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2.00AJ / 16.00AJ Exploring Sea, Space, & Earth: Fundamentals of Engineering Design
Spring 2009

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FUNdaMENTALs for Design

Analysis:

Fluid Effects & Forces

Prof. A. H. Techet

2.00a/16.00a Lecture 4

Spring 2009

Water & Air

Courtesy of the U.S. Navy.

Courtesy of NASA.

Hydrodynamics v. Aerodynamics
Water is almost 1000 times denser than air!

Air

Density

! = 1.2 kg / m

Dynamic Viscosity

Kinematic Viscosity

! = / " = 1.51$10 m / s
2

Dynamic Viscosity

= 1.0 "10!3 N # s / m 2

#5

Density

Image by Leonardo da Vinci.

! = 1025 kg / m3 (seawater)
! = 1000 kg / m3 (freshwater)

= 1.82 "10!5 N # s / m 2

Water

Kinematic Viscosity

! = 1#10"6 m 2 / s

Fluid Properties @20C

Hydrostatic Pressure

Pressure under water

Pressure is a Force per Area (P = F/A)

Pressure is a Normal Stress

Pressure is isotropic.
??

??

How does it act on these 2D shapes?

Pressure increases with depth

dp
= " !g
dz

Hydrostatic Pressure

Pressure on a vertical wall:

Gauge
Pressure

Absolute
Pressure

p ! pa = ! "g (z ! h )

p g = "g (h ! z )
+z

The NET pressure force acts at the CENTER of PRESSURE

FOR MORE DETAILS WITH THE DERIVATION OF THE HYDROSTATIC EQUATION,

SEE THE READING ON PRESSURE POSTED ON THE CLASS WEBPAGE

Pressure on a sphere at depth?

F = "" p ! n dS
S

Pressure acts normal to the surface. By convention pressure is positive in

compression. The total force is the integration of the ambient pressure over
the surface area of the sphere.

Archimedes Principle
Weight of the displaced volume of fluid is equal to the hydrostatic pressure
acting on the bottom of the vessel integrated over the area.

z
W

M
L

FB
Fg
Pressure, p

Fz = p*A = ( g D) * (L W)
= g* (L D W)
BUOYANCY FORCE -->
= g * Volume

Center of Buoyancy
Center of buoyancy is the point at which the buoyancy force acts on the body and is
equivalently the geometric center of the submerged portion of the hull.

To calculate the center of

buoyancy, it is first necessary to
find the center of area!
1) Calculate the Area of the body:

A = ! y ( x) dx

3) Calculate the coordinates for the

Center of Buoyancy:

2) Find the 1st moment of the area:

M xx = ! x( y ) y dy
M yy = ! y ( x) x dx

x=

M yy
A

and

M xx
y=
A

Stability?
A statically stable vessel with a positive righting arm.

self-righting

Statically unstable vessel with a negative righting arm.

Fluids in Motion

Fluids Follow Basic Laws

Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Momentum

Conservation of Energy

Flows can be described simply

Streamlines are lines everywhere parallel to the velocity

(no velocity exists perpendicular to a streamline)
Streaklines are instantaneous loci of all fluid particles
that pass through point xo
Pathlines are lines that one single fluid particle follows in
time
In Steady flow these are all the same!

Steady flow does not change in time.

Conservation of Mass

What goes in must come out!

Mass:

density * volume

m = !"

Control Volume: nozzle

Volume:

! = A" L

Length:
Area
A

To conserve Mass:

min = mout

Area
a

area * length

velocity * time

L = U ! "t
! m = " AU # $t

! AU " #t = ! aV " #t
!#"#
$ !
#"#
$
min

mout

Conservation of Momentum

Newtons second law states that the time rate of change of

momentum of a system of particles is equal to the sum of

external forces acting on that body.

d
!Fi = {mV}
dt
Forces:
Gravity (hydrostatic)
Pressure !!!
Shear (viscous/friction)
External Body

dA
P

P + dP

dv
!Fx = P dA " P + dP dA = m
dt
dv
!Fx = "dPdA = m
dt

Pressure Along a Streamline

Bernoullis Equation
(neglecting hydrostatics)

1
1
2
P1 + ! v1 = P2 + ! v2 2 = Const
2
2
General eqn. on streamline:
P+

Atmospheric pressure

1 2
!v = C
2

Patm=Pstatic
1

Stagnation point
(high pressure)

Streamline
(C = constant)

Stagnation pressure:
1
Po = Patm + ! v 2
2

NB: The body surface can also be treated as a streamline as there is no flow through the body.

Aero/Hydro-dynamic Forces

Lift
V

1
L = !V 2 " CL " S
2

Drag

1
2
D = !V " CD " S
2

Aero/Hydro-dynamic Forces

Lift
V

1
L = !V 2 " CL " S
2

Drag

1
2
D = !V " CD " S
2

Dynamic Pressure (like in Bernoullis equation!!)

Aero/Hydro-dynamic Forces

Lift
V

Drag

1
L = !V 2 " CL " S
2

1
2
D = !V " CD " S
2

Empirical Force Coefficients

Aero/Hydro-dynamic Forces

Lift
V

1
L = !V 2 " CL " S
2

Drag

1
2
D = !V " CD " S
2
Wing Planform Area

Aero/Hydro-foil Geometry

Leading Edge

Velocity

b, span

t, thickness
Trailing Edge
c, chord
S = Planform Area
S = b*c for rectangular foil
Aspect Ratio: AR

= b2 / S

Lift on a hydrofoil

Courtesy of Spyros A. Kinnas. Used with permission.

LIFT COEFFICIENT v. AOA

Coefficient of Lift for a

NACA 0012 Airfoil as
A function of angle of attack

NACA 0012

First two numbers indicate camber

Double zeros indicate symmetric foil

LIFT COEFFICIENT v. AOA

Coefficient of Lift for a

NACA 0012 Airfoil as
A function of angle of attack

NACA 0012

Last two numbers indicate thickness

of foil as % of total chord length

NACA 0012
For a symmetrical foil:

Cl = 2!"
( in radians!)

FLIFT = 12 !U 2 Cl S

(fo
=2
slo

pe

Coefficient of Lift for a

NACA 0012 Airfoil as
A function of angle of attack

in r
adi
ans
)

LIFT COEFFICIENT v. AOA

Stall
AOA

Maneuvering with a Rudder

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see: Fig. 14-1 and 14-2 in Gillmer, Thomas Charles, and Bruce Johnson.

Introduction to Naval Architecture.Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1982.

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Fig. 14-5, 14-6, and 14-9 in Gillmer, Thomas Charles, and Bruce Johnson.

Introduction to Naval Architecture. Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1982.

Turning Moment on a Vehicle

Single Motor Turn

T, thrust

Moment Arm, r
Vehicle
Forward speed

Turning a Vehicle with

a Rudder
Moment Arm, r
Vehicle
Forward
speed

LIFT, L
M=rxT
M=rxL
Lift on the Rudder:
Sum of the Moments (Torques)
about the CG equals the time rate
of change of angular momentum

..

MCG =

= moment of Inertia of
the vehicle about CG*
*can calculate in Solidworks!

L = 1/2 V2 (2 ) A
A = area of rudder
in radians
Coefficient of Lift:
CL= 2

Viscous Drag

Skin Friction
Drag: Cf
laminar

turbulent

Form Drag: CD
due to pressure
(turbulence,
separation)

Streamlined bodies reduce separation, thus reduce form drag.

Bluff bodies have strong separation thus high form drag.

Friction Drag
The transfer of momentum between the fluid particles slows the flow down
causing drag on the plate. This drag is referred to as friction drag.

Friction Drag Coefficient:

units

F
Cf = 1
2
!
U
Aw
2

[MLT ]
[MLT ]
"2

"2

(non-dimensional coefficient)

Aw= Wetted Area

THIS IS A SHEAR FORCE THAT COMES FROM SHEAR STRESS AT THE WALL!

Flat Plate Friction Coefficient

0.001
0.008
Drag coefficient, CD

0.006
0.004

Aw = wetted area
Laminar
boundary layer

0.002

0.001
105

2
F = 12 U C f A w

Turbulent
boundary layer

Transition at
Rex = 5 x 105

106

Turbulent
boundary layer

107
Reynolds number, ReL

108

109

Variation of drag coefficient with Reynolds number for a smooth flat plate parallel to the flow.
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Viscous flow around bluff

bodies (like cylinders) tends to
separate and form drag
dominates over friction drag.

Drag on Bodies

DRAG ACTS

INLINE WITH

VELOCITY

Image removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see http://www.onera.fr/photos-en/tunnel/images/220006.jpg

Form Drag

Drag Force on the

body due to viscous
effects:

Image removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see http://www.onera.fr/photos-en/tunnel/images/220006.jpg

1
2
FD = ! U CD A
2

Where CD is found
empirically through
experimentation
A is profile (frontal)
area

CD is Reynolds
number dependent
and is quite different
in laminar vs.
turbulent flows

Form Drag or Separation Drag or Pressure Drag (same thing!)

Flow Separating from a Cylinder

Y
Separation point

'Negative' velocities
(separated flow)
Wake

High pressure
Stagnation pressure

Low pressure

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Classical Vortex Shedding

Image removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Viv2.jpg

Alternately shed opposite signed vortices

Vortex shedding results from a wake

instability

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Fig. 25-32 in Homann, Fritz. "Einflu groer Zhigkeit bei Strmung um Zylinder."

Forschung auf dem Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens 7 (January/February 1936): 1-10.

Reynolds Number?

Non-dimensional parameter that gives us a sense

of the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces

2 2
U
L ) !UL
!
inertial forces ) (
(
=
=
Re =

(viscous forces ) (UL )

water = / = 106 m2/s

L=1-10 mm
L = 9.5m
Courtesy NOAA.

Speeds: around of 2*L/second

Speeds: in excess of 56 km/hr

Image from Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org

Reynolds Number
Dependence

Regime of Unseparated Flow

A Fixed Pair of Foppl Vortices

in Wake

Two Regimes in which Vortex

Street is Laminar

Transition Range to Turbulence

in Vortex
Vortex Street is Fully Turbulent
Laminar Boundary Layer has
Undergone Turbulent Transition
and Wake is Narrower and
Disorganized
Re-establishment of Turbulent
Vortex Street
Regimes of fluid flow across smooth circular cylinders (Lienhard, 1966).
From Blevins

Rd < 5

5-15 < Rd < 40

40 < Rd < 150

150 < Rd < 300

Transition to turbulence
300 < Rd < 3*105
3*105 < Rd < 3.5*106
3.5*106 < Rd
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Drag Coefficient: Cylinder

100

10
CD
1

0.1
10-1

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

VD
Re = v

Drag coefficient for a smooth circular cylinder as a function of Reynolds number.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Drag Coefficient: Sphere

Spheres with roughness

Drag coefficient, CD

0.6

400
200
100
60
40
20
CD

Golf ball

0.5
0.4
0.3

1
0.6
0.4

-5

900 x 10

0.2 1250 x 10-5

-5
500 x 10
0.1
= 150 x 10-5
D
0
4
5
2 x 10
10

Smooth spheres

10

4x 10

Reynolds number, Ud/v

10
6
4
2

Rough spheres

Theory due to Stokes

0.2
0.1
0.06
10-1

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

Re = VD
v

Drag coefficient of a smooth sphere as a function of Reynolds number.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Trade-off

between

Friction and

Pressure drag

c = Body length inline

with flow
t = Body thickness

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Fig. 7.12 and 7.15 in White, Frank M. Fluid Mechanics. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

2D Drag Coefficients
For 2D shapes: use CD
to calculate force per
unit length.

Use a strip theory type approach to determine

total drag, assuming that the flow is uniform
along the span of the body.

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Table 7.2 in White, Frank M. Fluid Mechanics. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

Trade-off

between

Friction and

Pressure drag

c = Body length inline

with flow
t = Body thickness

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Table 7.2 in White, Frank M. Fluid Mechanics. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

3D Drag Coefficients

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Table 7.3 in White, Frank M. Fluid Mechanics. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

More 3D Shapes

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Table 7.3 in White, Frank M. Fluid Mechanics. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

Calculating Drag on a Simple Structure

Dragtotal = Dragsphere+2*Dragmotors

Example: Spherical vehicle

with motors

Dragsphere= 1/2 V2 CD A
A = front area = r2
CD = drag coefficient

Vehicle
Forward
speed

(depends on velocity)

Drag

CD = 0.4-0.5 (laminar)
or 0.2 (turbulent)

Dragmotors~ 1/2 V2 CD A **
A = front area = r2
CD = drag coefficient
(depends on aspect ratio)

Assuming L/D = 2
CD=0.85

**This neglects the propellers

which add some drag to the vehicle

Use linear superposition to find total drag on a complex shape

Fluid Forces

Force on a surface ship is a function of X??

1)
2)
3)
4)

Fluid properties: density () & viscosity ()

Gravity (g)
Fluid (or body) velocity (U)
Body Geometry (L)

F = f ( !, , g,U, L)
Dimensional Analysis:
1) Output variable (Force) is a function of N-1 input variables (, , g, U, L).
Here N=6.
2) There are M=3 primary dimensions (units) for the variables listed above
[Mass, Length, Time]
3) We can determine P=N-M non-dimensional groups (P=3).
4) How do we find these groups?

Fluid Forces

Force on a surface ship is a function of X??

1)
2)
3)
4)

Fluid properties: density () & viscosity ()

Gravity (g)
Fluid (or body) velocity (U)
Body Geometry (L)

F = f ( !, , g,U, L)
Dimensional Analysis:
1) Output variable (Force) is a function of N-1 input variables (, , g, U, L).
Here N=6.
2) There are M=3 primary dimensions (units) for the variables listed above
[Mass, Length, Time]
3) We can determine P=N-M non-dimensional groups (P=3).
4) How do we find these groups?

Dimensional Analysis

F = f ( !, , g,U, L)
F
[kg m/s2]

[kg/m3]

U
[m/s]

L
[m]

[kg/m/s]

g
[m/s2]

Mass [M]

Length [L]

-3

-1

Time [t]

-2

-1

-1

-2

Step 1) Make all variables containing mass non-dimensional in

mass by dividing through by density: F/ and /

Dimensional Analysis

= f ( , g,U, L)
!
!

F/
[m4/s2]

/
[--]

U
[m/s]

L
[m]

/
[m2/s]

g
[m/s2]

Mass [M]

Length [L]

Time [t]

-2

-1

-1

-2

Step 2) Rewrite Matrix deleting density column and mass row

Dimensional Analysis

= f ( , g,U, L)
!
!

F/
[m4/s2]

U
[m/s]

L
[m]

/
[m2/s]

g
[m/s2]

Length [L]

Time [t]

-2

-1

-1

-2

Step 3) Non-dimensionalize all variables containing time, using

velocity: F/U2 and /U and g/U2

Dimensional Analysis

F
g
= f(
, 2 , L)
2
!U
!U U

F/U2
[m2/s0]

U/U
[--]

L
[m]

/U
[m1/s0]

g/U2
[m-1/s0]

Length [L]

-1

Time [t]

Step 4) Rewrite Matrix

Dimensional Analysis

F
g
= f(
, 2 , L)
2
!U
!U U

Length [L]

F/U2
[m2/s0]

L
[m]

/U
[m1/s0]

g/U2
[m-1/s0]

-1

Step 5) Non-dimensionalize all variables containing length: F/U2L2

and /UL and gL/U2

Dimensional Analysis

F
gL
= f(
, 2)
2 2
!U L
!UL U

Length [L]

F/U2L2
[m0]

L/L
[--]

/UL
[m0]

gL/U2
[m0]

Step 5) Your equation is non-dimensional! Yea!

But does it make sense??

Classical non-dimensional parameters in fluids

F
gL
= f(
, 2)
2 2
!U L
!UL U
F
CF = 1
2 2
!
U
L
2
Force Coefficient
(can be found through
experiments and is
considered an
empirical coefficient,
L2 is equivalent to Area
of object)

!UL
Re =

Reynolds Number
(important for all
forces in air or
water)

U
Fr =
gL
Froude Number
(in fluids typically
only important
when near surface
of ocean/water)