. There is not an explicit connection
made to the anti-derivative, though. That will happen in the following class.
The first mini-lecture is very short and introduces the way to find the change in
distance given the average velocity. This idea is expanded upon in the second minilecture in which the Riemann sum is introduced. Finally, the integral is defined in the
last mini-lecture.
14.1 Mini-Lecture I The total change in distance is found by using the average
velocity. The basic question that is examined is how do we find the change in distance
given the velocity?
Begin Class Notes

The average velocity is defined to be

Average Velocity =

Change in distance
.
Change in time

Given the average velocity we can find the change in distance

by multiplying by the change in time.
Example: The times and velocities for a trip are given below:
t (sec.)
0
1
2
3

v (m/sec.)
1
3
4
5

We do not have the average velocities here, but we can approximate them by pretending that the velocities are constant
over each time interval.

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Estimate of the change in distance:

Low Estimate = 1 1 + 3 1 + 4 1 = 8m.
High Estimate = 3 1 + 4 1 + 5 1 = 12m.
End Class Notes
14.2 Mini-Lecture II The connection between the change in distance and the area
under the velocity graph is made explicit. The basic idea behind Riemann sums is also
discussed.
Begin Class Notes

Notice! If the velocity is a piecewise constant function, then

the change in distance is equal to the area under the graph.
Is this true in general? We will ask a different question. Given a
velocity plot, how can we approximate the change in distance?
We will break up the domain of the function, the time, into small
pieces and try to make an approximation over each small piece.
To do this we will assume that the velocity is about constant
over each little interval.
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Example: If the velocity of a car is v(t) = tet from t = 1 to

t = 3, approximate the distance traveled using 15 intervals.

The width of each time interval is

t0
t1
t2
t3

=
=
=
=

1
1 + 15
4
1 + 15
6
1 + 15

31
15

2
15 :

tn = 1 + n

2
.
15

The change in distance can be found using two different approximations. The first assumes that the velocity over each
interval is the same as the left side of each panel,
4x

tn 2
n=0 (tn e ) 15

P14

36.4m.

(This is called the left hand Riemann sum.)

The other approximation assumes that the velocity over each
interval is the same as the right side of each panel,
4x
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tn 2
n=1 (tn e ) 15

P15

44.1m.
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80

(This is called the right hand Riemann sum.)

If we want to get a better approximation we can make the size of
the interval smaller (increase the number of intervals). We can
keep doing this and making the size of each interval extremely
small.
The change in position is the area under a curve!
End Class Notes
14.3 Mini-Lecture III An example from the activity is examined in order to
demonstrate how the area can be used to simplify a given problem, and the definition of
the area function is given.
Begin Class Notes

Given the velocity one way to find the total change in position is to find the area under the velocity curve.
Example:

Which of the two cars is ahead after 2.5 seconds. The area in
Area 1 represents the distance that car 2 is ahead of car 1
after the first 1.1 seconds. The area in Area 2 represent the
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81

distance that car 2 is ahead of car 1 from t = 1.1 seconds to

2.5 seconds. Since Area 2 is bigger than Area 1 car 1 is
ahead after 2.5 seconds.
Definition: The area under a function, f (t), from t1 to a time
t is called the integral and is denoted
A(t) =

Z t

t1

f (s) ds.

The s is called a dummy variable.

End Class Notes

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15

The Integral

The area function is revisited, and the areas under more complicated functions are
examined. The first mini-lecture focuses on how to approximate the area function using
Riemann sums. In the second mini-lecture we examine the difference between left and
right Riemann sums with a couple of notes about what happens when the function is
negative. In the third mini-lecture the relationship between a discontinuous acceleration
and the resulting velocity is examined.
15.1 Mini-Lecture I The area function is revisited with an emphasis on calculating
the Riemann sums.
Begin Class Notes

Given the velocity, the change in position is found by finding

the area under the graph.
Example:

The change in distance is

x(t) x(0) = Area under graph = t +

1
2

1
2t

t = t + 14 t2.

For more complicated problems we have to approximate the

area using Riemann sums. This process proceeds in the following order:
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1. Identify the domain. (So far we have used the time for specific
values.)
2. Determine the width of each little interval.
3. Approximate the area under each small interval by assuming
that the velocity is constant over each interval.
4. Add up all of the areas.

Example: Approximate the following area using 20 intervals:

Z 6
2

t dt.

The domain is the time from 1 to 6. The width of each interval

is the length of the domain divided by the number of intervals,
61
20 . A Matlab script to find the approximation is the following:

>> h = (6-1)/20;
>> t = 1:h:6;
>> f = t.^2;
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84

>> size(f)
ans =
1

21

>> lhs = sum(f(1:20))*h

lhs =
67.3438
>> rhs = sum(f(2:21))*h
rhs =
76.0938

End Class Notes

15.2 Mini-Lecture II The Riemann sum is examined once again.
Begin Class Notes

When we use the left hand Riemann sum we assume that the
velocity is constant over each interval and that the velocity is
equal to the value on the left side of each interval. When we
use the right hand Riemann sum we assume that the velocity
is equal tothe value on the right side of each interval. It is
important to remember that these are only approximations
and not the actual area.
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If a function is increasing then how does the left hand Riemann

sum compare to the actual area? Lets look at our example
from the first mini-lecture:

The true area is bigger than our approximation. Likewise what

if we take the right hand Riemann sum? The true area is less
than our approximation. In this situation we cannot get the
true area, yet, but we can get a bound on it.
What happens when we have a decreasing function?
Finally, what happens when the function is negative? Does the
integral still do the job for us? Yes! If the velocity is negative
then the change in position is negative.

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If the velocity is negative over an interval then the integral gives

the change in position which is negative. (We can have negative
integrals.) In the graph above, the object passes through its starting position at 6 seconds.
End Class Notes
15.3 Mini-Lecture III More examples are given, but this time the graphs are
discontinuous. The graphs use discontinuous accelerations because some students will
not accept a discontinuous velocity but will accept a discontinuous acceleration. It is
easier to motivate discontinuous accelerations because it is easier to imagine forces that
are suddenly applied to an object.
Begin Class Notes

Example: Suppose that the acceleration is given by

a(t) =

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1 0 < t < 1,

1 1 t < 2.

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87

The change in velocity is given by the area under the acceleration curve. The change in velocity is
v(t) v(0) =

1 t 0 < t < 1,

1 (t 1) 1 t < 2.

If v(0) = 0 then the function looks like the following graph.

The velocity is a continuous function! This is an important note.

Because we are adding up areas and not looking at slopes, the process of finding integrals returns a function that is smoother than
the original function.
End Class Notes

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88

16

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The fundamental Theorem of Calculus is given. This should not be much of a shock
to the students. This is simply a matter of reminding the students that another way to
get the position given the velocity is to find the anti-derivative. Since we have been using
integrals to do this, it should not be much of a surprise.
The fundamential theorem is derived in the first mini-lecture. The discussion n the
next two mini-lectures focus on how to use the fundamental theorem to help us solve
differential equations. The first mini-lecture is longer than usual, and the other two
mini-lectures are very short.
16.1 Mini-Lecture I The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is derived. This
derivation makes use of the mean value theorem for integrals which is derived.
Begin Class Notes

So far we have used two different ways to fnd the position given
the velocity:

1. Given v(t) we can find the position by finding the anti-derivative.

2. Given a graph of v(t) we can find the change in position by
finding the area under the curve.

Are these two the same thing or are they different? There must
be some kind of connection. It turns out that the connection
is through something called the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus. Homework assignment: look up the word
fundamental.
Before we can show the connection we will need an intermediate
result: (This is mostly graphical and not as rigorous as some would
like.)
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
Suppose that f (t) is a continuous function.
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89

(min f ) (t2 t1)

(min f )

R t2

t1 f (t) dt
1 R t2
t2 t1 t1 f (t)

(max f ) (t2 t1),

dt (max f ) .

If the function f (t) is continuous then there must be a point

t1 c t2 where
1 Z t2
f (c) =
f (t) dt.
t2 t1 t1
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: Define the area
function to be
Area(T ) =

Z T

v(t) dt.

We will assume that v(t) is continuous and the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals holds. Then we can find the average rate of
change of the area function
R T +h
v(t) dt
Area(T + h) Area(T )
= T
h
h
Z
1 T +h
=
v(t) dt
h T
= v(c) for some T + h c T .
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As h gets closer and closer to zero, c must get close to T . This

implies that
d
d ZT
Area(T ) =
v(t) dt
dT
dT 0
= v(T ).
The anti-derivative of the integral is the integrand.
So what? Suppose that v(t) = t2. What is the change in
distance between t = 0 and t = 3?
Method 1
1
x(t) = t3 + c.
3
This implies that
1 3
3 + c (0 + c)
3
= 9.

x(3) x(0) =

Method 2
R3 2

t dt =


1 3 3
3 t 0

1 3
33

0 = 9.

End Class Notes

16.2 Mini-Lecture II Riemann sums are revisited. The fundamental theorem
is motivated in the context of solving differential equations. This is a simple look at
Riemann sums, and a more comprehensive view is presented in the final mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes

The idea behind Riemann sums is that you assume that the
velocity is relatively constant over a pre-defined time interval.
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Over a given interval from tn to tn+1 you assume that the velocity is relatively constant. For the left hand Riemann sum
we have
4x v(tn) (tn+1 tn) .
For the left hand Riemann sum we have
4x v(tn1) (tn+1 tn)

If x(t)
= f (x, t) and x(0) = 1 then we can use the same idea.
The function f (x, t) is treated in the same way as we treat
the velocity above. If we know the velocity at a single point
in time, we can approximate the change in distance using the
Riemann Sum.

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Since 4x v(tn)4t we can approximate the value of the position at the next time step. Once we have the position at this new
time level we can repeat the process to approximate the position
at the following time level.
End Class Notes
16.3 Mini-Lecture III The role that the fundamental theorem plays in finding the
solution to differential equations is explored in this last mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes

Integrals are used to undo derivatives because you have to

find the anti-derivative to find an integral.

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Example:
d
x(t) = f (x, t).
dt
We can take the integral of both sides to get
Z t d
Z t
1
1
x(t)
dt
=
f (x, t) dt,
t0 dt
t0
Z t
x(t1) x(t0) = t 1 f (x, t) dt.
0

The integral on the right can be approximated using Riemann

sums.
Integrals give you total change.
you the rate of change.

Derivatives give

If there is time I like to go over the following example.

Suppose that you know that a system follows the differential
equation
d
x(t) = 2x(t),
dt
x(0) = 5.
What is the function x(t)?
I can divide both sides by x(t) to get
d
dt x(t)

= 2.
x(t)
I can integrate both sides with respect to t to get
Z T d

dt x(t)

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x(t)

dt =

Z T

2 dt.
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94

This equation can be solved

T




ln |x(t)| 0
ln |x(T )| ln |x(0)|
ln |x(T )|
x(T )
x(T )

=
=
=
=
=

2t 0 ,
2T,
ln |x(0)| + 2T,
eln |x(0)|+2T ,
x(0)e2T .

End Class Notes

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95

17

Center of Mass

The main focus of this days activities is on how Riemann sums are used to convert
continuous problems into a discrete problem. The process is examined in terms of how
the fundamental theorem is used to convert the problem into one that we can solve
analytically.
The first mini-lecture focuses on linear density and how we can find the mass of a rod
whose density is not a constant. The second activity extends this idea and examines how
to find the center of mass of a rod. Finally, in the third mini-lecture the center of mass
for a lamina is found by looking at one quick example. The students will be expected to
look up this method in their books and do some of this work on their own.
17.1 Mini-Lecture I Riemann sums and their role in approximating the mass of a
rod with non-constant density is examined. The fundamental theorem is not mentioned
here but will play a part in the first activity.
Begin Class Notes

Imagine a thin rod of length L.

I can cut out a very thin piece, and the piece must have some
mass. The mass per unit length is defined to be
mass
(x) =
length
at a point x.
To approximate the total mass of the original rod I can break
the mass into a whole bunch of very thin slices. The mass of
each little slice can be approximated, and the total mass can
be found by adding up the results for each little piece.
Example: Approximate the density of a rod that is of length
1m using six panels.

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The length of each piece is 16 , and the mass of each piece is

approximated by assuming that the density does not change
too much over each interval. Here we will assume that the
density is approximately equal to the value of the density at
the left end of each piece,
1
1 1
2 1
3 1
4 1
5 1
mass (0) + + + + + .
6
6 6
6 6
6 6
6 6
6 6

Wait a minute... this is a left hand Riemann sum!

We can look at this another way.

We are finding the Riemann sum for the density. It is important

to realize that we started out with a physical system and converted
it into a mathematical model. In terms of the mathematics we are
now concentrating on this function, called the density, and are doing the same old math operations that we were doing with velocity
and position.
End Class Notes
17.2 Mini-Lecture II The center of mass for a rod of non-uniform density is found.
Begin Class Notes

The center of mass of an object is the point at which I can apply

a force equal to the weight, and the object will balance.
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How do we find this point? Lets play a game. Suppose that I

have a wrench on a bolt at the origin, and the length of the
wrench is one meter. Now suppose that I have a wrench on the
same bolt, but it is two meters long. If I apply the same force
on each of the wrenchs which one will twist harder around
the origin? The longer wrench will have twice the torque on
the bolt.
The idea behind finding the center of mass depends on this idea.
We want to find the place where the torques balance.
Definition: The torque due to a force, F , that is perpindicular
to the x-axis and a distance x from the origin is xF .
If a rod is balanced then all of the torques must equal zero.
Suppose that I push up on the rod at x with a force equal to
the weight of the rod. Then the torque due to this is xM g
where M is the total mass of the rod.
How do we find the torque about the origin for a rod? Again,
we break it up into pieces.

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98

For example if the rod is broken up into six pieces, the torque
due to each piece is approximated and added up:


1
2 1
1
1
1
2
Torque g0 (0) + g + g +
6
6
6 6
6
6 6

3
3 1
4 1
5 1
4
5
g + g + g .
6
6 6
6
6 6
6
6 6
In general the torque can be approximated using a Riemann
sum and set equal to the torque above
xM g

NX
1
i=0

xi(xi)g4x.

The center of mass can be isolated

PN 1
xi(xi)4x
x i=0
.
M
End Class Notes
17.3 Mini-Lecture III The center of mass for a lamina is found, and the general
formulae are given. One quick example for the center of mass for a lamina is given. The
students are expected to read their calculus book to fill in the blanks.
Begin Class Notes

The center of mass for a rod of density (x) from x1 to x2 is

Rx
2
x1 x(x) dx
x = R x
.
2 (x) dx
x1
What happens if the mass is not a rod but a flat object whose
density is uniform but has a non-trivial shape? We play the
same game. We break the piece into little strips, find the mass,
and find the center of mass.
Example: Find the center of mass for a flat piece of metal
whose density is uniform. The top of the piece follows the forIn Search of Newton

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99

mula y = x and the bottom of the strip follows the formual

y = x2. The values of x go from 0 to 1.
To find the total mass the piece is broken up into thin strips.
The domain, 0 x 1, is divided into small pieces

M =

2
(
x

x
) dx.
0

Z 1

The first moment from the y-axis can then be found by multiplying the mass of each strip by its distance from the y-axis,
which is xn,
Z 1

My = 0 x( x x2) dx.
The moment for the y-direction is found by dividing up the
piece into horizontal strips.

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100

The first moment from the x-axis can then be found by multiplying the mass of each horizontal strip by its distance from
the x-axis,
Z 1

Mx = 0 y( y y 2) dy.
The center of mass can now be calculated
My
x =
,
M
Mx
y =
.
M
This is a very quick and dirty introduction into finding the
center of mass for a lamina. You (the students) should read
the book and figure this one out for yourselves.
Note that if you have a big complicated thing, you can break it
up into separate pieces.

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101

Given the triangle above, one way to tackle the problem is to

divide it up into two pieces, 1 and 2. You can find the formula for
each of the lines and can find the center of mass for piece 1 and
piece 2. Once you have the two masses and their center of mass,
you can use the standard formula that you use in your physics
class to get the total center of mass.
End Class Notes

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Section 18

102

18

Work Integrals

The work done by moving an object along a curve is discussed. The first mini-lecture
focuses on the general idea for an object being moved in one dimension. The second
mini-lecture focuses on paths in two dimensions. Finally, the third mini-lecture is an
overview of the days activities.
18.1 Mini-Lecture I The role of Riemann sums and work integrals is examined.
The main focus is on how to find the work for an object moving in one dimension.
Begin Class Notes

Riemann Sums:

1. Take the domain and break it into small pieces.

2. Find the desired quantitity for each small piece.
3. Add up all of the quantities for every small piece. We need to
find the following:
N
X

n=0

) 4x

where x comes from the domain of the function.

4. Convert the sum to an integral so that the Fundamental Thoerem of Calculus can be used to form an analytic result.

So what? We have a simple definition from physics,

Work = Force Distance.

Example: An object is moved from the origin to the northeast at a speed of 1 metre per second. After a time, t, the distance
traveled is 1 t metres.
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Section 18

x(t) =
y(t) =

103

t cos 4 t = 22 t

 

t sin 4 t = 22 t
 

The work done is the force times the distance. If the mass is
80 kg then the normal force is 80g and the force due to friction is
80g. After 4 seconds the object is moved 4 metres, and the work
done is 320g.
What happens if the force changes in time? We will first ask
what happens when the force is known as a function of the position.
We will worry about the time varying case later.
Suppose I pull on object from x = 0 to x = 4 along the direction

of travel with a force of xN. What is the work done?

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104

The work from xn to xn+1 is approximately equal to xn (xn xn+1).

The total work can be approximated by adding up the work over
each interval
NX
1
xn4x.
Total work
n=0

The total work is

Z 4

2 3 4
x dx = x 2 0.
3

End Class Notes

18.2 Mini-Lecture II The work for a force applied along a path in two dimensions
is examined. The work is for a force that is changing in time.
Begin Class Notes

Suppose that an object is moved along some path. At any particular time, t, the coordinates of the object are x(t) t and
y(t) = t(t 1). The path over the times t = 0 through t = 1
looks like a parabola.

Suppose that the force acting on the object is 2N, and the direction of the force is always along the direction of the path.
Find the work from t = 0 to t = 1.
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105

The domain is the time from t = 0 to t = 1. If we want to use

the fundamental theorem we have to divide up the time into
small intervals, find the work over each interval, and add up
the work for each piece. Keep in mind that we have to have a
sum that looks like
N
X

n=0

) 4t.

We need the change in the domain, 4t, in order to use the

fundamental theorem.
Once the time is broken up into small pieces, we find the position at the endpoints of each time interval. The first question
that we ask is what distance have we traveled over one small
time interval?

The distance traveled is approximately

r

4x2 + 4y 2,

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Section 18

106

which menas that the work done is approximately

r

2 4x2 + 4y 2.
The problem is that I need something times 4t. To get this
I will multiply and divide by 4t
r

4x2

4y 2

= 2 4x2 + 4y 2

4t
4t

v
u
u
u
t

= 2 (4x2 + 4y 2)
v
u
u
u
u
t

= 2

1
4t,
4t2

4x 2 4y 2
+
4t.
4t
4t

The total work can now be approximated as

NX
1
n=0

v
u
u
u
u
t

4x 2 4y 2
+
4t.
4t
4t

As the time interval approaches zero we get

Z 1

x 2(t)

y 2(t)

dt =

Z 1

2 12 + (2t 1)2 dt.

End Class Notes

18.3 Mini-Lecture III An overview of the work along a path in two dimensions is
provided.
Begin Class Notes

A mass m is falling along a curve.

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107

We can break the y interval into small pieces. Find the work
done over each piece.

The key things are

r

4x2 + 4y 2
4y
cos() 2
4x + 4y 2
r
4y
work mg 2
4x2 + 4y 2
2
4x + 4y
= mg4y.

distance

The total work is found by adding the work up over each segment,
NX
1

mg4y.

n=0

As 4y gets close to zero we have

Z y
2

y1

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mg dy = mg(y2 y1).
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Section 18

108

Note: For the 2D problem we have the force

F~ = ~ + ~,

which is 2 2N at 4 radians.

The distance traveled is approximately

r

4x2 + 4y 2.

The cosine of the angle between the force and the direction of
movement is approximately
cos() = cos( )
= cos() cos() + sin() sin()
!
4x
!
4y
2

= cos
+
sin
.
4
4x + 4y 2
4
4x2 + 4y 2
The work is approximately equal to
r
!
!

4x

4y

4x2 + 4y 2 ,
2
2
2 2 cos
+ sin
2
2
4
4x + 4y
4
4x + 4y

2
2
= 2 2 4x +
4y ,
2
2
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Section 18

109

2
2 4y
4x,
= 2 2
+
2
2 4x

4x
4x.
= 2 + 2
4y
The total work is approximately
4x
2 + 2
4x,
4y
n=0

NX
1

which approaches an integral as 4x gets close to zero

Z x
2

x1

x
 2



2 + 2y dx = 2x + 2y(x) x+1.
End Class Notes

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Section 19

110

19

Unconstrained Optimization

The focus for this day is unconstrained optimization. The idea is motivated by going
back and taking another look at kinematics to explore the relationship between acceleration, velocity, and position. This is done in the first mini-lecture. In the second
min-lecture we explore the relationship between the derivative and the function in the
context of optimization. Finally, in the third mini-lecture, an example problem is given
in which these ideas are brought together.
19.1 Mini-Lecture I We revisit kinematics with an example that we have seen
before. The example is a reminder of the kinematics that we did at the beginning of the
semester and should not take much time.
Begin Class Notes

Given the velocity plot the acceleration and then the position.

Notice: As the velocity goes from positive to negative the

position increases and then decreases. This must be a local
max.

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Section 19

111

As the velocity goes from negative to positive the position decreases and then increases. This must be a local min.
By the same token, we have that
x(t1) x(t0) =

Z t
1

t0

v(t) dt.

What we know about the integral is consistant with the kinematics that we did at the beginning of the semester.
End Class Notes
19.2 Mini-Lecture II The relationship between the function and its derivative are
explored. The definition for a critical point is given.
Begin Class Notes

If a derivative changes signs at some point in time then there is

either a local max or a local min at that time.
If the velocity is increasing (acceleration is positive) at such a
point then the velocity goes from negative to positive. There
must be a local min at this time. The function is concave
up.

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112

If the velocity is decreasing (acceleration is negative) at such a

point then the velocity goes from positive to negative. There
must be a local max at this time. The function is concave
down.
Definition: If f 0(c) = 0 then c is called a critical point.
What happens if the velocity is zero but does not cross the taxis? The acceleration is zero, and the point is neither a max nor
a min.
End Class Notes
19.3 Mini-Lecture III A graphical overview of the days results is given, and one
example is given.
Begin Class Notes

Graphically:

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113

Example: Find the critical points of

f (t) = et(t2 + t + 1) (t 2)et.
We take the derivative set it equal to zero and solve for t,
f 0(t) =
=
=
=

et(t2 + t + 1) + et(2t + 1) et (t 2)et,

et(t2 + t) et(t 1),
ett(t 1) et(t 1),


t
t
(t 1) e t e .

One of the roots is t = 1. The other root satisfies

0 = ett et.
To get this root we can use Newtons method. An approximation
for the root is t 0.4263.
End Class Notes

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Section 20

114

20

Constrained Optimization

Constrained optimization is introduced and discussed on this day. During the first
mini-lecture the basic concepts are introduced, and the basic definitions are given. During
the second mini-lecture the general procedure is given. During the final mini-lecture an
overview is given, and an example is given.
20.1 Mini-Lecture I The differences between constrained and unconstrained optimization are given, as well as the basic definitions.
Begin Class Notes

Unconstrained Optimization: Find a minimum or a maximum.

This is what we have already done.
Constrained Optimization: Find a minimum or maximum subject to some kind of requirement that must be met.
Example: Find the right-circular cylinder of maximum volume whose surface area is 5,000 cm3.
You should do the following steps:

1. Draw a picture.

2. Identify the constraint. The surface area is 5,000 cm3,

2r2 + 2rh = 5, 000.
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115

3. Identify the cost function. We want to get the largest possible

volume,
r2h.

The idea that we will use is to look at the relationship given by

the constraint,

We are trying to find the point on this curve in which the relationship r2h is largest.
End Class Notes
20.2 Mini-Lecture II Two examples of constrained optimization are given.
Begin Class Notes

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116

Example: Minimize x2 + y 2 subject to x + y = 1.

The relationship x2 + y 2 =constant is a family of concentric

circles centered at the origin. We are looking for the smallest
circle that just barely touches the line x + y = 1. At that
point the slopes of the two curves are equal since
they must have the same tangent line.
Example: Maximize r2h subject to 2r2 + 2rh = 5000.

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Section 20

117

Where on this line do the family of curves given by r2h just

barely touch?
We will assume that h = h(r) here. Taking the derivative of
both sides of the constraint gives us
4r + 2h + 2r2h0 = 0,
h
=
2

h0 = 4r2h
2r
r.
Assuming that r2h =constant we get that
2rh + r2h0 = 0,
2h
h0 = 2rh
=

2
r .
r
Setting the two derivatives equal we get
h
2h
= ,
2
r
r
2h = 2r h
h = 2r.
We now have two equations and two unknowns,
h = 2r,
2r2 + 2rh = 5000.
Solving these two equations we get
v
u
u
u
t

5000
,
6
v
u
u 5000
u
h = 2t
.
6
r =

Note: We used implicit differentiation on this. This is a fancy

way of saying chain rule. For example, the derivative of y 2(x)
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118

is 2yy 0.
End Class Notes
20.3 Mini-Lecture III An overview of constrained optimization is given, and one
example is presented.
Begin Class Notes

Unconstrained Optimization: Find a minimum or a maximum.

This basically amounts to finding critical points and testing
each critical point.
Constrained Optimization: Find a minimum or maximum but
there is some constraint that must be met.
For constrained optimization you should do the following:

1. Read the problem twice.

2. Draw a picture.
3. Identify the constraint. Find a mathematical formula for the
constraint.
4. Identify the cost. Find a mathematical formula for the cost.
5. Sketch plots of both relationships.
6. Find the slopes of the tangent lines of the two curves.
7. Use the constraint and your new formula (two equations and
two unknowns) to find where the two curves meet and are
tangent to one another.

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119

Example: Minimize x2 + y 2 subject to x + y = 1. Weve

already done the first 5 steps in the activity. The derivative of the
cost is
2x + 2yy 0 = 0,
x
y0 =
.
y
The derivative of the constraint is
1 + y 0 = 0,
y 0 = 1.
Setting these two equal we get
x
= 1.
y
The two equations are
x + y = 1,
x + y = 0.
The solution is x = 12 and y = 12 which is consistant with our
plots. (Always check your work...)
End Class Notes

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Section 21

120

21

The Impulse-Momentum Theorem

The impulse momentum theorem is examined. This is essentially just the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus applied to Newtons Second Law. In the first mini-lecture the
process of finding the position given the velocity is examined. The Impulse-Momentum
Theorem is then given in the second mini-lecture. The relationship between the ImpulseMomentum Theorem and the integral is examined in the final mini-lecture.
21.1 Mini-Lecture I The basic ideas on how the fundamental theorem is used to
solve differential equations is examined. This is done in the context of Newtons Second
Law.
Begin Class Notes

Your physics professor told you that Newtons Second Law is

m~a =

F~i.

This is really a very special case of Newtons Second Law. The

basic principle that Newton used to come up with this is that
the instantaneous rate of change of an objects momentum is
equal to the sum of the forces on the object,
d
X
(m~v ) =
F~i.
dt
i
In terms of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus we have that
Rb d

a dt f (t)

dt = f (t) a = f (b) f (a).

Example: Suppose that v(t) = t2 + 1. Then

d
x(t) = t2 + 1.
dt
Another form of this equation is
Z T d
Z T
2
x(t)
dt
=
t
+ 1 dt
0 dt
0
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121
T
1 3

x(t) 0 = t + t0
3
1
x(T ) x(0) = T 3 + T,
3
1
x(T ) = x(0) + T 3 + T.
3
T




End Class Notes

21.2 Mini-Lecture II The Impulse Momentum Theorem is examined. This is a
relatively straight-forward mini-lecture and is quite short.
Begin Class Notes

Newtons Second Law is

d
(mv) =
dt

Fi.

Yes, the physicists fibbed. The other form is only true when
the mass is constant. The only way that the momentum on an
object can change is if a force is applied to the object. Taking
the integral of both sides we get
Z T

d
(mv) dt =
dt

Z T X

Fi dt,

mv 0 =

Z T X

Fi dt,

m(T )v(T ) m(0)v(0) =

Z T X

Fi dt.

The total change in momentum is the integral of the

force over time. This is the so-called Impulse-Momentum
Equation.
The differential equation is only true when the mass is constant.
The integral equation is always true.
End Class Notes

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122

21.3 Mini-Lecture III The Impulse-Momentum Theorem is examined in a graphical context, and the difference between the differential and integral form of Newtons
Second Law is discussed.
Begin Class Notes

If I pull on an object for 2 seconds with a force of 3N, what is

the total change in momentum?

The change in momentum is the area under the graph of the

force over the time interval. For 2 seconds, the momentum
changes by 6 kg m/sec. If the mass of the object is reduced
by half, what is the change in its velocity?
Notes:

1. The derivative is the rate of change. So if you know that

v(t) = t2 + 1 then at any point the slope of the graph of the
position is t2 + 1.
2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus allows us to relate
the instantaneous rate of change with the total change. For
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123

the example above, the change in position is x(T ) x(0) =

RT 2
0 t + 1 dt.
Any time you have an equation with a derivative in it, you will
try to rewrite the equation in a new way that will allow you to
use the fundamental theorem. This will allow you to convert the
instantaneous rate of change into a total change.
End Class Notes

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Section 22

124

22

The Unit Circle

The basic properties of the unit circle are examined. The relationships between the
trigonometric functions and the unit circle are stressed. In the first mini-lecture the basid
definitions are given. This is a very straight-forward and short mini-lecture. The unit
circle is introduced in the second mini-lecture, and graphs of the sine and cosine functions
is examined. Finally, in the third mini-lecture the periodic properties are examined as
well as the second derivatives.
22.1 Mini-Lecture I The sine and cosine functions are defined. Two very simple
examples are examined.
Begin Class Notes

The sine and cosine of an angle has been used when working
with right triangles.

The basic trigonometric functions are defined to be

y
sin() = 2
x + y2
x
cos() = 2
x + y2
y
tan() =
x
Example: What is the arctangent of 1? The tangent of
one, so arctan(1) = 4 .

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is

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Section 22

125

Note that
arctan(tan()) = .
This is simply the definition of the inverse function.
Example:
3
tan arcsin = ?
10

Here is the game that we play. We work from the inside out.
3
Suppose that some angle satisfies sin() = 10
.

Using the Pythagorean Theorem we can calculate x,

x2 + 9 = 100,
x2 = 91,

x = 91.
Now all we have to do is calculate the tangent of ,
3
tan() = .
91

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Section 22

126

Example:
4
sin arccos = ?
7
Suppose that is an angle whose cosine is 47 .

Again, using the Pythagorean Theorem we get

16 + y 2 = 49,
y 2 = 33,

y = 33.

The sine of the angle is

33
7 .

Example:
cos(arctan(x)) = ?
What angle has a tangent of x1 ?

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Section 22

127

The length of the hypotenuse is

1
angle is 1+x
2.

1 + x2. The cosine of the

End Class Notes

22.2 Mini-Lecture II The unit circle is examined. The relationship between the
unit circle and the trigonometric functions is briefly discussed as well.
Begin Class Notes

The unit circle is a circle of radius one centered at the origin.

Notice that for any point on the circle, we can calculate its x
and y positions in terms of the sine and cosine of the angle
formed by a line through the origin to the point.

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128

The x and y positions are given by

x = cos(),
y = sin().

Given any , we have two functions that return either the x or

the y component of a point on the circe. In fact, we can graph
these functions:

These functions repeat themseves. They are both periodic from

0 to 2. In terms of the unit circle this is when the points start
repeating themselves as the angle changes.
End Class Notes
22.3 Mini-Lecture III The unit circle is examined once again. Making use of
the vector view of acceleration that is used in the physics part of the class the students
should have convinced themselves that the second derivative of the cosine is directly
proportional to the cosine. The same holds true for the sine.
Begin Class Notes

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129

If the position is given by ~r(t) = cos(t)~ + sin(t)~ then dtd 2 ~r(t)

points in the opposite direction as the position vector.
We will not see why the following is true until our next meeting,
but we will throw it out anyway:
d2
cos(t) = cos(t),
dt2
d2
sin(t) = sin(t).
dt2
Note that if we look at ~v (t) for an object moving around the
unit circle with a constant speed, the velocity must also be
periodic because it is going to repeat itself every 2 radians.
Moreover, if the speed is constant then the velocity is perpindicular to the position vector. We will see next time what
this means in term of the derivative. For now we can look at
the graph of the two functions.

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130

These two graphs are 2 radians apart! When we take derivatives of sines and cosines we should expect to get more sines and
cosines back.
End Class Notes

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Section 23

131

23

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

The derivatives of trigonometric functions are determined during this class meeting.
The pre-class activity is very important for this day. Students are asked to determine a
numerical approximation for sin(h)
for h approaching zero. Their answer is used to help
h
derive the derivative of the sine function.
For the first mini-lecture the definition of average rate of change and the definition of
the derivative are reppeated. This is a review and is used to reinforce some of the work
done at the beginning of the semester.
The first activity is quite short, and students are asked to approximate the derivative
and second derivative of the sine function graphically. Students are also asked to graph
the unit circle which is reinforced in several activities.
The derivatives of the various trigonometric functions are derived in the second minilecture which is then used in the second activity. The final mini-lecture examines the
anti-derivatives of the trigonometric functions and also reinforces the product, quotient,
and chain rules.
23.1 Mini-Lecture I The average rate of change and the derivative are defined.
This mini-lecture serves as a reminder of the definition of the derivative. The activity
examines the derivative graphically, and the students are expected to make that transition
on their own.
Begin Class Notes

How is the derivative defined? In terms of the Average rate

of change. We find the average rate of change and let the
change in the domain go to zero:

The derivative is the slope of the tangent line, and the slopes
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132

of the sequence of secant line approaches the tangent line (if

it is unique). For example,
sin(t + h) sin(t)
,
h
now let h go to zero.
In the pre-class activity
you let t = 0, and then took a sequence
 n
1
of values of hn = 2 .

As h goes to zero the value of

sin(h)sin(0)
h

goes to one.

Note, for activity if the function is increasing at a point, the

derivative is positive. If the function is decreasing at a point, the
derivative is negative. If the tangent line is horizontal, then the
derivative is zero.
End Class Notes
23.2 Mini-Lecture II Derivative of Trigonometric Functions
Begin Class Notes

What is the derivative of sin(t)?

sin(t) cos(h) + sin(h) cos(t) sin(t)
sin(t + h) sin(t)
=
,
h
h
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= sin(t)

cos(h) 1
sin(h)
+ cos(t)
.
h
h

As seen in pre-class work the fraction

the other fraction goes to zero.

sin(h)
h

goes to one, and

We have:
d
sin(t) = cos(t)
dt
d
cos(t) = sin(t)
dt
d
tan(t) = sec2(t)
dt
End Class Notes
23.3 Mini-Lecture III The anti-derivatives are given and some other examples are
also examined.
Begin Class Notes

The anti-derivative of sin(t) is cos(t) + c.

The anti-derivative of cos(t) is sin(t) + c.
The anti-derivative of sec2(t) is tan(t) + c.
Note that the product, quotient, and chain rules still hold! Find
the following derivatives:
d
cos(3t2) = ?
dt
d
sin(ln(4t2 + 1)) = ?
dt
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134

d
cos(2t) tan(5t) = ?
dt
d cos(t) sin(t) + et
= ?
dt
tan(t)
End Class Notes

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Section 24

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24

Working with Vectors

In this days activities students work with vector valued functions to confirm that
2
a = vr for some specific examples. This has been done in their physics class, but they
have not worked with any mathematical formulas for motion around some curve.
For the first mini-lecture the unit circle is examined and the derivatives of trigonometric functions are stated as a review. For the first activity students then work with
trajectories around a circle and show that for constant velocity for a specific equation
2
a = vr .
The students activities are reviewed in the second activity. (This is an excellent time
to have students present their own results.) Also, a quick review of the dot product is
given. This is used in the second activity to show that for varying speed, the radial
2
component of the acceleration is equal to vr . The final mini-lecture is also a review of
the students activities.
24.1 Mini-Lecture I The unit circle and derivatives of trigonometric functions are
reviewed.
Begin Class Notes

The unit circle:

Any point on the unit circle can be expressed as

x = cos(),
y = sin(),
or ~r(t) = cos(t)~i + sin(t)~j.

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136

Note for the period, the cosine and the sine functions repeat
themselves every 2. So if ~r(t) = r cos(t)~i + r sin(t)~j then
the period is found using
T = 2,
2
T =
.

Finally, remmber that

d
sin(t) = cos(t)
dt
d
cos(t) = sin(t)
dt
d
tan(t) = sec2(t)
dt

End Class Notes

24.2 Mini-Lecture II The work done in the first activity is reviewed.
Begin Class Notes

~r(t) = r cos(t)~i + r sin(t)~j,

~v (t) = r sin(t)~i + r cos(t)~j,
~a(t) = r 2 cos(t)~i r 2 sin(t)~j

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Section 24

137

Note that the radius of the circles are different.

The magnitudes of these vectors are

k~r(t)k2 = R2,
k~v (t)k2 = R2 2,
k~a(t)k2 = R2 4.
We then have that
k~a(t)k = |R 2|,
R2 2
k~v (t)k2
=
,
k~r(t)k
|R|
= |R 2|.

Note: Dot product of two vectors

From the definition of the dot product

~r ~a = k~rkk~ak cos().
If the vector ~r has length one then the dot product gives you
the component of ~a in the direction of ~r.
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138

Note that there is another way to calculate the dot product:



xa~i + ya~j xb~i + yb~j

= xa xb + ya yb .

End Class Notes

24.3 Mini-Lecture III The work done in the second activity is reviewed.
Begin Class Notes

If the speed is not constant then the acceleration is not perpindicular to the velocity.

~r(t) = cos(t2)~i + sin(t2)~j,

~v (t) = 2t sin(t2)~i + 2t cos(t2)~j,


2
2 2
2 ~
~a(t) = 2 sin(t ) 4t cos(t ) i


2
2 2
2 ~
+ 2 cos(t ) 4t sin(t ) j

Then
k~r(t)k2 = cos2(t) + sin2(t),
= 1,
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139

k~v (t)k2 = 4t2 2 sin2(t) + 4t2 2 cos2(t),

= 4|t2 2|.
k~a(t)k2 = 4 2 sin2(t2) + 16t2 3 sin(t2) cos(t2) + 16t4 4 cos2(t2),
4 2 cos2(t2) 16t2 3 sin(t2) cos(t2) + 16t4 4 sin2(t2),
= 4 2 + 16t4 4.
This shows that k~ak is not equal to

k~v k2
k~rk .

However,

ar = ~a ~r,


= 2 sin(t2) 4t2 2 cos(t2) cos(t2)


2 2

+ 2 cos(t ) 4t sin(t ) sin(t ) ,

|ar | = 4t2 2.
Which shows that for this case ar =

k~v k2
k~rk .

End Class Notes

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Section 25

25

140

Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Derivatives

On this day the derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions are examined, and
at the end of the day the general formula for the derivative of an inverse function is
found. In the first mini-lecture the idea of restricting the domain for inverse trigonometric
functions is explored. Students then take part in an activity in which they evaulate inverse
trigonometric functions and begin to derive the derivative of the inverse cosine function.
The second mini-lecture focuses on the derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
and students then take part in an activity where they derive the derivatives. The final
mini-lecture explores the general method and how it is used to find derivatives of inverse
functions.
25.1 Mini-Lecture I Restrictions on the domains of trigonometric functions are
examined in order to make the functions invertible.
Begin Class Notes

The sine function is not invertible. It is not a one-to-one function. (It fails the horizontal line test.)
What do we do? Restrict the domain:

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141

For /2 t /2 the sine function is invertible.

Likewise we use the following domains:
Function
Domain
sine
/2 t /2
cosine
0t
tangent /2 < t < /2
Example: The value arcsin(1) is the angle whose sine is 1
the angle is 2 .
Example: The value of arcsin
the angle is 6 .

 

1
2

is the angle whose sine is 12

End Class Notes

25.2 Mini-Lecture II The chain rule and how it is used to find derivatives of
inverse functions is examined.
Begin Class Notes

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142

The chain rule helps us find derivatives of inverse functions.

Let
x(t) = arccos(t),
cos(x(t)) = t.
The second equation follows from the definition of the inverse
function.
The derivative of both sides is found:

sin(x(t))x(t)
= 1,
1
,
sin(x(t))
1
=
,
sin(arccos(t))
1
=
.
1 t2

x(t)
=

Remember the definition of inverse functions? If

x(t) = f 1(t),
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143

then
f (x(t)) = t.
The chain rule allows us to find the derivative of x(t).
End Class Notes
25.3 Mini-Lecture III The general form for finding the derivatives of inverse
functions is examined. First discuss any problems that many students might have had.
Begin Class Notes

If
x(t) = f 1(t),
then
f (x(t)) = t.

Taking the derivative of both sides we get

f 0(x(t))x(t)

= 1,
1
,
f 0(x(t))
1
= 0 1
.
f (f (t))

x(t)
=

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144

Example: Let f (t) = et, then f 1(t) is the inverse of the exponential (the natural logarithm).
f 0(t) = et,
= f (t).

d 1
1
f (t) = 0 1
,
dt
f (f (t))
1
=
,
f (f 1(t))
1
= .
t
Example: Let x(t) = arctan(t), then tan(x(t)) = t,

sec2(x(t))x(t)
= 1,
1
,
sec2(x(t))
= (cos(x(t)))2 ,
1
=
.
1 + t2

x(t)
=

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145

This implies that

Z 1

1
1

 ,
dt
=
arctan(t)

2
0
1+t
= arctan(1) arctan(0),

0
=
4

1
from 0
1+t2
End Class Notes

The area under the curve

In Search of Newton

to 1 is 4 .

Calculus and Physics