Production Engineering II

Separation Process

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to :

1. Describe the different types of separator and their functions.

2. Understand the basic theory of separation process.
3. Describe the two phase separation process.
4. Describe the three phase separation process.

5. Perform separator sizing calculations.

Introduction

Crude/Gas Separation System-Overview

Introduction

Main Offshore Production Facilities (key components):

Wellhead Equipment

Separation

Waste Handling

Pump/Compressor

Gas utilities, flaring

Introduction
The oil production system begins at the
wellhead, which includes at the least one
choke valve (percentage opening
determines the flowrate from the wells).
Most of the pressure drop between the well
flowing tubing head pressure (FTHP) and
the separator operating pressure occur
across the choke valve.
Whenever there are two or more producing
wells, a production manifold (as well as a
test manifold) is installed to gather fluids
prior to be processed.
The test manifold is provided to allow an
individual well to be tested via a test
separator or a multiphase flowmeter.

Simple wellhead assembly including

casing spools and Christmas tree

Introduction

Manifold / Gathering Station

The Production Process

SEPARATORS form the HEART of the production process
SEPARATION MODULE
wellhead
Wellhead
manifold

Gas to gas scrubber

and gas
compression module

FIRST STAGE

well
SECOND STAGE
reservoir

Water treatment
Oil
Water
Disposal

Storage
tank final
oil treatment

To export

Introduction
Produced wellhead fluids are complex mixtures of different compounds of
hydrogen and carbon, all with different densities, vapor pressures, and other
physical characteristics.
As a well stream flows from the reservoir, it experiences pressure and
temperature reductions.
Gases evolve from the liquids and the well stream changes in character. The
velocity of the gas carries liquid droplets, and the liquid carries gas bubbles.

The physical separation of these phases is one of the basic operations in the
production, processing, and treatment of oil and gas.
In oil and gas separator design, we mechanically separate from a hydrocarbon
stream the liquid and gas components that exist at a specific temperature and
pressure.

Introduction

Phase Diagram of a typical production system

Introduction
Proper separator design is important because a separation vessel is
normally the initial processing vessel in any facility, and improper design
of this process component can bottleneck and reduce the capacity of the
entire facility.
Separators are classified as the following
Two Phase if they separate gas from the total liquid stream
Three Phase if they also separate liquid stream into its crude oil and
water components.

Introduction
What is a separator?
A separator is a pressure vessel designed to separate a combined
liquid-gas system into individual components that are relatively free of
each other for subsequent processing or disposition
Why separators are needed?
Downstream equipment cannot handle gas-liquid mixtures
Pumps require gas-free liquid

Compressor/ dehydration equipment require liquid-free gas

Product specifications has limits on impurities
Measurement devices (metering) for gases/liquids highly

inaccurate when the other phase is present.

Basic Separator Construction

Regardless of the size/shape of a
separator, each gas-liquid
separator contains four major
sections :

Vertical
Separator
Schematic

I.

Inlet Diverter Section

II.

Liquid Collection Section

III. Gravity Settling Section

IV. Mist Extractor Section
Horizontal
Separator
Schematic

Basic Separator Construction

I.

Inlet Diverter Section

The inlet stream to the separator is typically a high-velocity turbulent

mixture of gas and liquid.

Due to the high velocity, the fluids enter the separator with a high
momentum.
Fluid phase at different densities have different momentum.
The Inlet Diverter abruptly changes the direction of flow by absorbing the
momentum of the liquid and allowing the liquid and gas to separate.
Results in the initial gross separation of liquid and gas. Initial separation of
gas phase from the free liquid phase.

Basic Separator Construction

II.

Liquid Collection Section

Located at the bottom of the vessel.

Provides the required retention time necessary for any entrained gas in
the liquid to escape to the gravity settling section.
Also provide a surge volume to handle intermittent slugs.

After a certain period of retention time, phases become equilibrium with

each other and separated naturally due to density differences
Degree of separation is dependent on the retention time available.
Retention time is affected by the amount of liquid the separator can hold,
the rate at which the fluids enter the vessel, and the differential density of
the fluids.

Basic Separator Construction

III. Gravity Settling Section
As the gas stream enters the gravity settling section, its velocity drops.
Small liquid droplets that were entrained in the gas and not separated by
the inlet diverter are separated out by gravity and fall to the gas liquid
interface.
The gravity settling section is sized so that liquid droplets greater than 100
to 140 microns fall to the gas-liquid interface while smaller liquid droplets
remain with the gas.
Liquid droplets greater than 100 to140 microns are undesirable as they
can overload the mist extractor at the separator outlet.

Basic Separator Construction

IV. Mist Extractor Section
Gas leaving the gravity settling section contains small liquid droplets, 100140 microns.

This section uses coalescing elements that provide a large amount of

surface area used to coalesce and remove the small droplets of liquid.
As the gas flows through the coalescing elements, it must make numerous
directional changes.
Due to their greater mass, the liquid droplets cannot follow the rapid
changes in direction of flow. These droplets impinge and collect on the
coalescing elements, where they fall to the liquid collection section.

Video

Factors Affecting Separation

The following factors must be determined before separator design :
Gas and liquid flow rates
Operating & design pressures and temperatures

Surging or slugging tendencies of the feed streams

Fluid physical properties (density, compressibility)
Desired phase separation (gas-liquid or liquid-liquid)

Desired degree of separation

Presence of impurities (paraffin, sand, scale)
Foaming tendencies of the crude oil

Corrosive tendencies of the liquids or gas

Separator Design Checklist (2P)

A primary separation section to remove the bulk of the liquid from the gas
Sufficient liquid capacity to handle surges of liquid from the line
Sufficient length of height to allow small droplets to settle out by gravity. Also a
means of reducing turbulence in the main body to ensure proper settling
A mist extractor to capture entrained droplets
Back pressure and liquid level controls

Separators are designed and manufactured in horizontal, vertical, spherical and

various other configurations.
Each configuration has specific advantages and limitations.
Selection is based on obtaining the desired results at lowest life-cycle cost

Separator Types (2P)

Gravity separators
Horizontal
Vertical
Spherical
Centrifugal separators
Venturi Separators

Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators

Horizontal Separator with Water Pot
Filter Separators
Scrubbers

Selection of
separators is based
on obtaining the
desired results at the
lowest cost

Horizontal Separators (2P)

Illustration of a Horizontal Separator

Horizontal Separators (2P)

The fluid enters the separator and
hits an inlet diverter, causing a
sudden change in momentum.
The initial gross separation of liquid
and vapor occurs at the inlet diverter.
The force of gravity causes the liquid
to fall to the bottom of the vessel and
gas to rise to the vapor space.
The liquid collection section provides retention time to let entrained gas evolve
out of the oil and reach a state of equilibrium.
It also provides a surge volume, to handle intermittent slugs of liquid.
The level controller senses changes in liquid levels and controls the dump
valve accordingly.

Horizontal Separators (2P)

Gas flows over the inlet diverter and then
horizontally through the gravity settling
section above the liquid.
Small drops of liquid, which were
entrained in the gas and not separated by
the inlet diverter, are separated by
gravity-settling; they fall to the gas-liquid
interface.
Some small diameter droplets are not easily separated in the gravity-settling
section.

Before the gas leaves the vessel, it passes through a coalescing section, or
mist extractor.
This section uses elements of vanes, wire mesh, or plates to coalesce and
remove the very small droplets of liquid in one final separation step.

Horizontal Separators (2P)

The pressure in the separator is
maintained by a pressure
controller.
The pressure controller senses
changes in the pressure within
the separator and sends a
signal to the pressure control
valve accordingly.

By controlling the rate at which gas leaves the vapor space of the vessel, this
system maintains the pressure in the vessel.
Normally horizontal separators are operated half full of liquid to maximize the
surface area of the gas-liquid interface.

Vertical Separators

Illustration of a Vertical Separator

Vertical Separators
Inlet flow enters the vessel through the side.
The inlet diverter does the initial gross separation.
The liquid flows down to the liquid collection
section of the vessel and continues to the liquid
outlet.
As the liquid reaches equilibrium, gas bubbles flow
counter to the direction of the liquid flow and
eventually migrate to the vapor space.
The level controller and liquid dump valve operate in the same manner as in a
horizontal separator.
The gas flows over the inlet diverter and then vertically upward toward the gas
outlet.

Vertical Separators
In the gravity settling section, the liquid drops fall
vertically downward counter-current to the upward
gas flow.
Gas goes through the mist extractor section before
it leaves the vessel to capture smaller liquid
droplets.
Pressure and level are maintained as in a
horizontal separators using pressure and level
controllers respectively.

Spherical Separators

Illustration of a Spherical Separator

Spherical Separators
The same four sections can be found in
this separator too. (Inlet Diverter, Liquid
Collection, Gravity Settling and Mist
Extractor)

Fluid enters through the inlet diverter

where flow stream is split into two.
Liquid falls to the liquid collection section.
Gases rising out of the liquids pass through the mist extractor and out of the
separator through the gas outlet.
Liquid level and pressure are maintained by liquid dump valve and back
pressure control valve respectively.
Not widely used because they have limited liquid surge capability and exhibit
fabrication difficulties.

Centrifugal Separators

Illustration of a Centrifugal Separator

Centrifugal Separators
Work on the principle that droplet separation can be
enhanced by the imposition of a radial or centrifugal force.
Consists of three sections ( inclined tangential inlet,
tangential liquid outlet and axial gas outlet).
Fluids are introduced tangentially into the separator via
inclined feed pipe.
The high-velocity swirling flow creates a radial acceleration field that causes the gas
to flow to the axial core region due to differences in gas and liquid density.

The gas exits through an axial outlet located at the top of the separator, and the
liquid leaves through a tangential outlet at the bottom.
Control can be achieved by a control valve on either liquid or the gas outlet lines.
Not suitable for widely varying flow rates since separation efficiency decreases as
velocity decreases.

Centrifugal Separators
The major benefits of using centrifugal separators are :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

No moving parts
Low maintenance
Compact (space and weight)
Insensitive to motion
Lower cost

Not commonly used in production operations because :

(i) Too sensitive to flowrates
(ii) Require greater pressure drop than other conventional separators.

Venturi Separators
Like the centrifugal separator, the venturi
separator increases droplet coalescence
by introducing additional forces into the
system.
Motive Fluid

The venturi principle involves

sending a motive stream horizontally
through a constricting nozzle.
This movement creates an area of low
pressure at the expanding side of the
nozzle which pulls gas molecules into
the flow from an attached inlet.

Instead of centrifugal force, the venturi

acts on the principle of accelerating the
gas linearly through a restricted flow path
with a motive fluid to promote the
coalescence of droplets.
Best suited for applications that contain a
mixture of solids and liquids.
Not cost-effective for removing liquid
entrainment alone, because of the highpressure drop and need for a motive fluid.

Double-Barrel Separators

Illustration of a Double-Barrel Separator

Double-Barrel Separators
The flow-stream strikes the inlet diverter and the free
liquids fall to the lower barrel through a flow pipe.
The gas flows through the gravity settling section
and encounters a mist extractor en route to the gas
outlet.
Small amounts of gas entrained in the liquid are
liberated in the liquid collection barrel and flow up
through the flow pipes.
Commonly used in applications where high gas flowrate and/or large liquid slugs are
encountered
Single barrel horizontal separators can handle large flowrates but offer poor liquid surge
capabilities compared to the double barrel separators.
Two-barrel separators are typically used as gas scrubbers on the inlet to compressors,
glycol contact towers and gas treating systems in which the liquid flow rate is extremely
low relative to the gas flow rate.

Horizontal Separator with a Water Pot

Single barrel separator with a
liquid water pot at the outlet
end.

Small amounts of liquid in the

bottom flow to the boot end
which serves as a liquid
collection section.

Illustration of a Horizontal Separator with a Water Pot

Less expensive than double

barrel separators but has less
liquid handling capacity.

Used for productions with very low liquid flowrates

When liquid flowrates are minimal, the boot section can serve as a liquid-liquid
separator as well.

Filter Separators

Illustration of a Horizontal Double Barrel Filter Separator

Filter Separators
Commonly used in high-gas/low liquid flow streams. Can be either horizontal
or vertical in configuration.
Designed to remove small liquid and solid particles from the gas stream.

Typically used when conventional separators employing gravitational or

centrifugal force are ineffective.
Filter tubes in the initial separation section cause coalescence of any liquid
mist into larger droplets as the gas passes through the tubes.
A secondary section of vanes or other mist extractor elements removes these
coalesced droplets.

The design of filter separators is dependent on the type of filter element

employed. Some filter elements can remove 100% of 1-micron particles and
99% of 1/2-micron particles when they are operated at rated capacity and
recommended filter-change intervals.

Scrubbers
Is a two-phase separator that is designed to recover liquids carried over from
the gas outlets of production separators or to catch liquids condensed due to
cooling or pressure drops.
Lower liquid loading compared to a conventional separator.
Typical applications :
Mechanical equipment (such as compressors) that could be damaged by
free liquid
Equipment (such as coolers) that can cause liquids to condense from a
gas stream.
Gas dehydration equipment that would lose efficiency if contaminated with
liquid hydrocarbons

Selection Criteria
The geometry, physical and operating attributes give each separator type its
own advantages and disadvantages.
Horizontal separators are normally more efficient at handling large volumes of
gas than vertical separators ; less expensive compared to vertical separator for
a given gas capacity.
Since the interface area is larger in a horizontal separator than a vertical
separator, it is easier for the gas bubbles, which come out of solution as the
liquid approaches equilibrium, to reach the vapor space.
Thus, from a pure gas/liquid separation viewpoint, horizontal separators would
be preferred.

Selection Criteria
The following are the limitations of a horizontal separator which would require
the usage of a vertical separator :
(i)

Horizontal separators cannot handle solids as good as vertical separators.

The liquid dump of a vertical separator can be placed at the center of the
bottom head so that, solids will not build up in the separator but continue to
the next vessel in the process.
(ii) Necessary to place several drains along the length of the horizontal separator.
In a horizontal vessel, it is necessary to place several drains along the
length of the vessel.
The distance between the drains can be increased by using sand jets but is
not cost effective.

Selection Criteria
(iii) Horizontal separators require more area to perform the same separation as
vertical separators.
Not critical for onshore development but very critical consideration for
offshore development due to space constraint.
(iv) Lower liquid surge capacity compared to vertical separators.
Surge capacity of a separator is defined as the ability to absorb a slug of
liquid.
The liquid level change is larger in liquid volume for horizontal separator
compared to the vertical separator which is sized for the same flowrate.
Surges in horizontal vessels could create internal waves which can activate
the high level sensor prematurely.

Selection Criteria
Vertical separators also have some drawbacks which are not process-related
and must be considered in making a selection :
The location of the relief valves and other controls which would be difficult
to access without scaffolding for maintenance activities.

More expensive than an equally sized horizontal separator.

Taller vertical separators are
subjected to larger wind loads which
requires the wall thickness to be
increased
Vertical Separators are supported
by bottom skirt, which requires the
walls of the vertical separator to be
much thicker than a horizontal
separator which is supported by
support saddles.

Illustration of a the support structures of

vertical and horizontal separators.

Selection Criteria
Overall, horizontal separators are most economical for normal oil-gas
separation, particularly where there may be problems with emulsions, foam, or
high gas-oil ratios (GOR).
Vertical separators work most effectively in low-GOR applications.
Vertical separators are used in some very high-GOR applications, such as
scrubbers in which only fluid mists is removed from the gas and where extra
surge capacity is needed (particularly for compressor suction scrubbers)

Comparison Summary of Different Gravity Separators

Advantages
Horizontal

Vertical

Spherical

1.Can handle much higher gasoil ratio well streams because

the design permits much higher
gas velocities
2.Cheaper than the vertical
separator
3.Easier and cheaper to ship
and assemble
4.Requires less piping for field
connections
5.Reduces turbulence and
reduces foaming (thus, it can
handle foaming crude)
6.Several separators may be
stacked, minimizing space
requirements

1.Easier to clean
2.Saves space
3.Provides better surge control
4.Liquid level control is not
critical
5.Less tendency for reevaporation of liquid into the
gas phase due to the relatively
greater vertical distance
between liquid level and gas
outlet

1.Good for low or

intermediate gas-oil ratio
2.Very compact and easy
to ship and install
3.Better clean-out.
Comparison of different
gravity separator types

Comparison Summary of Different Gravity Separators

Disadvantages
Horizontal

Vertical

Spherical

1.Greater space requirements

generally
2.Liquid level control more
critical
3.Surge space is somewhat
limited
4.Much harder to clean (hence
a bad choice in any sand
producing area

1.It takes a longer diameter

separator for a given gas
capacity as compared to
horizontal separator
2.More expensive to
fabricate
3.Difficult and more
expensive to ship
(transport)

1.Very limited liquid

settling section and rather
difficult to use for three
phase separation
2.Liquid level control is
very critical
3.Very limited surge space

Vessel Internals
Inlet Diverter

Sand Jets
and Drain

Wave
Breaker

Vessel
Internals
Mist
Extractor

Defoaming
Plates
Vortex
Breaker

Vessel Internals

Inlet Diverter
Functions to :
(i) To impart flow direction of the entering stream
(ii) To provide primary separation of liquid and vapor
There are many types of inlet diverters. The three main types are
(i) Baffle Plates
(ii) Centrifugal Diverters
(iii) Elbows.

Inlet Diverter
(i) Baffle Plates
Can be a spherical dish, flat plate, angle iron, cone or any shape that will accomplish a
rapid change in direction and velocity of the fluids which will disengage the gas and
liquid.
Liquid strikes the diverter and falls to the bottom of the vessel
Gas tends to flow around the diverter.

Inlet Diverter
(ii) Centrifugal Diverters
Uses centrifugal force to disengage oil and
gas rather than mechanical agitation.
Can be designed to efficiently separate the
liquid while minimizing the possibilities of
foaming or emulsification of oil
Design is rate sensitive. They dont work
properly at low velocities. Hence not
recommended for normal operations since
the rates are not expected to be steady.

Inlet Diverter
(ii) Elbows
Similar theory as the baffle plates ; instead of plates, an inlet in the shape of an
elbow pipe is used

Wave Breakers
Function of wave breakers are to dampen any wave action that is caused by incoming
fluids.
Wave breakers are perforated baffles or plates that are placed perpendicular to the flow
which is located in the liquid collection section.

Waves are resulted from surges of liquids entering the vessel.

Why eliminate wave?
To ensure liquid level controllers,
level safety switches, and weirs
perform properly.
Waves results in reduced separation

Defoaming Plates
Function is to aid in coalescence of the foam
bubbles.
Foam at the interface may occur when gas
bubbles are liberated from the liquid.
Foam can degrade the performance of a
separator but can be stabilized with the
addition of chemicals.
However, the most effective way would be to
force the foam to pass through a series of
inclined parallel plates or tubes.

This will break up the foam and allow the

foam to collapse into the liquid layer.

Vortex Breaker
Liquid leaving the separator may form vortices which can pull gas down into the
liquid outlet. This may result in re-entrainment of gas in the liquid outlet.
Separators are equipped with vortex breakers to prevent the formation of vortex
when the liquid line is open.

A vortex breaker is a covered cylinder with radially directed flat plates.

When a liquid stream passes through the vortex breaker, the circular motion is
prevented by the flat plates.

Sand Jets and Drains

Accumulation of sand and solids
at the bottom of the vessel is a
common operational problem.
If build up of solids is not
controlled, the separator
operations will not be efficient as
there is less volume available.
To remove the accumulated
solids, the sand drains are
opened in a controlled manner
and then high pressure fluid
(usually water) is pumped
through the jets to agitate the
solids an flush them down the
drains.

Mist Extractor
Designed to remove the liquid droplets and solid particles from the gas stream.
The impingement-type of mist extractor is the most widely used type as it offers
good balance between efficiency, operating range, pressure drop requirement
and installation cost.
There are three main types of impingement-type of mist extractors :

i. Baffles
ii. Wire Meshes
iii. Micro Fiber Pads.

Mist Extractor
i.

Baffles

This type of impingement mist extractor consists of a series of baffles, vanes or

plates between which gas must flow.

The most common is the vane shaped mist extractor.

The vane forces the gas flow to be laminar between parallel plates coupled with
directional changes.
The surface of the plates serves as target for droplet impingement and
collection.

As gas flows through the plates, droplets impinge on the plate surface.
The droplets coalesce, fall and is routed to the liquid collection section of the
vessel.

Mist Extractor
i.

Baffles (cont)

Mist Extractor
ii.

Wire Meshes

The most common type of mist extractor found in production operations is the
knitted-wire-mesh type

Has high surface area and void volume.

Effectiveness depends on the gas being in the proper velocity range. If the
velocity is too high, the liquids knocked out will be re-entrained. If the velocity is
too low, the vapor will just drift pass the wire mesh without the droplets
impinging or coalescing.
Although it is not expensive compared to the other types, they are more easily
plugged that the others. Not the best choice if solids can accumulate and plug
the mesh.

Mist Extractor
ii.

Wire Meshes (cont)

Mist Extractor
iii. Micro Fiber Pads
Use very small diameter fibers to capture very small droplets (>0.02mm).
Since it is manufactured from densely packed fiber, the drainage by gravity
inside the unit is limited.
Most of the liquid is eventually pushed through the micro-fiber and drains on the
downstream face.
The surface area can be 3 to 150 times that of a wire mesh unit of equal
volume.

Mist Extractor
The table below illustrates the major parameters which should be considered
when selecting a mist extractor.

Potential Operational Problems

The following are the potential operating problems which
can apply to two-phase and three-phase separators
(i) Foamy Crude
(ii) Paraffin
(iii) Sand
(iv) Liquid Carryover
(v) Gas Blowby
(vi) Liquid Slugs

Potential Operational Problems

i.

Foamy Crude
Foam is caused by the impurities in the crude oil which is not possible to
removed before the stream reaches the separator.
Foaming in a separator results in :

Aggravated mechanical control of liquid level because the control

device must deal with essentially three phases instead of two.
Reduced space for liquid collection or gravity settling as foam has a
large volume-to-weight ratio (it occupies a large amount of the vessel
space)
Difficulties in removing separated gas or degassed oil from the vessel
without entraining some of the foamy material in either the liquid or gas
outlets.

Potential Operational Problems

Foaming tendencies of an incoming stream can be determined via laboratory
tests.
Foaming cannot be predicted ahead of time without laboratory tests.

By comparing the foaming tendencies of a known oil to a new one, the

operational problems which may be expected with the new oil can be analyzed.
Foaming can be expected where CO2 is present, even in small quantities. (one
percent to two percent).
The amount of foam is dependent on :

(i) Pressure drop to which the inlet liquid is subjected.

(ii) Characteristics of the liquid at the separator conditions.

Potential Operational Problems

Changing the temperature at which a foamy oil is separated has two effects on
the foam.
a) Change in viscosity
b) Change in oil-gas equilibrium
It is difficult to predict the effects of temperature on foaming tendencies, but
some general trends can be identified.
For heavy oils with a low GOR, an increase in temperature will typically
decrease foaming tendencies.
Similarly, for light oils with a high GOR, temperature increases typically
decrease foaming tendencies.
However, for light oils with a low GOR, a temperature increase may
increase foaming tendencies. (because it is rich in intermediates which
have tendency to evolve to the gas phase as temperature is increased)

Potential Operational Problems

Foam-depressant chemicals can be utilized to increase the capacity of a given
separator.
In sizing a separator to handle a specific crude, the use of an effective
depressant may not be of the same type as characteristics of the crude and of
the foam may change during the life of the field.
The cost of foam depressants for high-rate production may not be cost
economical.
During the design phase, sufficient capacity should be provided in the separator
to handle the anticipated production without use of a foam depressant or
inhibitor.

Once the foam depressants are used in the operation, it may allow more
throughput than the design capacity.

Potential Operational Problems

ii. Paraffin Wax
The accumulation of paraffin wax in the separator can adversely affects its operation.
Coalescing plates in the liquid section and mesh-pad mist extractors in the gas
section are particularly prone to plugging by accumulations of paraffin wax.
Vane-type or centrifugal mist extractors should be used in events where it is
determined that paraffin is an actual or potential problem.
Manways and nozzles should be provided to allow steam, solvent or other types of
cleaning of the separator internals.
In general, paraffinic oils are not a problem when the operating temperature is above
the cloud point of crude oil (temperature at which paraffin crystals begin to form).

Potential Operational Problems

iii. Sand
Sand causes plugging of separator internals and accumulation in the bottom
of the separator.

Accumulations of sand can be minimized by periodically injecting

water/steam in the bottom of the vessel to suspend the sand during
draining.
Plugging of the separator internals is a problem that must be considered
during the design stages of the separator.
A design that will promote good separation and have minimum traps for
sand accumulation may be difficult to attain.
This is because the design that provides the best mechanism for separating
the gas, oil, and water phases probably will also provide areas for sand
accumulation. A practical balance for these factors is the best solution.

Potential Operational Problems

iv. Liquid Carryover
Occurs when free liquid escapes the gas phase which results in :

Indication of high liquid level

Damage to vessel internals
Foam
Plugged liquid outlets
Flowrates which exceeds the vessels design rate

Can usually be prevented by installing a level safety high (LSH) sensor that
shuts in the inlet flow to the separator when liquid level exceeds the normal
maximum liquid level by 10-15% (usually).

Potential Operational Problems

v. Gas Blowby
Gas Blowby occurs when free gas escapes with the liquid phase which can be an
indication of :
Low liquid level
Vortexing
Level control failure
If there is a level control failure and the level dump valve is open, the gas will exit
the liquid line and will have to be handled by the next equipment in the process.
Unless the next equipment is designed for gas blowby conditions, it can be over
pressured.

Can be prevented by installing a level safety sensor (LSL) tat shuts the inflow when
the liquid level drops 10-15% below the lowest operating level.
Downstream equipment should be equipped with PSH sensor/ PSVs sized for gas
blowby

Potential Operational Problems

vi. Liquid Slugs
Two phase flow lines tend to accumulate liquids in low spots in the lines.
When the level of liquid in these low spots rises high enough to block the gas
flow then the gas will push the liquid along the line as a slug.

Depending on the flow rates, flow properties, length and diameter of the flow
line, and the elevation change involved, these liquid slugs may contain large
liquid volumes.
Situations in which liquid slugs may occur should be identified prior to the design
of a separator.
The normal operating level and the high-level shutdown on the vessel must be
spaced far enough apart to accommodate the anticipated slug volume.

Potential Operational Problems

If sufficient vessel volume is not provided, then the liquid slugs will trip the highlevel shutdown.

The separator size must then be checked to ensure that sufficient gas capacity
is provided even when the liquid is at the high-level set point.
This check of gas capacity is particularly important for horizontal separators
because, as the liquid level rises, the gas capacity is decreased.
For vertical separators, sizing is easier as sufficient height for the slug volume
may be added to the vessel seam-to-seam length.

Two Phase Separation Theory

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Liquid Droplet Settling

Droplet Size
Liquid Retention Time
Liquid Re-Entrainment

Separation Theory
i.

Liquid Droplet Settling

In the gravity settling section of a separator, liquid droplets are removed using the force
of gravity. Liquid droplets, contained in the gas, settle at a terminal or settling velocity.
At this velocity, the force of gravity (or negative buoyant force) on the droplet equals the
drag force exerted on the droplet due to its movement through the continuous gas phase.
The drag force on a droplet is determined using the following equation:

2
2

2
4

Where,

2
2

(1)

FD = drag force, lb
CD = drag coefficient, dimensionless
Ad = cross sectional area of droplet, ft2
Dm = oil droplet diameter, ft
= density of continuous (gas) phase, lb/ft3
Vt = settling velocity of the oil droplet, ft/s
g = gravitational constant, 32.17 ft/s2

Separation Theory
The buoyant force, FB, on a spherical oil droplet from Archimedes principle is :
=
=

(2)

Where, FB = gravitational or buoyant force, lb

V = volume of spherical oil droplet, ft3
Dm = oil droplet diameter, ft
= density of continuous (gas) phase, lb/ft3
= density of oil, lb/ft3
Vt = settling velocity of the oil droplet, ft/s

Separation Theory
The oil droplet will accelerate until the frictional resistance of the fluid (gas) drag force,
FD, approaches and balance the buoyancy force FB. Under this condition, the oil
droplets acceleration is zero so that it falls at a constant velocity known as the terminal
or settling velocity (Vt). Therefore,
=

2
3
=

2
6
2 =

FD

FB

(3)

The oil droplet diameter Dm is normally expressed in microns (1 m is equal to

3.280810-6 ft). Let dm be the droplet diameter in m. Now, the above equation can be
reduced for the settling velocity as:
= 0.01186

1/2

(4)

Separation Theory
The CD is a function of Reynolds number. For low Reynoldss number flow, i.e. NRe < 1,
24
=

(5)

Unfortunately, Stokes Law (creeping flow) doesnt govern for production facilities design.
Hence the following drag coefficient formula can be used for practical application:
24

= +

+ 0.34

(6)

Here, Reynolds number,

= 0.0049

Where

= density of gas, lb/ft3

dm = oil droplet diameter, m
Vt = terminal velocity, ft/s
= viscosity of gas, cP

(7)

Separation Theory
Determining CD
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Determine oil-gas properties (o, g, ) and gas compressibility, Z if required

Assume CD = 0.34 considering high Reynolds number
Evaluate Vt using equation (4)
Calculate NRe using equation (7)
Calculate CD using equation (6)
Go to step 3 and iterate until convergence is obtained

= 0.01186

= 0.0049

24
3
+
+ 0.34

1/2

(4)

(7)

(6)

Separation Theory
Example 1
Determine drag coefficient using the following operating conditions:
-

Gas specific gravity: 0.6

Oil gravity: 35 oAPI
Operating pressure: 1000 psia
Operating temperature: 60 oF
Gas compressibility: 0.84
Viscosity of gas: 0.013 cP
Diameter of oil droplet: 100 m

Separation Theory
Tabulate the Values
Iteration
Step

CD

Vt

NRe

CD

% error

Remarks

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Convergence

Separation Theory
Tabulate the Values
Iteration
Step

CD

Vt

NRe

CD

% error

1.

0.3400

0.7419

103.7142

0.8660

154.7013

2.

0.8660

0.4649

64.9864

1.0815

24.8811

3.

1.0815

0.4160

58.1533

1.1461

5.9782

4.

1.1461

0.4041

56.4893

1.1640

1.5626

5.

1.1640

0.4010

56.0530

1.1689

0.4173

6.

1.1689

0.4001

55.9364

1.1702

0.1120

7.

1.1702

0.3999

55.9051

1.1705

0.0301

8.

1.1705

0.3999

55.8967

1.1706

0.0081

Remarks

Convergence

Separation Theory
ii. Droplet Size
The purpose of the gravity settling section is to condition the gas for final polishing by the
mist extractor.
In the designing phase of a separator, the liquid droplet sized to be removed must be
selected.
From field experience, if 140 micron sized droplets are removed, the mist extractor will
not be flooded and is able to removed droplets of sized between 10 to 140 micron
diameters.

The design calculation for separators in this module is based on 140 micron sized
droplets removal.

Separation Theory
iii. Liquid Retention Time
The average time a molecule of liquid is retained in the vessel is termed as retention
time.
Sufficient retention time would ensure that the liquid and gas reach equilibrium at
separator pressure.
The retention time is represented by the volume of the liquid storage in the separator
divided by the liquid flow rate.
In normal operations a retention time of 30s to 3 mins is sufficient for separation
operations. However, retention times of 4 times the normal amount is required in cases
where foaming crude is present.

Separation Theory
iii. Liquid Retention Time (cont)
The table below illustrates the typical retention times required for two phase separators
from field data.

Separation Theory
iv. Liquid Re-Entrainment
Caused by high gas velocity at the gas-liquid interface in a separator.
The momentum which is transferred from the gas to the liquid causes waves and ripples
in the liquid which results in droplets being broken away from the liquid phase.
The general rule of thumb to minimize the liquid re-entrainment is to limit the slenderness
ratio to a maximum of 4 or 5 for half full horizontal separators.
Is more prominent for high pressure separators sized on gas-capacity constraints and
also for applications with higher oil viscosities (<30oAPI)

Separator Design - Horizontal

Separator Design Horizontal Separators Sizing (Half Full)

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Gas Capacity Constraint

Liquid Capacity Constraint
Seam-To-Seam Length
Slenderness Ratio

When sizing a horizontal separator, it is necessary to choose a seam

to seam vessel length and a diameter that satisfies all the conditions
for gas capacity that allows the liquid droplets to fall from the gas to
the liquid volume.
It must also provide sufficient retention time to allow the liquid to
reach equilibrium.

Separator Design - Horizontal

HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR
Seam-to-seam Length Lss
Gas outlet
Gas capacity (50%)
Diameter d

Gas-oil interface

Liquid capacity (50%)

Inlet

Liquid Outlet
Effective Length Leff

Gas molecule flowing at average gas velocity, Vg

Liquid droplet dropping at settling velocity Vt relative to gas phase

Separator Design - Horizontal

i.

Gas Capacity Constraint

Based on setting the gas retention time equal to the time required for a droplet to settle to
the liquid interface.
For a separator 50% full of liquid and separation of 100 micron liquid droplets from the
gas, the following equation can be derived :
Where

= 420

1/2

(8)

d = vessel internal diameter, in.

Leff = effective length of the vessel, ft
T = operating temperature, oR,
Qg = gas flow rate, MMscfd,
P = operating pressure, psia ,
z = gas compressibility,
CD = drag coefficient,
dm = liquid droplet to be separated,
g = density of gas, lb/ft3
l = density of liquid, lb/ft3

Separator Design - Horizontal

Equation 8 is derived as the following :

1 2
=

2 4

1
14.7
= 10

24 3600

520

1 2
=
2 4 144

= 0.327

2
=
367

(0.327 (367)
=
2
=

120
2

(9)

Separator Design - Horizontal

Setting the residence time (tg) equal to time required for droplet to fall to the gas liquid
interface (td) :

(10)

Combining 9 and 10

120
2

=
2 24

(11)

Combining 4 and 11

(24)(0.0119)

Equating tg to td :

(24)(0.0119)
120
2

= 420

1/2

1/2

(8)

1/2

Separator Design - Horizontal

ii. Liquid Capacity Constraint
Separators must be sized to provide some liquid retention time so the liquid can reach
phase equilibrium with the gas
For a separator 50% full of liquid, with a specified flow rate and retention time, the
following equation is used to determine the vessel size :
2

=
0.7

Where
(12)

tr = desired retention time for the liquid, min,

Ql = liquid flow rate, bpd

Separator Design - Horizontal

Equation 12 is derived as the following :

1 2
=
2
4

1
= 5.62

24 3600
= 6.5 105

=
1152

= 2.73 103 2
2
= 42

=
0.7

*t = 60 tr (Assuming retention time of 60 seconds)

(12)

Retention time of between 30 seconds and 3 minutes

have been found to be sufficient for most applications.

Separator Design - Horizontal

iii. Seam-To-Seam Length
From the effective length calculated from equations 8 and 9 the vessels seam to seam
length can be determined.

For vessels sized on a gas capacity basis,

some section of the vessel length is
required to distribute the flow evenly near
the inlet diverter.
Another portion is required to place the mist
extractor.
The length of separator between the inlet
diverter and the mist extractor with evenly
distributed flow is the Leff (calculated from
Equation 8).

Separator Design - Horizontal

iii. Seam-To-Seam Length (cont)
As the diameter increases, more length is required to evenly distribute the gas flow.
The seam to seam length of a separator can be calculated using the following formula
(from whichever is larger) :

= +
12

* For gas capacity

(13)

For separators sized on liquid capacity basis, the seam to seam length of a
separator should not exceed the following :
4
=
3
If d < 36 ft

(14)

(or)

= + 2.5
(15)

If d 36 ft

* For liquid capacity

Separator Design - Horizontal

iv. Slenderness Ratio
Equation 8 and 12 allows for various options of diameter and length.

The smaller the diameter, the less the vessel will weigh and therefore lower cost.
However, there is an equilibrium point where further decrease in diameter increases the
possibility that high velocity in the gas flow which will create waves and/or re-entrainment
of liquids.
Slenderness ratio is the ratio between length and diameter. Its calculated using the
formula : 12Lss/d

Generally, most two phase separators are designed for slenderness ratios between 3-4.
Field data indicates that slenderness ratio greater than 4 or 5 will result in liquid reentrainment.

For designs of slenderness ratios outside the range of 4, the designs should ensure that
liquid re-entrainment does not take place.

General Horizontal Separators Sizing Procedure Half Full

1. Firstly the design basis has to be established. The maximum and minimum flow
rates, operating pressure and temperature, droplet size to be removed, etc has
to be specified.
2. A table with calculated values of Leff for selected values of d that satisfy
Equation 8, and the gas capacity constraint. Lss is calculated using Equation 13.

3. Using the same values of d, the values of Leff is calculate using Equation 12 for
liquid capacity and is listed in the same table. Lss is calculated using Equation
14 or 15.
4. For each d, the larger Leff should be used.
5. The seam to seam length (Lss) is calculated using the equation (12Leff/do or
1000Leff/do) and is listed for each d. A combination of d and Lss that has a
slenderness ratio between 3 and 4 is selected.

Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

Horizontal separator sizing procedure
1.

Determine CD using iterative procedure

2.

Calculate dLeff for gas capacity constraint

dLeff

3.

TZQg g
420

P l g

CD

d
m

1/ 2

Calculate d2Leff for liquid capacity constraint

d Leff
2

tr Ql
0.7

Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

Horizontal separator sizing procedure (cont)
4.

Set retention time tr to be 1, 2 and/or 3 minutes (usual

case)

5.

For each tr , calculate and tabulate values of

a)
b)

d
Leff for
Gas capacity from equation Step 2
Liquid capacity from equation Step 3

Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

Horizontal separator sizing procedure (cont)
c)

Lss for

d)

Gas Capacity

Lss Leff

Liquid capacity

Lss

4
Leff
3

Slenderness ratio (SR), (12)Lss/d

d
12
(or)

= + 2.5

Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

Horizontal separator sizing procedure (cont)
From table, compare the values of Leff for each gas and
liquid capacity that governs the design of the separator
The one with larger required length governs

Then, select possible choices of separator size

based on the values of SR
Select SR values range 3 5
Lss values selected are the one that governs the design

(d x Lss)

Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

Example of Separator Selection

Use the liquid Lss values

to select separator size

Horizontal Separator Example

Diameter vs. Length

tr

Gas Leff

Liquid
Leff

16

2.5

33.5

44.7

33.5

20

21.4

28.5

17.1

24

1.7

14.9

19.9

9.9

30

1.3

9.5

12.7

5.1

36

1.1

6.6

9.1

42

0.9

4.9

7.4

2.1

48

0.8

3.7

6.2

1.6

Gas Lss

Liquid
Lss

SR

Liquid capacity constraint governs since it has the largest required length

Possible size

36 X 10

Example - Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

Example 1
Given
Gas flow rate: 10 MMscfd (0.6 specific gravity)

Oil flow rate: 2,000 bopd (40API)

Operating pressure: 1,000 psia
Operating temperature: 60F
Droplet size removal: 140 microns
Retention time: 3 minutes
Gas Compressibility Factor = 0.84
Viscosity of gas = 0.013cP

Example - Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

Solution
1) Calculate CD
CD = 0.851
2) Gas Capacity Constraint

= 420

(520)(0.84)(10)
= 420
1000
= 39.852

1/2

3.71
51.5 3.71

0.851
140

1/2

Example - Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

3) Liquid Capacity Constraint
2 =

0.7

2 =

(3)(2000)
0.7

2 = 8571.43

4) Compute combinations of d and Lss for gas and liquid capacity.

5) Compute seam-to-seam length for various d . Use liquid separator capacity
basis since its greater than the gas capacity basis.
4
=
3
If d < 36 ft

or

= + 2.5

If d 36 ft

Example - Sizing Horizontal Gas-Oil Separator

6) Compute slenderness ratios, 12Lss/d. Choices in the range of 3 to 4 are
common.
7) Choose a reasonable size with a diameter and length combination above both
the gas capacity and the liquid capacity constraint lines. A 36-in10-ft separator
provides about 3 minutes retention time.
d (ft) Gas Leff (ft) Liquid Leff (ft) Lss (ft)
16
2.5
33.5
44.6
20
2.0
21.4
28.6
24
1.7
14.9
19.8
30
1.3
9.5
12.7
36
1.1
6.6
9.1
42
0.9
4.9
7.4
48
0.8
3.7
6.2

12Lss/d
33.5
17.1
9.9
5.1
3.0
2.1
1.6

THANK YOU
2013 INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PETRONAS SDN BHD
All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the permission of the copyright owner.

Q&A
Session