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dbms notes
unit 1
database :
A database is a collection of stored operational data used by various
applications and/or users by some particular enterprise or by a set of
outside authorized applications and authorized users.
DataBase Management System :
A DataBase Management System (DBMS) is a software system that
manages execution of users applications to access and modify database
data so that the data security, data integrity, and data reliability is
guaranteed for each application and each application is written with an
assumption that it is the only application active in the database.
What Is Data ?
Different view points:
A sequence of characters stored in computer memory or storage
Interpreted sequence of characters stored in computer memory or
storage
Interpreted set of objects
Database supports a concurrent access to the data
File Systems :
File is uninterpreted, unstructured collection of information
File operations: delete, catalog, create, rename, open, close, read,
write, find,
Access methods: Algorithms to implement operations along with
internal file organization
Examples: File of Customers, File of Students; Access method:
implementation of a set of operations on a file of students or
customers.
File Management System Problems :
Data redundancy
Data Access: New request-new program
Data is not isolated from the access implementation
Concurrent program execution on the same file
Difficulties with security enforcement
Integrity issues .
Database Applications :
Airline Reservation Systems Data items are: single passenger
reservations; Information about flights and airports; Information about
ticket prices and tickets restrictions.
Banking Systems Data items are accounts, customers, loans,
mortgages, balances, etc. Failures are not tolerable. Concurrent access
must be provided
Corporate Records Data items are: sales, accounts, bill of materials

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records, employee and their dependents
ADVANTAGES OF A DBMS:
Data independence: Application programs should be as independent as
possible from details of data representation and storage. The DBMS can
provide an abstract view of the data to insulate application code from
such details.
cient data access: A DBMS utilizes a variety of sophisticated techniques
to store and retrieve data efciently. This feature is especially important
if the data is stored on external storage devices.
Data integrity and security: If data is always accessed through the
DBMS, the DBMS can enforce integrity constraints on the data. For
example, before inserting salary information for an employee, the DBMS
can check that the department budget is not exceeded. Also, the DBMS
can enforce access controls that govern what data is visible to dierent
classes of users.
Data administration: When several users share the data, centralizing
the administration
of data can oer signi cant improvements. Experienced professionals who
understand the nature of the data being managed, and how dierent
groups of users use it, can be responsible for organizing the data
representation to minimize redundancy and for ne-tuning the storage of
the data to make retrieval efcient.
concarence recovery: A DBMS schedules concurrent accesses to the data
in such a manner that users can think of the data as being accessed by
only one user at a time. Further, the DBMS protects users from the
eects of system failures.
Reduced application development time: Clearly, the DBMS supports
many important functions that are common to many applications
accessing data stored in the DBMS. This, in conjunction with the highlevel interface to the data, facilitates quick development of
applications. Such applications are also likely to be more robust than
applications developed from scratch because many important tasks are
handled by the DBMS instead of being implemented by the application.
Data Levels and their Roles :

Physical corresponds to the first view of data: How data is stored,

how is it accessed, how data is modified, is data ordered, how data is
allocated to computer memory and/or peripheral devices, how data

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items are actually represented (ASCI, EBCDIC,) .The physical schema
speci es additional storage details. Essentially, the physical schema
summarizes how the relations described in the conceptual schema are
actually stored on secondary storage devices such as disks and tapes.
We must decide what le organizations to use to store the relations, and
create auxiliary data structures called indexes to speed up data retrieval
operations.
Conceptual corresponds to the second view of data: What we want
the data to express and what relationships between data we must
express, what story data tells, are all data necessary for the story
are discussed. The conceptual schema (sometimes called the logical
schema) describes the stored data in terms of the data model of the
DBMS. In a relational DBMS, the conceptual schema describes all
relations that are stored in the database. In our sample university
database, these relations contain information about entities, such as
students and faculty, and about relationships, such as students'
enrollment in courses. All student entities can be described using
records in a Students relation, as we saw earlier. In fact, each collection
of entities and each collection of relationships can be described as a
relation, leading to the following conceptual schema:
Students(sid: string, name: string, login: string, age: integer, gpa: real)
Faculty( d: string, fname: string, sal: real)
Courses(cid: string, cname: string, credits: integer)
Rooms(rno: integer, address: string, capacity: integer)
Enrolled(sid: string, cid: string, grade: string)
Teaches( d: string, cid: string)
Meets In(cid: string, rno: integer, time: string)
The choice of relations, and the choice of elds for each relation, is not
always obvious,
and the process of arriving at a good conceptual schema is called
conceptual
database design.
View corresponds to the third view of data:What part of the data
is seen by a specific application .External schemas, which usually are
also in terms of the data model of the DBMS, allow data access to be
customized (and authorized) at the level of individual users or groups of
users.The external schema design is guided by end user requirements.
For example, we might ant to allow students to nd out the names of
faculty members teaching courses, as well as course enrollments. This
can be done by de ning the following view:
Courseinfo(cid: string, fname: string, enrollment: integer)
STRUCTURE OF A DBMS:

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When a user issues a query, the parsed query is presented to a query

optimizer, which uses information about how the data is stored to
produce an effcient execution plan for evaluating the query. An
execution plan is a blueprint for evaluating a query, and is usually
represented as a tree of relational operators.
The code that implements relational operators sits on top of the le and
access methods layer. This layer includes a variety of software for
supporting the concept of a le, which, in a DBMS, is a collection of pages
or a collection of records. This layer typically supports a heap le, or le of
unordered pages, as well as indexes. In addition to keeping track of the
pages in a le, this layer organizes the information within a page.The les
and access methods layer code sits on top of the buer manager, which
brings pages in from disk to main memory as needed in response to
read requests.
The lowest layer of the DBMS software deals with management of space
on disk, where the data is stored. Higher layers allocate, deallocate,
read, and write pages through (routines provided by) this layer, called
the disk space manager.
The DBMS supports concurrency and crash recovery by carefully
scheduling user requests and maintaining a log of all changes to the
database. DBMS components associated with concurrency control and
recovery include the transaction manager, which ensures that
transactions request and release locks according to a suitable locking
protocol and schedules the execution transactions; the lock manager,
which keeps track of requests for locks and grants locks on database
objects when they become available; and the recovery manager, which
is responsible for maintaining a log, and restoring the system to a
consistent state after a crash. The disk space manager, buer manager,
and le and access method layers must interact with these components.
Data Models:
A collection of tools for describing ......

Data.
Data relationships.
Data semantics.

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Data constraints.
Relational model..........
Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design) .
Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational).
Semistructured data model (XML).
Other older models:.........
Network model .
Hierarchical model.
Database Access from Application Programs:
To access the database, DML statements need to be executed from the
host language.There are two ways to do this:
By providing an application program interface (set of procedures) that
can be used to send DML and DDL statements to the database, and
retrieve the results.The Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) standard
defined by Microsoft for use with the C language is a commonly used
application program interfacestandard. The Java Database Connectivity
(JDBC) standard provides correspondingfeatures to the Java language.
By extending the host language syntax to embed DML calls within the
host language program. Usually, a special character prefaces DML calls,
and a preprocessor, called the DML precompiler, converts the DML
statements to normal procedure calls in the host language.
Database Users and Administrators:

Naive users are unsophisticated users who interact with the

system by invoking one of the application programs that have
been written previously.
Application programmers are computer professionals who write
application programs.
Sophisticated users interact with the system without writing
programs. Instead,they form their requests in a database query
language. They submit each such query to a query processor,
whose function is to break down DML statements into
instructions that the storage manager understands. Analysts who
submit queries to explore data in the database fall in this
category.
Specialized users are sophisticated users who write specialized
database applications that do not fit into the traditional dataprocessing framework.
Database Administrator:A person who has such central control
over the system is called a database administrator (DBA)
Schema definition. The DBA creates the original database schema
by executing a set of data definition statements in the DDL.
Storage structure and access-method definition.
Schema and physical-organization modification. The DBA carries
out changes to the schema and physical organization to reflect

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the changing needs of the organization, or to alter the physical
organization to improve performance.
Granting of authorization for data access.
Routine maintenance.

Data Model:
A data model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data
relationships, data semantics, and consistency constraints.
Entity:An entity is a thing or object in the real world that is
distinguishable from all other objects. For example, each person in an
enterprise is an entity.
Entity set:An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share
the same properties, orattributes. The set of all persons who are
customers at a given bank, for example, can be defined as the entity
set customer. Similarly, the entity set loan might represent the set of all
loans awarded by a particular bank.
An entity is represented by a set of attributes. Attributes are
descriptive properties possessed by each member of an entity set. The
designation of an attribute for an entity set expresses that the database
stores similar information concerning each entity in the entity set;
however, each entity may have its own value for each attribute.
Simple and composite attributes:the attributes havebeen simple; that
is, they are not divided into subparts is called as "simple attributes". on
the other hand, can be divided into subparts is called as "composite
attributes".For example, an attribute name could be structured as a
composite attribute consisting of first-name, middle-initial, and lastname.
Single-valued and multivalued attributes:For instance, the loannumber attribute for a specific loan entity refers to only one loan
number. Such attributes are said to be single valued. There may be
instances where an attribute has a set of values for a specific entity.
Consider an employee entity set with the attribute phone-number. An
employee may have zero, one, or several phone numbers, and different
employees may have different numbers of phones.
This type of attribute is said to be multivalued.
Derived attribute:The value for this type of attribute can be derived
from the values of other related attributes or entities. For instance, let
us say that the customer entity set has an attribute loans-held, which
represents how many loans a customer has from the bank.We can derive
the value for this attribute by counting the number of loan entities
associated with that customer.
Relationship Sets:A relationship is an association among several
entities. A relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type.
Mapping Cardinalities:Mapping cardinalities, or cardinality ratios,
express the number of entities to which another entity can be
associated via a relationship set. Mapping cardinalities are most useful
in describing binary relationship sets, although they can contribute to
the description of relationship sets that involve more than two entity

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sets.
One to one. An entity in A is associated with at most one entity
in B, and an entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A.
One to many. An entity in A is associated with any number (zero
or more) of entities in B. An entity in B, however, can be
associated with at most one entity in A.
Many to one. An entity in A is associated with at most one entity
in B. An entity in B, however, can be associated with any number
(zero or more) of entities in A.
Many to many. An entity in A is associated with any number (zero
or more) of entities in B, and an entity in B is associated with any
number (zero or more) of entities in A.
Keys: A key allows us to identify a set of attributes that suffice to
distinguish entities from each other. Keys also help uniquely identify
relationships, and thus distinguish relationships from each other.
superkey:A superkey is a set of one or more attributes that, taken
collectively, allow us to identify uniquely an entity in the entity set. For
example, the customer-id attribute of the entity set customer is
sufficient to distinguish one customer entity from another. Thus,
customer-id is a superkey. Similarly, the combination of customer-name
and customer-id is a superkey for the entity set customer. The
customer-name attribute of customer is not a superkey, because several
people might have the same name.
candidate key:minimal superkeys are called candidate keys.If K is a
superkey, then so is any superset of K. We are often interested in
superkeys for which no proper subset is a superkey.It is possible that
several distinct sets of attributes could serve as a candidate
key.Suppose that a combination of customer-name and customer-street
is sufficient to distinguish among members of the customer entity set.
Then, both {customer-id} and {customer-name, customer-street} are
candidate keys. Although the attributes customerid and customer-name
together can distinguish customer entities, their combination does not
form a candidate key, since the attribute customer-id alone is a
candidate key.
primary key:which denotes the unique identity is called as primary
key.primary key to denote a candidate key that is chosen by the
database designer as the principal means of identifying entities within
an entity set. A key (primary, candidate, and super) is a property of the
entity set, rather than of the individual entities. Any two individual
entities in the set are prohibited from having the same value on the key
attributes at the same time. The designation of a key represents a
constraint in the real-world enterprise being modeled.
Weak Entity Sets:An entity set may not have sufficient attributes to
form a primary key. Such an entity set is termed a weak entity set. An
entity set that has a primary key is termed a strong entity set.

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For a weak entity set to be meaningful, it must be associated with

another entityset, called the identifying or owner entity set. Every weak
entity must be associated with an identifying entity; that is, the weak
entity set is said to be existence dependent on the identifying entity
set. The identifying entity set is said to own the weak entity set that it
identifies. The relationship associating the weak entity set with the
identifying entity set is called the identifying relationship. The
identifying relationship is many to one from the weak entity set to the
identifying entity set, and the participation of the weak entity set in the
relationship is total.
In our example, the identifying entity set for payment is loan, and a
relationship loan-payment that associates payment entities with their
corresponding loan entities is the identifying relationship.
Although a weak entity set does not have a primary key, we
nevertheless need a means of distinguishing among all those entities in
the weak entity set that depend on one particular strong entity. The
discriminator of a weak entity set is a set of attributes that allows this
distinction to be made.
In E-R diagrams, a doubly outlined box indicates a weak entity set, and
a doubly outlined diamond indicates the corresponding identifying
relationship.in fig the weak entity set payment depends on the strong
entity set loan via the relationship set loan-payment.
The figure also illustrates the use of double lines to indicate total
participationthe of the (weak) entity set payment in the relationship
loan-payment is total, meaning that every payment must be related via
loan-payment to some loan. Finally, the arrow from loan-payment to
loan indicates that each payment is for a single loan. The discriminator
of a weak entity set also is underlined, but with a dashed, ratherthan a
solid, line.

Specialization:An entity set may include subgroupings of entities that

are distinct in some wayfrom other entities in the set. For instance, a
subset of entities within an entity set may have attributes that are not
shared by all the entities in the entity set. The E-R model provides a

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means for representing these distinctive entity groupings. Consider an
entity set person, with attributes name, street, and city. A personmay
be further classified as one of the following:
customer
employee
Each of these person types is described by a set of attributes that
includes all the attributes of entity set person plus possibly additional
attributes. For example, customer entities may be described further by
the attribute customer-id, whereas employee entities may be described
further by the attributes employee-id and salary. The process of
designating subgroupings within an entity set is called specialization.
The specialization of person allows us to distinguish among persons
according to whether they are employees or customers.
Generalization:The design process may also proceed in a bottom-up
manner, in which multiple entity sets are synthesized into a higher-level
entity set on the basis of common features. The database designer may
have first identified a customer entity set with the attributes name,
street, city, and customer-id, and an employee entity set with the
attributes name, street, city, employee-id, and salary. There are
similarities between the customer entity set and the employee entity set
in the sense that they have several attributes in common. This
commonality can be expressed by generalization, which is a containment
relationship that exists between a higher-level entity set and one or
more lower-level entity sets. In our example, person is the higher-level
entity set and customer and employee are lower-level entity sets.
Higher- and lower-level entity sets also may be designated by the terms
superclass and subclass, respectively. The person entity set is the
superclass of the customer and employee subclasses.For all practical
purposes, generalization is a simple inversion of specialization. We will
apply both processes, in combination, in the course of designing the E-R
schema for an enterprise. In terms of the E-R diagram itself, we do not
distinguish between specialization and generalization. New levels of
entity representation will be distinguished (specialization) or
synthesized (generalization) as the design schema comes to express
fully the database application and the user requirements of the
database. Differences in the two approaches may be characterized by
their starting point and overall goal.Generalization proceeds from the
recognition that a number of entity sets share some common features
(namely, they are described by the same attributes and participatein the
same relationship sets).

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Aggregation:
Aggregation is an abstraction in which relationship sets (along with their
associated entity sets) are treated as higher-level entity sets, and can
participate in relationships.

Symbols used in the E-R notation:

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ER Model For a college DB:

Assumptions :
A college contains many departments
Each department can offer any number of courses
Many instructors can work in a department
An instructor can work only in one department
For each department there is a Head
An instructor can be head of only one department
Each instructor can take any number of courses
A course can be taken by only one instructor
A student can enroll for any number of courses
Each course can have any number of students
Steps in ER Modeling:
Identify the Entities
Find relationships
Identify the key attributes for every Entity
Identify other relevant attributes
Draw complete E-R diagram with all attributes including Primary
Key
Step 1: Identify the Entities:
DEPARTMENT
STUDENT
COURSE
INSTRUCTOR
Step 2: Find the relationships:
One course is enrolled by multiple students and one student
enrolls for multiple courses,

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hence the cardinality between course and student is Many to
Many.
The department offers many courses and each course belongs to
only one department,
hence the cardinality between department and course is One to
Many.
One department has multiple instructors and one instructor
belongs to one and only one
department , hence the cardinality between department and
instructor is one to Many.
Each department there is a Head of department and one
instructor is Head of
department ,hence the cardinality is one to one .
One course is taught by only one instructor, but the instructor
teaches many courses,
hence the cardinality between course and instructor is many to
one.
Step 3: Identify the key attributes
Deptname is the key attribute for the Entity Department, as it
identifies the Department uniquely.
Course# (CourseId) is the key attribute for Course Entity.
Student# (Student Number) is the key attribute for Student
Entity.
Instructor Name is the key attribute for Instructor Entity.

Step 4: Identify other relevant attributes

For the department entity, the relevant attribute is location
For course entity, course name,duration,prerequisite
For instructor entity, room#, telephone#
For student entity, student name, date of birth

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ER model for Banking Business :

Assumptions :
There are multiple banks and each bank has many branches. Each
branch has multiple customers
Customers have various types of accounts
Some Customers also had taken different types of loans from
these bank branches
One customer can have multiple accounts and Loans
Step 1: Identify the Entities
BANK
BRANCH
LOAN
ACCOUNT
CUSTOMER
Step 2: Find the relationships
One Bank has many branches and each branch belongs to only one
bank, hence the
cardinality between Bank and Branch is One to Many.
One Branch offers many loans and each loan is associated with one
branch, hence the
cardinality between Branch and Loan is One to Many.
One Branch maintains multiple accounts and each account is
associated to one and
only one Branch, hence the cardinality between Branch and Account is
One to Many
One Loan can be availed by multiple customers, and each Customer
can avail multiple
loans, hence the cardinality between Loan and Customer is Many to
Many.
One Customer can hold multiple accounts, and each Account can be
held by multiple
Customers, hence the cardinality between Customer and Account is
Many to Many
Step 3: Identify the key attributes
BankCode (Bank Code) is the key attribute for the Entity Bank, as it
identifies the bank
uniquely.
Branch# (Branch Number) is the key attribute for Branch Entity.
Customer# (Customer Number) is the key attribute for Customer
Entity.
Loan# (Loan Number) is the key attribute for Loan Entity.
Account No (Account Number) is the key attribute for Account
Entity.
Step 4: Identify other relevant attributes
For the Bank Entity, the relevant attributes other than BankCode
would be Name
and Address.
For the Branch Entity, the relevant attributes other than Branch#
would be Name
and Address.

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For the Loan Entity, the relevant attribute other than Loan#
would be Loan Type.
For the Account Entity, the relevant attribute other than Account
No would be
Account Type.
For the Customer Entity, the relevant attributes other than
Customer# would be
Name, Telephone# and Address.
E-R diagram with all attributes including Primary Key:

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