SINTERING

Sintering is the process by which metal powder compacts (or

loose metal powders) are transformed into coherent solids at
temperatures below their melting point. During sintering, the
powder particles are bonded together by diffusion and other
atomic transport mechanisms, and the resulting somewhat
porous body acquires a certain mechanical strength.

6. SINTERING

TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.1

GENERAL ASPECTS

6.2

BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

6.3

SINTERING BEHAVIOR OF IRON

POWDER COMPACTS

6.4

THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

REFERENCES

6.1 GENERAL ASPECTS

6.1 General Aspects

The sintering process is governed by the following parameters:
temperature and time,
geometrical structure of the powder particles,
composition of the powder mix,
density of the powder compact,
composition of the protective atmosphere in the sintering furnace.
The practical significance of these parameters can be described briefly as follows:
Temperature and time.
The higher the sintering temperature, the shorter is the sintering time required to
achieve a desired degree of bonding between the powder particles in a powder compact
(specified e.g. in terms of mechanical strength).
This constitutes a dilemma: From the view point of production efficiency, shorter
sintering times would be preferable; but the correspondingly higher sintering
temperatures are less economical because of higher maintenance costs for the sintering
furnace.
In iron powder metallurgy, common sintering conditions are: 15 - 60 min at
1120 - 1150C.
Geometrical structure of the powder particles.
At given sintering conditions, powders consisting of fine particles or particles of high
internal porosity (large specific surface), sinter faster than powders consisting of coarse
compact particles. Again, we have a dilemma: Fine powders are usually more difficult to
compact than coarse powders, and compacts made from fine powder shrink more during
sintering than compacts made from coarse powder. Particles of commercial iron powders
(spongy or compact types) for structural parts are usually 150 m (ref. Chapter 3).
Composition of the powder mix.
The components of powder mixes are selected and proportioned with a view to
achieving desired physical properties and controlling dimensional changes during
sintering (ref. Chapter 3). When mixes of two or more different metal powders (e.g.
iron, nickel and molybdenum) are sintered, alloying between the components takes place
simultaneously with the bonding process.
At common sintering temperatures (1120 - 1150C), alloying processes are slow
(except between iron and carbon), and a complete homogenization of the metallic
alloying elements is not achievable. If the powder mix contains a component that forms
a liquid phase at sintering temperature (e.g. copper in iron powder mixes), bonding
between particles as well as and alloying processes are accelerated.

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6. SINTERING

Density of the powder compact.

The greater the density of a powder compact, the larger is the total contact area between
powder particles, and the more efficient are bonding and alloying processes during
sintering. Furthermore, these processes are enhanced by the disturbances in the particles
crystal lattice caused by plastic deformation during compaction (ref. Chapter 1, 1.2.3,
1.2.4).
Composition of the protective atmosphere in the sintering furnace.
The protective atmosphere has to fulfill several functions during sintering which in some
respects are contradictory. On the one hand, the atmosphere is to protect the sinter
goods from oxidation and reduce possibly present residual oxides; on the other hand, it is
to prevent decarbonization of carbon-containing material and, vice versa, prevent
carbonization of carbon-free material.
This illustrates the problem of choosing the right atmosphere for each particular type
of sinter goods. In iron powder metallurgy, the following sintering atmospheres are
common :
reducing-decarbonizing type: hydrogen (H2), cracked ammonia
(75% H2, 25% N2),
reducing-carbonizing type: endogas (32% H2, 23% CO, 0-0.2% CO2,
0-0.5% CH4, bal. N2),
neutral type: cryogenic nitrogen (N2), if desirable with minor additions of H2 (to
take care of residual oxides) or of methane or propane (to restore carbon losses).
Proper choice and careful control of the sintering atmosphere are important but difficult
because of circumstances which will be dealt with in some detail in paragraph 6.4.

6.2 Basic Mechanisms of Sintering

6.2.1 Solid state sintering of homogeneous material
Judging by the changing shape of the interspace between sintering particles, the sintering
process passes through two different stages: 1) an early stage with local bonding (neck
formation) between adjacent particles, and 2) a late stage with pore-rounding and pore
shrinkage. In both stages, the bulk volume of the sintering particles shrinks in the early
stage, the center distance between adjacent particles decreases, in the late stage, the total
pore volume shrinks. See schematic illustrations at Fig. 6.1.

6.2 BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

a)

b)

Figure. 6.1. Early (a) and late (b) stage of sintering, schematically.

The driving force behind these sintering phenomena is minimization of the free surface
enthalpy (Gsurface< 0) of the particle agglomerate (ref. chapter 1, 1.4.1.).
Bonding between powder particles requires transport of material from their inside to
points and areas where they are in contact with one another. Pore-rounding and pore
shrinkage require transport of material from the dense volume to the pore surfaces, as
well as from softer to sharper corners of the pore surface.
In the absence of a liquid phase, five different transport mechanisms are possible:

volume diffusion (migration of vacancies),

grain-boundary diffusion,
surface diffusion,
viscous or plastic flow (caused by surface tension or internal stresses),
evaporation/condensation of atoms on surfaces.

In order to find out which of these mechanisms is predominant in the sintering process,
the growth of necks, formed between spherical particles during sintering, has been
studied experimentally. See micrographs at Fig. 6.2.

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6. SINTERING

Figure. 6.2. Neck formation between sintering copper spheres. [6-1]

According to a theoretical model developed by C.G. Kuczynski 1, the growth of these

necks is governed by the following law:

n
x
~t
a

(6.1)

a = particle diameter, x = neck width, t = sintering time

See schematic representation at Fig. 6.3. Kuczynskis model predicts: n = 2 for viscous or
plastic flow, n = 3 for evaporation/condensation, n = 5 for volume diffusion, n = 7 for
surface diffusion.

6.2 BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

Figure. 6.3. Growth of neck width between

spherical particles during sintering (according
to a theoretical model by C.G. Kuczynski.
above : time law.
below : various mechanisms of material
transport.

The validity of formula (1) is confirmed by extensive experimental material 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 .

In the case of spherical metal particles, an exponent n = 5, and in the case of spherical
glass particles, an exponent n = 2 was found to agree best with the experimental results.
See diagrams at Fig. 6.4.
1 C.G.

Kuczynski, Self-diffusion in Sintering of Metallic Particles, J. Metals 1, No. 2, pp. 169-78, (1949)

2 Ya.I. Frenkel, Viscous Flow of Crystalline Bodies under Action of Surface Tension, J. Phys. (U.S.S.R.), 9, p.

385 (1945, in English).

3N.

Cabrera, Sintering of Metal Particles, J. Metals, 188 Trans., p.667, (1950).

4 P.

Schwed, Surface Diffusion in Sintering of Spheres on Planes, J. Metals, 3, p.245, (1951).

5 G.

Bockstiegel, On the Rate of Sintering, J. Metals, 8, pp. 580-85, (1956).

6 C. Herring, Effects of Change of Scale on Sintering Phenomena, J. Appl. Phys.21,(4), pp. 301-303, (1950).

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6. SINTERING

Fig. 6.4. Neck growth between spherical particles, examined experimentally as functions of sintering time
and temperature ; x = neck width, a = particle diameter; slope of curve (log-log scale) 1/n = 1/5 for silver
particles (top), and 1/n = 1/2 for Na-K-Si-glass particles (bottom). [6-2], [6-3]

6.2 BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

From these results, it can be concluded that, in the early stage of sintering, volume
diffusion is the predominant mechanism for metal particles, and viscous flow for glass
particles. It is very likely but more difficult to confirm experimentally that, in the early
stage of sintering, volume diffusion is predominant also in the case of non-spherical
metal particles and metal powder compacts. In the late stage of sintering, volume
diffusion is, no doubt, responsible for the phenomenon of pore rounding. The sketch at
Fig. 6.5a shows schematically how vacancies migrate from the sharp corners to the flatter
parts of the pore surface.

a)

b)

Figure. 6.5. Vacancies migrating (a) from sharp corners to flatter parts of the pore surface, and (b) from
smaller pores to near-by larger pores and grain boundaries (schematically).

But volume diffusion does not fully account for the observed rates of pore shrinkage and
changes in the distribution of pore sizes. In actual fact, vacancies, emanating from the
surface of a pore, do not migrate all the way to the outer surface of the sintering body.
They either condense at the surface of nearby larger pores, or get trapped at grain
boundaries where the are formed into rows or sheets which subsequently collapse owing
to plastic flow. See schematic illustrations at Fig. 6.5b.
From the micrographs at Fig. 6.6, it can be seen how larger pores increase in size on
account of smaller ones, and how small pores disappear in the neighborhood of grain
boundaries.

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6. SINTERING

a)

b)

20 m

c)

d)

150 m

Figure. 6.6. a) - e) Change of grain-size

and of pore-size and -distribution in the
microstructure of sintered copper
powder compacts.
Sintering temperature: 1000C, sintering
times:
a) 4 min, b) 8 min, c) 30 min,
d) 120 min, e) pore-free zones near grain
boundaries and larger pores in grain
centers of sintered iron. [6-4], [6-5]

e)
6.2.2 Solid state sintering of heterogeneous material
When a mixture of particles of two different metals is being sintered, alloying takes place
at locations where necks are formed between particles of different metallic identity.
These two processes interact with one another: On the one hand, the growth rate of the
neck now depends not only on the diffusion rates in the two pure metals but also on the
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6.2 BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

different diffusion rates in the various alloy phases being formed in and on either side of
the neck. On the other hand, the neck width controls the rate of alloy formation.
The outcome of this interaction varies with the chemical identity of the two metals: it
may have an accelerating, a delaying or no effect at all on the growth rate of the neck.
The schematic diagrams at Fig. 6.7 show the relationship between phase diagram and
alloy formation at the neck between two different particles.

Figure. 6.7. Relation between equilibrium diagrams and phase formation during sintering in the contact
region between particles of different metallic identity. [6-6]

In commercial iron powder mixes, the particles of alloying additions are usually much
smaller than those of the base powder. While the mean size of the iron particles is

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6. SINTERING

approx.100 m, the particle size of alloying additions is usually below 20 m or finer.

In a compact made from such a powder mix, the distribution of alloying elements is very
uneven at the beginning of the sintering process. During sintering, the alloying atoms
diffuse from the surface to the center of the iron powder particles. The rate of
homogenization depends on the respective diffusion coefficient which, in turn, depends
on temperature. See diagram at Fig. 6.8.

Figure. 6.8. Diffusion coefficients for carbon, molybdenum, copper and nickel as
functions of absolute temperature.
(log D over 1/T).

Interstitial elements like carbon (added in the form of graphite) diffuse very rapidly in
iron, while substitutional elements like nickel, copper and molybdenum diffuse much
more slowly. Assuming that the alloying element consists of small spherical particles
randomly dispersed in a dense iron matrix, the time tp required to achieve a certain
degree of homogenization p can be calculated from diffusion equations as described in
chapter 1, 1.3. The homogenization time tp is given by the following expression 7:
7 G.

Bockstiegel, Tidsbehov fr diffusionsutjmning av inhomogent frdelade legeringsmnen i en

grundmetall, Internal Hgans-Report R 18/71 (1971).

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6.2 BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

a 2 Co
p
tp =

4 D 6 Ca (1 p)

(6.2)

a = diameter of the alloying particles, D = diffusion coefficient, Co = initial concentration

of the alloying element in the dispersed alloying particles (usually 100%), Ca = average
concentration of the alloying element in the base metal, p = Cmin / Cmax = degree of
homogenization.
The diagram at Fig. 6.9 shows required homogenization times, calculated from (6.2),
for 4% spherical nickel particles dispersed in an iron matrix at different temperatures
and for different degrees of homogenization.

Figure. 6.9. Degree of homogenization of nickel in iron as a function of time and temperature for
randomly dispersed spherical pure
nickel particles. Particle diameters
a = 5m and a = 10m, average
concentration Ca = 4%.

The diagram at Fig. 6.10 shows experimentally determined degrees of homogenization

of nickel and carbon in sintered compacts made from iron powder admixed with
4 wt.% nickel powder and 0,6% graphite.
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6. SINTERING

14
Figure. 6.10. Homogenization of nickel and carbon during sintering at 1120C in a compacted iron-4%nickel-1%graphite powder mix.

6.2 BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

6.2.3 Sintering in presence of a transient liquid phase

Consider a compact made from a mixture of particles of two different metals. If one
component of the mixture melts at sintering temperature, the arising liquid phase is first
being pulled by capillary forces into the narrow gaps between the particles of the solid
component, creating the largest possible contact area between liquid and solid phase.
Then, alloying takes place and, if the initial proportion of the liquid phase is smaller
than its solubility in the solid phase, the liquid phase eventually disappears. The bulk
volume of the compact swells because the melting particles leave behind large pores,
while the framework of solid particles increases in volume corresponding to the amount
of dissolved liquid phase. See schematic illustration at Fig. 6.11.

a)

b)

c)

Figure. 6.11. Sintering with a transient liquid phase (schematically);

a) initial heterogeneous powder compact ,
b) one component of the powder mix melts and infiltrates the narrow gaps between the solid particles leaving
large pores behind,
c) alloying takes place between liquid and solid phase, and the liquid phase gradually disappears again.

The micrographs shown at Fig. 6.12 demonstrate the swelling of a compact, made from
a mixture of 90 wt.% Fe-powder and 10 wt.% Cu-powder, when sintered at a
temperature above the melting point of copper (1086C). It can be seen that the liquid
copper not only infiltrates the gaps between the iron powder particles but also penetrates
their grain boundaries.
Liquid copper can easily penetrate the grain boundaries of solid iron because the
energy stored in the new interfaces between liquid copper and solid iron is smaller than
the energy stored in the initial grain boundaries (minimization of the free enthalpy of
interfaces).

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6. SINTERING

Melting point
of copper
Temp. C

1200
1000
800

Relative expansion (%)

2,0

1,0

0
10

20
Time (min)

30

Figure. 6.12. Three stages in sintering at 1150C a compact made from a mixture of 90% iron powder
(MH100.24) and 10% copper powder. Curves at the left-hand side of the micrographs show the increase of
temperature and of linear expansion of the compact (corrected for shrinkage without copper) [6-7]

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6.2 BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

If, in the example above, the pure iron particles are substituted with carbonized iron
particles having a pearlitic microstructure, the liquid copper penetrates the interfaces
between ferrite and cementite lamellae. This leads eventually to a partial disintegration
of the pearlitic particles.
Consequently, the initially rigid framework of solid particles collapses locally, and the
bulk volume of the compact shrinks. The micrograph at Fig. 6.13 shows beginning
disintegration of pearlitic iron particles under the influence of liquid copper.

Figure. 6.13. Beginning disintegration of

pearlitic particles under the influence of
liquid copper [6-8]

These examples explain why additions of copper to iron powder mixes result in less
shrinkage or produce growth during sintering of structural parts, and why additions of
carbon (graphite) to iron-copper powder mixes compensate the growth-producing effect
of copper. (See diagrams at Fig. 6.18 further down).

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6. SINTERING

6.2.4 Activated sintering

A special kind of sintering with a transient liquid phase is often referred to as activated
sintering. Here, a base powder is admixed with a small amount of a metal or metal
compound which, although having a melting point above sintering temperature, forms a
low-melting eutectic together with the base metal. See Fig. 6.14.

Figure. 6.14. Activated sintering by creating a low

melting eutectic between base metal and
activator.

The added metal or metal compound is called the activator. During sintering, atoms
from the activator diffuse into the particles of the base metal until the latter begin to
melt superficially. This superficial melting enhances the formation of necks between
adjacent particles of the base metal. As the activator continues to diffuse deeper into the
particles of the base metal, the liquid phase (eutectic) disappears again. Activated
sintering is utilized e.g. in the manufacturing of so called heavy metals.
Here, an addition of only a few percent of nickel powder to tungsten powder
produces a transient tungsten-rich eutectic at 1495C which substantially accelerates the
sintering process. The sintering of iron powder can be activated through small additions
(e.g. 3 wt.%) of finely ground ferro-phosphorous (Fe3 P). As can be seen from the binary
phase diagram shown at Fig. 6.15, Fe and Fe3 P form a eutectic at 1050C.

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6.2 BASIC MECHANISMS OF SINTERING

Figure. 6.15. Binary phase diagram Fe Fe3P with eutectic at 1050C.

During sintering at 1120C, the phosphorous concentration at the surface of the iron
powder particles temporarily exceeds 2,6 wt.%, and the particles melt superficially. But
as the phosphorous diffuses deeper into the iron particles, its concentration at the surface
drops below 2,6 wt.% again, and the liquid phase disappears.
Then, a second benefit of phosphorous becomes effective: Surface regions of the iron
particles with phosphorous concentrations between 2,6 and 0,5 wt.% have changed
from austenite to ferrite. As will be seen in the next paragraph, the coefficient of selfdiffusion (volume diffusion) for iron is approx. 300 times greater in ferrite than in
austenite. Consequently, at equal temperature, sintering proceeds faster in ferrite than in
austenite.
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6. SINTERING

6.3 Sintering behavior of iron powder compacts

In powder metallurgy industry, the efficiency of the sintering process is judged by the
quality of the physical properties it lends to the sintered parts in relation to its processing
costs. Thus, in the manufacturing of structural parts based on iron powder, a prime
interest is to achieve optimal strength and dimensional stability at lowest possible
sintering temperatures and shortest possible sintering times.
The following paragraphs provide some general guidelines to a better understanding
of the principle relationships between sintering conditions and resulting properties.
Detailed information about the sintering behavior of a large variety of iron powders and
iron powder mixes is available from HGANS AB in the form of special brochures
and technical reports.
6.3.1 Plain iron powders
The influence of sintering time and temperature on density, tensile strength and
elongation of iron powder compacts (NC100.24) has been examined under laboratory
conditions. Tensile test bars were compacted (in a lubricated die) from NC100.24
(without lubricant addition) to a density of 6,3 g/cm3.
When examining the influence of sintering time, the test bars were sintered, one by
one, under dry hydrogen in a narrow furnace muffle (ID = 25 mm) at different
temperatures. The test bars were heated and cooled very rapidly. As can be seen from the
diagrams at Fig. 6.16, tensile strength and elongation increase rapidly during the first few
minutes of sintering but more and more slowly as sintering continues, while the density
increases only moderately over the entire range of sintering times.

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6.3 SINTERING BEHAVIOR OF IRON POWDER COMPACTS

When examining the influence of sintering temperature, the test bars were sintered, five
at a time, for one hour under dry hydrogen in a laboratory furnace. Heating-up time
approx. 10 min; cooling time to below 400C approx. 10 min.

Figure. 6.16. Tensile strength, elongation and density of sintered iron (MH100.24) as functions of sintering
time at two different temperatures. [6-9]

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6. SINTERING

From the diagram at Fig. 6.17, two important features are apparent:

Tensile strength and elongation adopt noticeable values first at sintering temperatures
above 650 and 750C respectively. From there-on, they increase almost exponentially
until reaching an intermediate maximum at approx. 900C. Just above 910C, where
the crystal structure of iron changes from ferrite to austenite, the values of tensile
strength and elongation suddenly drop a little and then increase again, but more
slowly than below 910C.
The temperature dependence of the self-diffusion coefficient of iron, drawn in the
same diagram for comparison, drops dramatically as ferrite changes to austenite
(D D/300 ).

Figure. 6.17. Tensile strength and elongation of sintered iron (NC100.24, density: 6,3g/cm3, sintering:
1h in H2) , and the self-diffusion coefficient of iron as functions of sintering temperature. [6-10]

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6.3 SINTERING BEHAVIOR OF IRON POWDER COMPACTS

The parallelism between these two features is not incidental. To the contrary, it is strong
evidence of the predominant role which volume diffusion plays in the sintering process
of iron. (Note: the coefficients of grain boundary diffusion and surface diffusion do not
change substantially at the transition from ferrite to austenite). The effect of the drastic
change of the diffusion coefficient on tensile strength and elongation is muffled by the
following circumstance:
All test bars begin to sinter already during the heating-up period, while still in the
ferrite state, and those which are heated up to higher temperatures have already
acquired a certain level of strength before they change from ferrite to austenite.
6.3.2 Iron-copper and iron-copper-carbon powder mixes
In order to utilize the advantage of a transient liquid phase during sintering and to
achieve higher strength properties, many commercial iron powder mixes contain copper.
Copper additions to iron powder can produce undesirable dimensional growth during
sintering.
Graphite additions to iron-copper powder mixes counteract the dimensional growth
caused by the copper (see 6.2.3). The carbonization of the iron caused by the graphite
additions boosts the mechanical strength of the sintered parts.
The influence of varying additions of copper and graphite on tensile strength and
dimensional changes achieved at different sintering temperatures can be seen from the
diagrams at Fig. 6.18. Compacting and sintering procedures were the same as for the test
bars of plain iron powder discussed in the preceding paragraph.
During sintering, approx. 0,2% of the added graphite was lost to the sintering
atmosphere in the form of carbon monoxide (CO), and the microstructure of the
carbon-containing test bars after sintering was pearlitic.

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6. SINTERING

Figure. 6.18. Influence of varying additions of copper and graphite and of sintering temperature on tensile
strength and dimensional changes of sintered iron (NC100.24, green density: 6,3 g/cm3, sintering:
1h in H2), at indicated temperatures. [6-11]

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

6.4 The sintering atmosphere

The main purpose of sintering atmospheres is to protect the powder compacts from
oxidation during sintering and to reduce residual surface oxides in order to improve the
metallic contact between adjacent powder particles. A further purpose of sintering
atmospheres is to protect carbon-containing compacts from decarbonization.
6.4.1 General problematic
As has been mentioned already in paragraph 6.1, mainly three different types of sintering
atmospheres are common in iron powder metallurgy: reducing-decarbonizing
(e.g. hydrogen, cracked ammonia), reducing-carbonizing (e.g. endogas) and neutral
(e.g. nitrogen).
At a cursory glance, the choice may seem obvious:
A reducing atmosphere for carbon-free materials and a non-decarbonizing or neutral
atmosphere for carbon-containing materials.
However, apart from economical considerations, there are some technical and
thermodynamical problems which complicate both, the choice and the control of the
proper atmosphere:

Technical problems arise in connection with the proper control of flow rates and
flow directions of the atmosphere in continuous sintering furnaces. A continuous
furnace of modern design, for the sintering of iron powder structural parts, usually
consists of four zones serving different purposes:
1) the so-called burn-off zone, where the lubricants (contained in the compacts) are
burned off between 250 and 700C ,
2) the hot zone, where the iron powder parts are sintered at 1120 - 1150C,
3) the so-called carbon restoring zone, where superficially decarbonized parts can be
recarbonized at 800 - 900C, and
4) the cooling zone, where the sintered parts are cooled down to approx. 250-150C,
before being exposed to air. See schematic drawing at Fig. 6.19. Ideally, each one of
these zones would require its own specific combination of flow rate, flow direction
and composition of atmosphere. However, ideal conditions are not achievable. To
find practicable compromises and provide adequate furnace designs, is the business
of the manufacturers of industrial sintering furnaces. Within the frame of this chapter, we cannot enlarge on problems of furnace design; instead, we refer to the competence and specific know-how of furnace makers.

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6. SINTERING

26
Figure. 6.19. Zones of a continuos sintering furnace (schematically).

6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

Thermodynamical problems arise from the circumstance that a sintering atmosphere of given composition changes character with temperature. For instance:
the character of endogas changes with rising temperature from carbonizing to decarbonizing, and the character of hydrogen (with traces of water vapor) changes with
falling temperature from reducing to oxidizing. Furthermore, the atmosphere changes its composition while reacting with the sintered material. Reduction of residual
oxides enriches the atmosphere with water vapor; decarbonization of sintered material enriches the atmosphere with carbon monoxide. In the following paragraphs, we
will discuss these problems in more detail.

6.4.2 Thermodynamical processes during sintering

Sintering atmospheres usually contain, in varying proportions, several of the following
components: N2, O2, H2, H2O (vapor), C (soot), CO, CO2 (and in some cases also
CH4 or propane). Depending on the relative proportions of these components, the
atmosphere is reducing, oxidizing, carbonizing, decarbonizing or neutral.
Oxidation and reduction .
Oxidation of metals or reduction of metal oxides in sintering atmospheres can proceed
by either of the following three reactions :
metal + O2 oxide + H O1

(6.3)

metal + 2 H2O oxide + 2 H2 + H O2

(6.4)

metal + 2 CO2 oxide + 2 CO + H O3

(6.5)

Corresponding reactions take place between H2 and H2O and between CO and CO2 :
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O + H O4

(6.6)

2 CO + O2 2 CO2 + H O5

(6.7)

H O1, H O2, H O3, H O4, H O5 are the amounts of heat released (per mole O2)
in the respective oxidizing reaction. The corresponding changes of free enthalpy are:
G O1 = - HO1, G O2 = - HO2 , G O3 = - HO3 , G O4 = - HO4,
G O5 = -HO5
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6. SINTERING

The free enthalpy of oxidation.

The change of free enthalpy (per mole O2) G Oi during the oxidation of a metal (or
other chemical element) in a gaseous medium is given by one of the following three
equations, depending on the type of oxidizing agent:
if O2 is the only oxidizing agent:

Pmetal

G1O = R T ln
PO2
Poxide

(6.8)

if H2O is the only oxidizing agent:

Pmetal PH2 2 O
G = R T ln
2
Poxide PH 2
O
2

(6.9)

if CO2 is the only oxidizing agent:

2
Pmetal PCO

2
G = R T ln
2
Poxide PCO
O
3

(6.10)

R = universal gas constant. T = absolute temperature. Pmetal , Poxide = vapor pressures of

the pure metal and of the oxide respectively. PO2 , PH2O , PCO2 = partial pressures of
the reacting components of the atmosphere.
The Ellingham-Richardson diagram.
A standard measure for the tendency of a metal (chemical element) to oxidize is the heat
released when 1 mole of gaseous O2 at 1 atm pressure combines with the pure metal
(pure element) to form oxide. The corresponding change of the free enthalpy of the
reacting system is designated by G O.
The temperature dependence of G O follows directly from (6.8) when PO2 = 1:

Pmetal
G O = R T ln

Poxide

(6.11)

A very convenient way of presenting experimentally obtained values of G O for

different metals is by means of Ellingham-Richardson diagrams. See example at Fig. 6.20.

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

Figure. 6.20. Ellingham-Richardson diagram: Change of free enthalpy G O when 1 mole of oxygen (O2) at
1 atm pressure combines with a pure metal to form oxide.

The advantage of these diagrams is that they give the free enthalpy released by the
combination of a fixed amount (1 mole) of the oxidizing agent. The relative affinity of the
elements to the oxidizing agent is thus shown directly. The further down in the diagram
the G O line of the metal is situated, the greater is its affinity to oxygen. For instance:
the distance between the G O lines of iron and aluminum is 537,7 kJ/mole O2
(128,3 kcal/mole O2), i.e. aluminum is a very strong reducing agent for iron oxide.
This circumstance is utilized e.g. in so-called thermite welding. Here, a proper mixture of

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iron oxide powder and aluminum powder is ignited to the effect that the aluminum
reduces the iron oxide, and the enormous amount of released reaction heat melts the
metallic iron.
Dissociation temperature.
At the so-called standard dissociation temperature, the oxide is in equilibrium (GO = 0)
with the pure metal and gaseous oxygen (O2) at 1 atm pressure. As can be seen from the
Ellingham-Richardson diagram at Fig. 6.20, metal oxides can in principle be reduced to
metal simply by heating them in air at this temperature.
Some values are : Au < 0C, Ag 185C, Hg 430C, Pt-group metals 800 - 1200C,
Fe >4000C. Apart from the noble metals, no other metal oxides can be reduced simply
by heating in an industrial furnace without the presence of some reducing agent.
Dissociation pressure .
At any given temperature, a metal and its oxide are in equilibrium with a particular
partial pressure of oxygen PO2 . This pressure is called equilibrium dissociation pressure.
Above this pressure, the metal oxidizes. Below this pressure, the oxide dissociates into
metal and gaseous oxygen. This pressure is calculated as follows:
Combining equations (6.8) and (6.11) yields:

G1O = GO R T ln PO 2

(6.12)

The reacting system is in equilibrium when GO1 = 0. Hence:

PO 2 = exp (G O RT )

(6.13)

In the Ellingham-Richardson diagram, the dissociation pressure for a metal oxide at a

given temperature T can easily be found by drawing a straight line from point O at the
upper left corner of the diagram to the point with abscissa T on the GO line of the
metal in question. Extrapolating this straight line to the scale marked PO2 at the righthand side of the diagram, one can directly read the dissociation pressure. For iron oxide
(FeO) at 1120C, for instance, we find PO2 1012 atm. See diagram at Fig. 6.21.
This tells us that simple heating of iron oxide in conventional vacuum or inert gas of
conventional purity is entirely unsatisfactory. A reducing gas has to be added to the
furnace atmosphere.

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

Figure. 6.21. Graphical determination of the equilibrium dissociation pressure PO2 for iron oxide (FeO) at
1120C.

The influence of reducing agents.

The influence of reducing agents like gaseous mixtures of H2 and H2O or CO and CO2
is governed by the pertaining equilibrium point. We derive the dependence of the
equilibrium point on temperature and on partial pressure ratio PH2O /PH2 or
PCO2 /PCO :
Combining equations (6.9) and (6.11) yields

G2O = G O 2 R T ln (PH 2 O PH 2 )

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(6.14)
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The reacting system is in equilibrium when GO2 = 0. Hence:

PH 2 O PH 2 = exp (G O 2 R T)

(6.15)

Combining equations (6.10) and (6.11) yields:

G O3 = G O 2 R T ln (PCO 2 PCO )

(6.16)

The reacting system is in equilibrium when GO3 = 0. Hence:

PCO2 PCO = exp (G O 2 R T)

(6.17)

At any given temperature T, a metal and its oxide are in equilibrium with a partial
pressure ratio PH2O /PH2 as given by (6.15) or with a ratio PCO2 /PCO as given by
(6.17). Below this ratio, the oxide is reduced to metal. Above this ratio, the metal is
oxidized.
A convenient way of finding the equilibrium temperature is by plotting the right-hand
side of (6.14) or (6.16) against temperature in the Ellingham-Richardson diagram as
shown at Fig. 6.22.
We draw a straight line from point H or from point C to the applying ratio on the
PH2O /PH2 scale or on the PCO2 /PCO scale of the diagram respectively. Where this
straight line crosses the GO line is the equilibrium point. Below this temperature the
metal is oxidized; above it is not.
Three examples may illustrate the method:
1. Fe does not oxidize at temperatures above approx. 550C when the
PH2O /PH2 = 25/100 (dew point +60C); neither do Cu, Mo and Ni.
2. Fe does not oxidize at any temperature when PCO2 /PCO = 1/10 (= 10%CO2);
neither do Cu, Mo and Ni.
3. Cr oxidizes at temperatures below 1300C even when PCO2 /PCO = 1/1000
(= 0,1%CO2).

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

Figure. 6.22. Graphical determination of equilibrium temperatures for Fe in an H2O/H2 - and in a CO2/CO
- atmosphere, and for Cr in a CO2/CO - atmosphere.

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Decarbonization and carbonization.

The following reactions are involved in the decarbonization or carbonization of carboncontaining iron powder compacts:
When carbon is present in the form of graphite:
2 C + O2 2 CO + H O6

(6.18)

C + CO2 2CO + H O7

(6.19)

C + 2 H2O 2 CO + 2 H2 + H O8

(6.20)

When carbon is present in the form of cementite:

2 Fe3C + O2 6 Fe + 2 CO + H O9

(6.21)

2 Fe3C + 2 H2O 6 Fe + 2 H2 + 2 CO + H O10

(6.22)

Fe3C + CO2 3 Fe + 2 CO + H O11

(6.23)

Fe3C + 2 H2 3 Fe + CH4 + H O12

(6.24)

H O6, H O7, , H O12 are the amounts of heat released (per mole O2) in the
respective decarbonizing reaction.
The dependence of these reactions on temperature and partial pressure ratios of the
involved gas components can, in principle, be presented by means of EllinghamRichardson diagrams in a similar fashion as has been demonstrated.
For practical purposes, however, it is more convenient to study the influence of
temperature and partial pressure ratios from a type of diagrams presented in the
following paragraph.
6.4.3 Equilibrium diagrams: iron - sintering atmosphere
Ellingham-Richardson diagrams are useful for the understanding of the
thermodynamical basis of chemical reactions between metals and atmospheres. However,
In the particular case of iron, special phase diagrams present more conveniently the
influence of temperature and gas composition upon the equilibrium between iron, iron
oxides, and iron carbide (cementite).

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

The system: Fe - FeO - Fe3O4 - H2 - H2O.

In the diagram at Fig. 6.23, the equilibrium lines (phase boundaries) between Fe, FeO
and Fe3O4 are drawn as function of reaction temperature and percentage of H2O (water
vapor) relative to H2. The most important feature of this diagram is the slope of the
border line that separates Fe from FeO and Fe3O4. It indicates that water vapor is more
oxidizing at lower than at higher temperatures. This means that a fairly low content of
water vapor which is harmless at maximum temperature in the sintering furnace
might very well be oxidizing in the cooling or in the pre-heating zone. In actual fact, at
temperatures below 200C, a water vapor content of as low as 2% is still oxidizing.

Figure. 6.23. Equilibrium diagram : Fe - FeO - Fe3O4 - H2 - H2O.

The system: Fe - FeO - Fe3O4 - Fe3C - CO - CO2.

In the diagram at Fig. 6.24, the equilibrium lines (phase boundaries) between Fe, FeO
and Fe3O4 are drawn as function of reaction temperature and percentage of CO2 relative
to CO.
35
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6. SINTERING

Also drawn, in the same diagram, are the almost parallel equilibrium lines for the
Boudouard reaction:
2 CO C + CO2
and for the cementite reaction :
3 Fe +2 CO Fe3C + CO2
At lower temperatures, the Boudouard reaction is generally the most prevalent and
results in the deposition of soot on the sintering parts. However, at temperatures above
700 - 800C, the carbonizing reaction is dominant. Deposition of soot is suppressed by
fast heating and cooling in the sintering furnace. Note that carbon monoxide is more
strongly reducing at lower than at higher temperatures while, above 800C, its
carbonizing action gets gradually weaker with increasing temperature.

Figure. 6.24. Equilibrium diagram : Fe - FeO - Fe3O4 - CO - CO2.

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

At a sintering temperature of 1120C, a ratio of 25%CO2 / 75%CO is strongly

decarbonizing but still sufficiently reducing. To maintain carbonizing conditions at this
temperature, the content of CO2 in the sintering atmosphere has to be decreased to a
very low value. However, with decreasing contents of CO2, the control of the carbon
content in the sintering parts gets increasingly difficult. At 1120C, an increase of the
CO2 content from 0,1 to 0,2% can change the action of the CO/CO2 - atmosphere
from carbonizing to decarbonizing. This means that, in this atmosphere, a satisfactory
control of the carbon content in the sintering parts is practically impossible at 1120C.
The system: Fe - Fe3C - C - H2 - CH4.
When compacts of iron powder with admixed graphite are sintered in an atmosphere
containing H2, the following two reactions take place:
Cgraphite + 2 H2 CH4
and
3 Fe + CH4 Fe3C + 2 H2
The equilibrium lines of these reactions are presented as functions of temperature and
CH4 - content in the phase diagram at Fig. 6.25.

Figure. 6.25. Equilibrium diagram : Fe - Fe3C - C - CH4.

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6. SINTERING

The effect of CH4 (methane) is different from that of CO. In contrast to carbon
monoxide, methane acts increasingly reducing and carbonizing with increasing
temperatures. Even very small amounts of methane in the sintering atmosphere cause
carbonization or, above a certain temperature limit, carbon deposition.
At 1120C, methane contents as small as 0,1 to 0,2% are sufficient to produce or
maintain a carbon content of 1% in iron powder parts. At 1120C, methane contents
exceeding approx. 0,3% cause carbon deposition on the iron parts and in the furnace.
Mixed systems.
In mixtures of several gases (e.g. such as endogas), very complex temperature-dependent
interactions take place between the various gas components. The diagram at Fig. 6.26
shows how various gas mixtures are oxidizing, reducing, carbonizing or decarbonizing,
depending on partial pressure ratios PH2O /PH2 , PCO2 /PCO and PCH4 /PH2.
From the diagram emerges clearly that it is practically impossible to control the carbon
content in the sintered parts at common sintering temperatures (1120 - 1150C).
At these temperatures, even extremely small changes of the partial pressure ratios
PCO2 /PCO and/or PCH4 /PH2 are sufficient to switch the gas mixture from being
carbonizing to being decarbonizing. On the other hand, carbon control is unproblematic
at temperatures around 800C. This is a strong argument for equipping continuos
sintering furnaces with a re-carbonizing zone, operating at approx. 800C, between
sintering and cooling zone.

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

Figure. 6.26. Influence of temperature and partial pressure ratios upon the character of gas mixtures.
R = reducing, O = oxidizing, C = carbonizing, D = decarbonizing.

6.4.4 Industrial sintering atmospheres

Local workshop conditions, the type of material to be sintered and economic
considerations govern the selection of a suitable sintering atmosphere. The correct choice
is of great importance not only for the achievement of optimal product quality but also
for good economy.
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Hydrogen and cracked ammonia.

Pure hydrogen, electrolytically or cryogenically produced, is the most unproblematic
atmosphere for sintering carbon-free iron powder parts. As a rule, however, it is not
economical, except in combination with high priced products such as alnico magnets
and stainless steel parts.
An excellent substitute for pure hydrogen is cracked ammonia which consists of 75% H2
and 25% N2. The strong reducing action of this gas mixture is favorable in eliminating
residual oxides which are present in all commercial iron powders. It is easy to handle
and, although it is not the most economic atmosphere, it eliminates many production
problems and yields a uniform and high quality sintered product.
Because of their strong decarbonizing action, neither pure hydrogen nor cracked
ammonia can be used in the sintering of carbon-containing iron powder parts.
Hydrogen and cracked ammonia form explosive mixtures with air. Thus, sintering in
these gases can only be conducted in furnaces equipped with a gas-tight muffle.
Endogas.
Relatively inexpensive sintering atmospheres are produced in a special generator by
incomplete combustion of a mixture of fuel gas and air, using a catalyst. Common fuel
gases are e.g. methane (CH4), propane (C3H8), or natural gas. The combustion product
contains H2, H2O, CO, CO2, N2 and CH4. Its composition varies with the air/fuel
ratio and can be reducing, carbonizing, decarbonizing, inert, or even oxidizing.
The generated gas is called endogas when produced endo-thermically with low
air/fuel ratios, and exogas when produced exo-thermically with high air/fuel ratios.
See diagram at Fig. 6.27.

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

Figure. 6.27. Influence of air/gas ratio on analysis of endogas and exogas assuming that the fuel is pure methane (CH4).

In iron powder metallurgy today, the use of exogas is less common, but endogas is widely
used in the sintering of carbon-containing iron parts. When leaving the generator,
normal endogas may contain up to 4% water vapor (H2O) which makes it strongly
decarbonizing. To make it suitable for the sintering of carbon-containing iron powder
parts, it has to be dried (e.g. by means of a refrigerant cooler and a desiccant agent) to at
least below 0,2% H2 (dew point: 10C). The strong influence of the dew point on the
carbon potential of endogas is shown in the diagram at Fig. 6.28.

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6. SINTERING

Figure. 6.28. Equilibrium of normal endogas and carbon in steel at different temperatures (dew point over
carbon potential).

In endogas, very complex interactions take place between the various gas components.
The temperature varies throughout the sintering cycle, and the gas composition changes
due to reactions with residual iron oxides, mixed-in graphite, or leaking air. This makes

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

it very difficult to calculate, on the basis of any diagram, a suitable gas analysis for a given
carbon content in the finished product. The diagrams are, however, important for the
understanding of the behavior of various gas mixtures.
Endogas is poisonous and forms explosive mixtures with air. Endogas is harmful to the
heating elements of the furnace when getting into contact with them. It can cause
disastrous soot deposition when leaking into the brick-work of the furnace. Thus,
sintering in endogas can only be conducted in furnaces equipped with a gas-tight muffle.
Nitrogen.
Compacts made from graphite-containing iron powder mixes can very well be sintered
in (cryogenic) nitrogen. The graphite present in the compacts, reacting with residual
oxides in the iron powder and with leaking air, produces sufficiently reducing and
carbonizing conditions in the furnace. If necessary, the reducing action of this
atmosphere can be controlled by bleeding-in very small amounts of wet or dry hydrogen
into the hot zone of the furnace.
Correspondingly, its carbonizing action can be controlled by bleeding-in very small
amounts of methane into the re-carbonizing zone of the furnace. Nitrogen, although
being somewhat more expensive, has several advantages over endogas.
Nitrogen is neither poisonous nor does it form explosive mixtures with air. It does
not react with the heating elements or any other parts of the furnace. Thus, sintering in
nitrogen can be conducted in furnaces without gas-tight muffle.
Control of sintering atmospheres.
The composition of sintering atmospheres should preferably be monitored, not only at
room temperature outside, but also at residing temperatures inside the various zones of
the furnace. Interesting points where gas samples may be taken are:
after the gas generator (or storage tank),
inside the re-carbonization zone,
at the point of maximum temperature in the furnace,
at outlet points.
From the preceding paragraphs, it is evident that the two most crucial properties of a
sintering atmosphere are its dew-point (PH2O /PH2 ) and its carbon potential
(PCO2 /PCO and PCH4 /PH2 ).
Several dew-point meters are on the market; completely automatic or hand-operated,
with or without auxiliary equipment for recording and regulating the dew-point of the
atmosphere.

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Among the different principles of dew-point measurement, the following three may be
mentioned:
Method 1.
If a compressed gas is allowed to expand, its temperature drops and, at the dew-point
of the gas, water vapor (if any) precipitates as a mist.
Method 2.
The instrument is fitted with a mirror which can be cooled down to a known teprature. When the gas is allowed to pass the mirror, a film of water condenses on the
mirror at the dew-point.
Method 3.
Many salts have different electrical resistivities at different moisture contents and
temperatures. If the temperature is kept constant, a dew-point meter can be based on
the electrical resisitivity of the salt.
Modern automatic devices for monitoring and recording the amounts of carbondioxide,
carbonmonoxide and methane are based on the absorption of infra-red radiation by the
gas. The principle is that each of these gases absorb different wave lengths of the infra-red
light, and the absorption is proportional to the concentration of the gas in the mixture.
The oxygen content in the sintering atmosphere can be measured in situ by means of
a ZrO2 - cell which operates on the principle that the partial pressure of oxygen in the
atmosphere is compared with that of a well defined test gas. The gas to be analyzed is in
contact with one side of the cell, the test gas with the other side. The difference of the
partial pressures creates an electrical potential which is monitored and can be utilized to
steer automatic measures for correcting the composition of the atmosphere.
In all cases, gas samples should be collected in the flowing gas stream; they should
never be collected in dead corners. To protect the instrument from dust and soot in the
gas, it is often recommendable to use a filter through which the gas sample is drawn.
The filter may, for instance, be made from glass wool. Gas samples must be large
enough, and the flow of gas trough the tubes maintained for so long a time that all
remaining gas from earlier tests is cleaned out.
6.4.5 Cracking of iron powder compacts during lubricant burn-off
Cracked and blistered sintered iron parts are an ill-famed phenomenon which
sporadically pops up and disappear again seemingly without any comprehensible cause.
See photographs at Fig. 6.29.

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

Figure. 6.29. Sintered iron powder compact cracked and blistered by carbon precipitation inside pores.

It has often been assumed that this harmful phenomenon is caused by a too rapidly
decomposing lubricant in the burn-off zone of the sintering furnace. Thorough
systematic investigations have since shown that this assumption is wrong.
It is not the decomposing lubricant that cracks the parts; it is the solid carbon which
inside the pores of the parts precipitates from the carbon monoxide in the endogas,
according to the Boudouard reaction 8:
2 CO C + CO2
The rate of this reaction is highest between 500 and 700 C and is catalyzed by metallic
iron, nickel and cobalt.

8A. Taskinen,

M.H. Tikkanen, G. Bockstiegel, Carbon Deposition in Iron Powder Compacts during

De-lubrication Processes, Hgans PM Iron Powder Information, PM 80-8, (1980).

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6. SINTERING

The diagram at Fig. 6.30 shows the thermodynamical limits for carbon precipitation at
different temperatures in different artificial gas mixtures containing varying amounts of
CO, CO2, CH4 , H2, H2O, O2, and N2. Carbon precipitation occurs only to the left of
the temperature curves. It is evident that carbon precipitation occurs in all common
endogas compositions (shaded area) below approx. 650C.

Figure. 6.30. Calculated composition limits for carbon precipitation from gas mixtures containing
CO, CO2 , CH4 , H2 , H2O, O2 , and N2. [6-12]

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

The obvious conclusion is that carbon precipitation can be prevented or substantially

reduced by heating the iron powder compacts as rapidly as possible to temperature above
650C. Practical experience with the so-called Rapid Burn-Off technique (RBO)
confirms this conclusion, i.e. iron powder compacts which are sintered in furnaces
equipped with an efficient rapid burn-off zone do not crack or blister.
The diagram at Fig. 6.31 shows the influence of the gas composition at low heating
rate (4C/min) on carbon precipitation in iron powder compacts. By means of a
thermobalance, the weight changes of the iron powder compacts were registered as a
function of temperature. On the registered curves, we notice a weight loss due to
escaping stearates between 250 and 400C.

Figure. 6.31. Influence of gas composition on carbon precipitation and cracking of sintered iron powder
parts. [6-12]

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6. SINTERING

In dry endogas, the weight loss is followed by a substantial weight increase between 500
and 600C due to carbon precipitation inside the compacts causing severe cracking and
blistering. The weight increase and the blistering phenomenon is reduced by adding
water vapor (H2O) to the endogas. In a gas mixture of 10 % H2 + 90 % N2, no weight
increase and no blistering or cracking occurs. The diagram at Fig. 6.32 shows the
influence of the heating rate in dry endogas on carbon precipitation in iron powder
compacts. At different heating rates, weight changes of the iron powder compacts were
registered as described above. On the registered curves, we notice again a weight loss due
to escaping stearates (beginning at approx. 250C) followed by a weight increase due to
carbon precipitation inside the compacts.

Figure. 6.32. Influence of heating rate in dry endogas on carbon precipitation and cracking of sintered iron
powder parts [6-12]

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6.4 THE SINTERING ATMOSPHERE

At a heating rate of 4C/min, this weight increase is very substantial in the temperature
range between 500 and 600C and causes severe blistering and cracking of the compacts.
With increasing heating rates, the weight increase is more and more reduced, and the
cracking and blistering phenomenon disappears gradually.
Based on these findings, the following practical measures to avoid cracked and blistered
sintered iron powder compact seem adequate:
1. prefer gas mixtures of nitrogen and hydrogen to endogas. If this is not opportune,
2. use rapid burn-off technique, and/or
3. enrich endogas with water vapor in the burn-off zone.

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References
[6-1]
[6-2]
[6-3]
[6-4]
[6-5]
[6-6]
[6-7]
[6-8]
[6-9]
[6-10]
[6-11]
[6-12]

50

Illustration No. 6.16 in: W. Schatt, Pulvermetallurgie , Sinter- und

Verbundwerkstoffe, Hthig Verlag, Heidelberg (1988).
H. Fischmeister and E. Exner, Metall 18, p. 113, (1965).
W.D. Kingery and M. Berg, J. Appl. Phys. 26, p.1205,(1955).
Illustration No. 6.29 in: W. Schatt, Pulvermetallurgie , Sinter- und
Verbundwerkstoffe, Hthig Verlag, Heidelberg (1988).
Illustration No. 6.29 in: W. Schatt, Pulvermetallurgie , Sinter- und
Verbundwerkstoffe, Hthig Verlag, Heidelberg (1988).
D. Kolar and I.P. Guka, Science of Sintering 7, p. 97, (1975).
G. Bockstiegel, Stahl u. Eisen 79, pp, 1187-1201, (1959).
G. Bockstiegel, see ref. [7].
G. Bockstiegel, Hgans Iron Powder Handbook, section E, chapter 20,
(1957).
G. Bockstiegel, Archiv f.d. Eisenhttenwesen 28, pp.167-177 (1957).
G. Bockstiegel, Metallurgie iii - 4, pp. 67-78 (1962).
A. Taskinen, M.H. Tikkanen and G. Bockstiegel, Hgans PM Iron Powder
Information, PM 80-8 (1980).