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Sampling (Statistics) : Probability and Nonprobability Sampling

Sampling is used to select a subset of a population to make inferences about the whole population. There are two main types of sampling: probability sampling, where every unit has a known chance of being selected, and nonprobability sampling, where units may have no chance of selection. Specific probability sampling methods include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling. Nonprobability sampling includes quota sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive sampling. Errors in surveys can be sampling errors due to the random selection or non-sampling errors from issues like non-response.

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67 views

Sampling (Statistics) : Probability and Nonprobability Sampling

Sampling is used to select a subset of a population to make inferences about the whole population. There are two main types of sampling: probability sampling, where every unit has a known chance of being selected, and nonprobability sampling, where units may have no chance of selection. Specific probability sampling methods include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling. Nonprobability sampling includes quota sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive sampling. Errors in surveys can be sampling errors due to the random selection or non-sampling errors from issues like non-response.

Uploaded by

Akhil Shrivastav
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Sampling (statistics)

In statistics, quality assurance, & survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection
of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the
whole population. Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location,
color) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals.

Probability and nonprobability sampling


A probability sample is a sample in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater
than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.
Probability sampling includes: Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Stratified
Sampling, Probability Proportional to Size Sampling, and Cluster or Multistage Sampling. These
various ways of probability sampling have two things in common:
1. Every element has a known nonzero probability of being sampled and
2. involves random selection at some point.
Nonprobability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population
have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It
involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest,
which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom,
nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors. These conditions give
rise to exclusion bias, placing limits on how much information a sample can provide about the
population. Information about the relationship between sample and population is limited, making
it difficult to extrapolate from the sample to the population.
Nonprobability sampling methods include accidental sampling, quota sampling and purposive
sampling. In addition, nonresponse effects may turn any probability design into a nonprobability
design if the characteristics of nonresponse are not well understood, since nonresponse
effectively modifies each element's probability of being sampled.
Simple random - In a simple random sample (SRS) of a given size, all such subsets of the frame
are given an equal probability. Furthermore, any given pair of elements has the same chance of
selection as any other such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimises bias and
simplifies analysis of results.
Systematic Sampling - Systematic sampling relies on arranging the study population according to
some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered list.
Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth
element from then onwards

Stratified sampling
Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized by
these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent subpopulation, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected.

Cluster sampling
Sometimes it is more cost-effective to select respondents in groups ('clusters'). Sampling is often
clustered by geography, or by time periods. (Nearly all samples are in some sense 'clustered' in
time - although this is rarely taken into account in the analysis.) For instance, if surveying
households within a city, we might choose to select 100 city blocks and then interview every
household within the selected blocks.
Cluster sampling is commonly implemented as multistage sampling. This is a complex form of
cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are embedded one in the other. The first
stage consists of constructing the clusters that will be used to sample from. In the second stage,
a sample of primary units is randomly selected from each cluster (rather than using all units
contained in all selected clusters). In following stages, in each of those selected clusters,
additional samples of units are selected, and so on. All ultimate units (individuals, for instance)
selected at the last step of this procedure are then surveyed. This technique, thus, is essentially
the process of taking random subsamples of preceding random samples.

Quota sampling
In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups,
just as in stratified sampling. Then judgement is used to select the subjects or units from
each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to
sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.

Accidental sampling
Accidental sampling (sometimes known as grab, convenience or opportunity sampling) is a
type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of
the population which is close to hand.

Errors in sample surveys[edit]


Survey results are typically subject to some error. Total errors can be classified into sampling
errors and non-sampling errors. The term "error" here includes systematic biases as well as
random errors.

Sampling errors and biases


Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample design. They include:
1. Selection bias: When the true selection probabilities differ from those assumed in
calculating the results.
2. Random sampling error: Random variation in the results due to the elements in the
sample being selected at random.

Non-sampling error
Non-sampling errors are other errors which can impact the final survey estimates, caused by
problems in data collection, processing, or sample design. They include:
1. Over coverage: Inclusion of data from outside of the population.
2. Under coverage: Sampling frame does not include elements in the population.
3. Measurement error: e.g. when respondents misunderstand a question, or find it difficult
to answer.
4. Processing error: Mistakes in data coding.
5. Non-response: Failure to obtain complete data from all selected individuals.

Formulation of HYPOTHESIS
The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the
problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on
some rationale.

Hypotheses are testable explanations of a problem, phenomenon, or observation.


Both quantitative and qualitative research involve formulating a hypothesis to

address the research problem.


Hypotheses that suggest a causal relationship involve at least one independent
variable and at least one dependent variable; in other words, one variable which is
presumed to affect the other.
An independent variable is one whose value is manipulated by the researcher or
experimenter.
A dependent variable is a variable whose values are presumed to change as a result
of changes in the independent variable.

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