Eng 113 - Introduction To Nigerian Literature I

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NOGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: ENG. 113
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO NIGERIAN LITERATURE I
COURSE GUIDE
COURSE CODE:
ENG. 113
COURSE TITLE:
INTRODUCTION TO NIGERIAN LITERATURE I
COURSE DEVELOPER/WRITER: ONYEKA IWUCHUKWU

SCHOOL OF ARTS & SOCIAL SCIENCES
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
VICTORIA ISLAND, LAGOS.
COURSE EDITOR:
PROF. MARY E. MODUPE KOLAWOLE

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY
ILE - IFE
PROGRAMME LEADER:
DR I. OMOLARA DANIEL
FORMER DEAN:
PROF. A. R. YESUFU
DEAN, SCHOOL OF ARTS & SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE COORDINATOR:
ONYEKA IWUCHUKWU
WORK AND LEARN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA (NOUN)
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
E-mail: [email protected]
URL:www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2009
First Printed 2009
ISBN 978..
ALL RGHTS RESERVED
Printed by.
For
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
Introduction..
4
Course Aims
4
Course Objectives. 4
Working through the Course. 5
Course Materials 5
Study Units.. 5
Assignment file. 6
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMA). 7
Final Examination & Grading . 7
Course Marking Scheme. 7
Presentation Schedule. 8
Course Overview/Presentation Schedule . 8
How to get the most from this course 9
Tutors & Tutorials. 11
Summary.12
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to ENG 113: INTRODUCTION TO NIGERIAN LITERATURE
ENG 113: Introduction to Nigerian Literature 1 is a 2 credit one semester undergraduate

course. It comprises 15 study units subdivided into 3 modules. The materials have been
developed with Nigerian context in view. This course guide gives you an overview of the
course and also provides you with information on the organisation and requirements of
the course.
The course introduces you to the development of Nigerian literature from oral to written
and the socio-political conditions that influenced this development. Attention is drawn to
the changes in scope, consciousness and pre-occupation of the Nigerian artists over the
years.
Course Aim
a.
To expose students to the concept of Nigerian Literature in English
b.
To acquaint the students with the literary writers in Nigeria
c.
To acquaint students with the stages of the development of Nigerian Literature
Course Objectives
To achieve the aims above, we have some overall objectives. Each unit also has the
objectives that will guide you in your study. They are usually stated at the beginning of
the unit and when you are through with studying the units, go back and read the
objectives. This would help you assimilate the task you have set out to achieve. On
completion of the course, you should be able to:
a.
trace the origin of Nigerian written literature in English
b.
trace the evolution of Nigerian written literature in English from oral

literature.
c.
Discuss the major phases in the development of Nigerian literature in English
d.
Recognise the colonial influences in the development of Nigerian Literature
e.
Explain the major thematic thrusts of Nigerian writers from the pioneers to the
contemporaries.
f.
Appreciate the form of Nigerian literature in English
Working through this Course

To complete the course, you are required to read the study units and other related
materials. You will also need to undertake practical exercise for which you need a pen, a
notebook, and other materials that will be listed in this guide. The exercises are to aid you
in understanding the concepts being presented. At the end of each unit, you will be
required to submit written assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of the course,
you will write a final examination.
Course Materials
The major materials you will need for this course are:
1.
Course guide
2.
Study units
3.
relevant textbooks including the ones listed under each unit
4.
assignment file
5.
presentation schedule
Study Units
There are 15 study units in this course as follows:
Module I : Introduction to Traditional Oral Literature
Unit 1 Traditional Oral Narrative Forms: Myths, Legends, Folktales and Fables
Unit 2 Traditional Oral Narrative Forms: Act of Speech
Unit 3 Introduction to Traditional Poetry
Unit 4 The Performance Traditions: Festival, Rituals, Masquerades, Social/Travel
Performance
Unit 5 Oral History as a Source of Nigerian Literature
Module II: Colonialism and the Development of Nigerian literature

Unit 1 Colonialism in Nigeria
Unit 2 Representation of Africa in the Colonialist Literature: The Writing of Joyce
Cary, Joseph Conrad, Sir H. Rider Haggard.
Unit 3 The Rise of Modern Nigerian Poetry and Prose
Unit 4 Early Nigerian Novelists: Oluadah Equiano, D. O. Fagunwa, Amos Tutuola,
Cyprain Ekwensi and Chinua Achebe
Unit 5 Pioneer Nigerian Poets- Dennis Osadebey, Nnamdi Azikiwe, and Gabriel Okara.
Module III: The Development of Nigerian Drama

Unit 1 The Development of Drama: From Alarinjo Itinerant Theatre to the European
Concert Tradition
Unit 2 - The Popular Traveling Theatre Movement: Hubert Ogunde, Duro Ladipo, Kola
Ogunmola, Moses Olaiya.
Unit 3 Nigerian Drama I: Onitsha Market Literature and Ene Henshaw
Unit 4 Nigerian Drama II: First Generation Playwrights
Unit 5 Revolutionary Aesthetics in Nigerian Drama: Femi Osofisan, Bode Sowande,
and Tess Onwueme
Assignment File
An assignment file and a marking scheme will be made available to you. In this file, you
will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for marking. The marks
you obtain from these assignments will count towards the final mark you obtain for this
course. Further information on assignments will be found in the assignments file itself
and later in this Course Guide in the section on assessment.
Tutor Marked Assignment (TMAs)

You will need to submit a specified number of the Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs).
Every unit in this course has a tutor marked assignment. You will be assessed on four of
them but the best four (that is, the highest four of the fifteen marks) will be counted. The
total marks for the best three (3) assignments will be 30% of your total work. Assignment
questions for the unit in this course are counted in the Assignment File. When you have
completed each assignment, send it, together with the TMA (tutor-marked assignment)
form to your tutor. Make sure each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the
deadline for submission. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time,
contact your tutor to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extension will not be granted
after due date unless under exceptional circumstances.
Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for ENG 113 will be of three hours duration. All areas of the
course will be examined. Find time to read the units all over before your examination.
The final examination will attract 70% of the total course grade. The examination will
consist of questions which reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercises and tutormarked assignments you have previously come across. All areas of the course will be
assessed. You are advised to revise the entire course after studying the last unit before
you sit for the examination. You will also find it useful to review your tutor-marked
assignments and the comments of your tutor on them before the final examination.
Course Marking Scheme

The following table lays out how the actual course mark allocation is broken down.
Assessment
Marks
Assignments (Best three Assignments out of Four marked)
= 30%
Final Examination
=70%
Total
=100%
Presentation Schedule
The dates for submission of all assignments will be communicated to you. You will also
be told the date for completing the study units and dates for examinations.
Course Overview
This table brings together the units, the number of weeks you should take to complete
them, and the assignments that follow them.
Unit
Weeks
Activity
1
Title of Work
Course Guide
Assessment
(End of Unit)
Module 1
1
Traditional oral Narrative
Forms:
Myths, Legends, Folktales and Fables

2
Traditional oral Narrative Forms: Act

of Speech
Introduction to Traditional Poetry
The Performance Tradition: Festivals,
3
4
Rituals, Masquerades, Social/Travel
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Assignment 3
Assignment 4
Performance
5
Oral History as Source of Nigerian

Literature
Assignment 5
Module 2
1
Colonialism in Nigeria
Representation of Africa in Colonialist
Literature: The Writing of Joyce Cary,
Assignment 6
Assignment 7
Joseph Conrad, Sir Rider Haggard

3
The Rise of Modern Nigerian Poetry

and Prose
Early Nigerian Novelists: Oluadah

Equiano, D. O. Fagunwa, Amos
10
Assignment 8
Assignment 9
Tutuola, Cyprain Ekwensi

5
Pioneer
Osadebey,
Nigerian
Nnamdi
poets:
Dinnis
Azikiwe,
and
Assignment 10
11
Gabriel Okara
Module 3
1
The Development of Drama: From

Alarinjo Itinerant Theatre to the
Assignment 11
12
European Concert Tradition
The
Popular
Traveling
Theatre
Movement: Hubert Ogunde, Duro

Ladipo,
Kola
Ogunmola,
Moses
Assignment 12
13
Olaiya
3
Nigerian
Drama 1: Onitsha Market
literature and Ene Henshaw

4
Nigerian Drama 11: First Generation

Playwrights
14
15
Revolutionary Aesthetics in Nigerian

Drama:
Femi
Osofisan,
Bode
Assignment 13
Assignment 14
Assignment 15
16
Sowande, and Tess Onwueme
How to get the most from this Course

In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the
advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study
materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as
reading the lecturer instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer
might give you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your set books
or other materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units
provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points. Each of the study units follows a
common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and
how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is
a set of learning objectives. If you make a habit of doing this, you will significantly
improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you
through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your set
books or from your course guides. The following is a practical strategy for working
through the course. If you run into trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your
tutors job is to help you. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to call and ask your
tutor to provide it. Follow the following advice carefully:
1.
Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment
10
2.
Organise a study schedule. Refer to the Course Overview for more details.
Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments
relate to the units. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on
and write your own dates for working on each unit.
3.
Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to
stick to it. The major reason why students fail is that they lag behind in their
course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your
tutor know before it is too late to seek for help.
4.
Turn to Unit 1 and read the Introduction and the Objectives for the Unit
5.
Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is
given in the Overview at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always
need both the study unit you are working on and one of your set books on
your desk at the same time.
6.
Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to
provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will
be instructed to read sections from your set books or other articles. Use the
unit to guide your reading.
7.
Review the objectives for each unit to be sure that you have achieved them. If
you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or
consult your tutor.
8.
When you are confident that you have achieved a units objectives, you can
then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to
space your study so that you keep yourself on schedule
9.
When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not
wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule.
Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems.
10.
After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the
final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at
the beginning of each unit) and the Course Objectives (listed in the Course
Guide)
11
11.
Keep in touch with your study centre. Up to date course information will be
continuously available there.
Tutors and Tutorials

There are 8 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be notified of
the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number
of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and
comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any
difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You
must mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least
two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as
soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or through a discussion if you
need help. The following might be circumstances in which you would find help
necessary.
Contact your tutor if:
You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings,
You have difficulty with the self-tests exercises,
You have a question or problem with the assignment, with your tutors
comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to
face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can
raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit
from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot
from participating in discussions actively.
SUMMARY
This course guide gives you an overview of what to expect in the course of this study.
12
COURSE CODE:
ENG. 113
COURSE TITLE:
INTRODUCTION TO NIGERIAN LITERATURE I
COURSE DEVELOPER/WRITER: ONYEKA IWUCHUKWU

COURSE EDITOR:
PROF. MARY E. MODUPE KOLAWOLE

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY
ILE - IFE
PROGRAMME LEADER:
DR I. OMOLARA DANIEL
FORMER DEAN:
PROF. A. R. YESUFU
DEAN, SCHOOL OF ARTS & SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE COORDINATOR:
ONYEKA IWUCHUKWU
WORK AND LEARN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA (NOUN)
13

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
E-mail: [email protected]
URL:www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2009
First Printed 2009
ISBN 978..
ALL RGHTS RESERVED
Printed by.
For
14
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRADITIONAL ORAL LITERATURE
Unit 1
Traditional Oral Narrative Forms: Myths, Legends, Folktales and Fables
Contents
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Contents
3.1
Literature
3.2
Oral Literature
3.3
Classification of Oral Literature
3.4
Traditional Oral Narrative Forms in Nigeria
3.4.1 Myths
3.4.2 Legends
3.4.3 Folktales
3.4.4 Fables
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
Reference/Further Reading
1.0
Introduction
In this unit, you will learn about pre-colonial / traditional forms of oral literature which
serve as antecedents of modern day prose fiction. These forms manifest in different ways
from one ethnic group to another. The oral form is the earliest form of literature across
the world. Like African literature, Western literature developed from oral narratives as
well. For instance, Greek and Roman myths or legends like that of Oedipus, Ulysses and
Aeneid inspired great works of classical literature. In the same way, the oral forms
influenced early Nigerian writers as they attempted to represent their African experience
through the novel or the short story medium. The playwrights are not left out as they reenact some myths and make copious use of other oral narrative forms of proverbs, riddles
15
and many others in their plays. Poets also draw inspiration from their cultural background
and reflect some aspects of oral forms in their works. You should therefore learn to pay
more attention to the oral narrative forms as it will help you to understand the
development of modern Nigerian literature, better.
2.0
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Identify the traditional oral narrative forms
Define myths, legends, folktales and fables
Explain the style, functions and structure of these narrative forms
Differentiate between the oral and written forms of literature
Show the influence of the oral mode of narrative on the Nigerian fiction
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Oral Literature
Generally, literature is a word that is applied to virtually anything that is written under the
sun. For instance a manufacturer who is offering the consumer some new products
encloses it in a leaflet or manual containing more information on the product or gives
some prescription on its use. This is called literature. Similarly, every discipline from
humanities to social sciences, law, environmental studies, and mathematics to medical
sciences has its own literature. It is therefore necessary for us to distinguish the literature
we intend to discourse in this material. Nkem Okoh categorized literature into literature
of knowledge and literature of power. Literature of knowledge refers to the literature that
gives more information on products or subjects while literature of power is imaginative
(1). We are concerned with the latter, the imaginative type of literature.
This imaginative literature is a powerful form of human expression in an artistic manner.

It is an art that conveys its message through language. This language is organized in a
colourful manner to make it enjoyable. The writer uses words in their denotative and
connotative ways in order to please the audience. Generally, literature is expected to
delight and instruct. Through literature, we learn more about, people, the physical,
16
psychological, religious, political, cultural and social issues in the world around us. It
also inculcates values, imparts knowledge and helps us in our intellectual and emotional
growth as individuals. In fact, it helps us also to understand human beings and their
interpersonal relationships better.
Literature therefore is a composition in language (words) which tells stories, represents,

mirrors, enacts or dramatizes real life situations, advocates ideas and expresses emotion.
We are familiar with works like Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart, Zulu Sofolas
Wedlock of the Gods or J.P. Clarks Abiku or even popular nursery rhymes like Baa
baa Black Sheep or Twinkle Twinkle Little Star. These are works of imagination that
tell stories about events, animals, concepts, or objects. As we read them, we learn more
about the world around us while at the same time we enjoy the stories presented. The
unique feature of literature is made manifest more in its use of denotative and connotative
language. This means that words are used in their literal, figurative or symbolic sense.
The writer, through the manipulation of words, sends his message across to his/her
audience.
3.2
Oral Literature
Generally, literature is seen as a form of expression in which ideas of local and universal
interests are presented. It is presented in the form of poetry, romance, history, biography,
essays, and other forms of writing. It is used to denote a piece of writing that deals with a
particular subject.
The definition of literature above emphasizes written literature but in this section we are
concerned with oral literature. What is oral literature? In simple terms, oral literature is a
spoken imaginative communication that is not written but transmitted through the word
of the mouth for entertainment and sometimes edification of the audience. Oral literature
therefore means literature that is not written but presented orally, preserved and
transmitted from one generation to the other in that form.
17
Oral literature reflects the peoples way of life. Those from riverine areas for instance
base their folklore on the sea/sea animals while a race of hunters dwell move on hunting,
animals and the forest. Thus we have different versions of the same basic story, in which
the setting and characters change according to the occupation and environment of the
people. Generally oral literature is realized in performance. The performer in oral
tradition formulates it in words on specific occasions (and) renders the performance to
suit the occasion. Unfortunately, as the oral form is translated and written in a foreign
language for documentation or used in literary works, the actualization of an aesthetic
experience of the original work is not realized. This is because the general tones,
symbolic associations and meanings of words and phrases are lost in most cases.
3.3
Classification of Oral Literature
Oral Literature, like the written form, is categorized under three broad genres.
The spoken form prose
The sung form poetry
The performance drama
A. Prose
The spoken form is further divided into such as
Myths
Fables
Legends
Folktales
Anecdotes
Riddles
Proverbs and
Tongue Twisters.
18
B. Poetry
The sung form is realized in different forms of songs presented on different occasions
like works, births, wars, marriages, funerals and other ceremonies. These are
presented in poetic forms.
They are further grouped into the following types of poetry
Musical poetry
Lyrics
Dirges/Elegy
Invocative poetry
Didactic poetry
Narrative poetry
Praise Poetry
Heroic Poetry
Satirical Poetry
War Poetry
Ritual poetry
Casual poetry
Special Occasion poetry e.g. Births, Weddings
C. Drama
The Performance comes in form of
3.4
Masquerades
Dance
Festivals
Ritual.
Traditional Oral Narrative/Prose Forms in Nigeria
Before the advent of the novel, the novella and the written short story genres, there
existed in many Nigerian cultures, stories that recorded the peoples cultural experiences.
These stories serve as the repository of the peoples beliefs, social philosophies and
19
observations about life. They also provide insightful information about their
environments. In these stories, we find the peoples attitudes to natural phenomena and
depict the way of life of a particular community. The stories are generally educative
while they entertain the audience. They are also part of the socialization process, because
through them, the community perpetuates its knowledge, values and experience. They
attempt to explain the origin of existence, and also present the lives and contributions of
great personages. In addition, they create a nexus between the past and the present.
Sometimes this past dates back to the primordial or prehistoric era. Modern Nigerian
written prose narrative evolved from the traditional oral narratives. They include myths,
legends, folktales and fables.
3.4.1 Myths
Myth refers to an ancient story or a body of stories that attempt to explicate the early
history or origin of a people. Myths are set in primordial times. It is presented as
incidents or events that happened in those days, so, it is difficult to situate myths in a
particular period hence there is no date for the origin of myths. It is assumed that they
exist in each community. Myths also help to explain the process, the whys and
wherefores of certain natural events which are usually viewed or sound mysterious.
Stories about the origin of a community are often regarded as myths because they appeal
to the imaginative fancies of the people. Myths essentially fuse the physical with the
metaphysical and the natural with the supernatural. Hence, they cannot be meaningfully
subjected to the rules of logic, rationalism and empiricism. An example of myth is the
creation story of Yoruba people of Western Nigeria that traces the origin of the people to
a myth which states that Olodumare sent Orunmila to the earth but the whole place was
flooded. Orunmila then sent the dove which perched on top of the water and deposited
the sand it clutched in its two legs. The sand that was deposited started expanding on top
of the water thereby gaining more solid lands. The act of spreading which in Yoruba
means Ife, is where Ife got its name Ife and the town is regarded as the origin of the
Yoruba race.
20
Myths also try to explain certain phenomena in the traditional societies like the origin of
life and death, other great forces of nature and the reasons why certain features are where
they are or why certain things happen. They deal principally with past events relating to
the origin of the universe, the creation of heaven and earth, the separation of the sky sea
from the land. They also try to explain other matters of great significance for instance
another Yoruba myth of creation claims that a primogenitor called Oduduwa descended
from heaven to the earth through a chain, a bag of sand and a pigeon in hand. He began
the work of creation and expansion of the earth with the help of the pigeon at a spot that
became known today as Ile Ife (meaning the place where the land began to expand).
Hence, in the two myths, Ile Ife is seen as the origin of mankind.
Akporobaro (2006:48) defines myth as a kind of story or rudimentary narrative

sequence, normally traditional and anonymous, through which a given culture ratifies its
social customs or accounts for the origin of human and natural phenomena, usually in
supernatural or boldly imaginative terms. People tend to regard myths as being false or
unreliable, but its literary quality is assured.
Myth is close to legend. It is however, distinguished from it because myth is far removed
from history. Etiological myths explain why certain truths about human existence have
come to be. For instance, the story about why the sky is separated from the earth exists in
many Nigerian cultures and such a story is classified as etiological myth. The coming of
death into the world and the struggle between good and evil, are other examples of such
myths.
This prose narrative which in the society where they were told are considered to be
truthful accounts of what happened in the remote past is myth. They are accepted on
faith; they are taught to be believed and they can be quoted as authority in answer to
ignorance, doubt, or disbelief. Myths are the embodiments of dogma; they are usually
sacred; and they are often associated with theology and ritual. Their man character are
animals, deities, or cultural heroes, whose actions are set in an earlier world, when earth
was different from what it is today, or in another world such as the sky or underworld.
21
3.4.2 Legends
Legend is set in the past but deals with heroes/heroines in a known past. The link
between myth and legend is that both are set in the past. However, they differ in nature.
Unlike myth, legend has some measure of claim to history in an unknown past. Legend
refers to a story that is passed down orally from one generation to another and has its
foundation in history. They are fragments of history that help to teach morals, encourage
and inspire members of the community. They are close to life and some of them are
authentic. They tell stories of people who actually lived and the things that really
happened. However, most of them are embellished to enhance the aesthetic perspectives
of the stories and make them move fascinating, and entertaining. Legends present
personalities and events that are believed to have existed in the history of a particular
community, whereas myth draws its subject from gods, superhuman entities and natural
phenomenon. Thus, the deeds of great warriors, kings and leaders of a community are
woven into legends. Legends have provided inspiration for the modern Nigerian novelist
and short story writers.
3.4.3 Folktales
This is the most popular and important form of oral literature.
Folktales are narrative stories constructed from the imagination of people over time. They
are as old as the culture of the people. The tales may be about human beings or animal
community or both in mutual interaction. From the above description, you have seen that
unlike myths and legends, they are not concerned with history or set in primordial times.
They are mainly fictitious and depict the cultural background of the people. They are
mainly didactic and most of the moral principles that a child received in the traditional
society used to come from folktales. The Predominantly didactic or moralistic nature of
folktales combined with entertainment make them the most popular form of oral
narratives. Folktales make no claim to historical antecedent or factual background. The
ultimate end is to entertain and teach moral principles. Folktales feature in the moonlight
night story-telling sessions of different ethnic groups in the country and are not identified
with any individual author. They are handed down from one generation to another. It is
important to note that Amos Tutuola, D.O. Fagunwa and Chinua Achebe drew heavily
22
from the folktale traditions of their people in Forest of a Thousand Demons, The Palm
Wine Drinkard and Things Fall Apart respectively. The stories are made up of
inexhaustible exploits of the trickster, either as tortoise, hare, or fox usually narrated to
children by adults at night in many cultures.
3.4.4. Fables
Fables are stories that are considered fictitious and imaginary. They draw their subjects
essentially from the animal world. Adults use fables also to teach morals to the young
generations for whom they are primarily, composed. As the animal characters speak and
act, they remind us of the human world and its load of vices, intrigues, virtues and moral
principles. As such, fables derive their significance from the imitation of, and relevance
to the concrete realities of human existence. You should note that fables are essentially
imaginative and fictitious stories that are not founded on history or reality.
Self Assessment Exercise

Narrate the myth of creation of your ethnic group.
Conclusion
To conclude this unit, it is evident from the discussion that Nigerian written literature has
its roots in the oral narrative tradition of the various ethnic groups in the country. The
modern writer has myths, legends, folktales and fables of his/her culture to draw from in
the creation of his/her literary compositions.
Summary
The unit has traced the origin of Nigerian literature in the oral narrative traditions of
different ethnic groups. It stresses the importance of oral traditions in the development of
the literature. It also underscores the import of indigenous myths, legends, folktales and
fables in the evolution of the Nigerian novel and short story. Many Nigerian literary
artists, especially the novelists draw from the oral narratives. Folktale is seen as the root
of modern Nigerian novel.
23
Tutor Marked Assignment

Define myth and legend. Examine the differences between myth and legend
References/Further Readings
Akporobaro, F.B.O. (2006). Introduction to African Oral Literature. Ikeja: Princeton
Publishing Company.
Bascom, William (1965) Forms of Folklore: Prose Narratives in Journal of American
Folklore 78:3-20
Finnegan, Ruth (1965). Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.
Okpewho, Isidore (1990). The Oral Performance in Africa. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.
Okoh, Nkem (2008) Preface to Oral Literature Onitsha: Africana first Publishers Ltd.
Taiwo, Oladele (1985) An Introduction to West African Literature Nairobi: Nelson.
24
Unit 2
Traditional Oral Narrative Forms: Acts of Speech
1.0
Contents
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Contents
3.1
Traditional Oral Narrative Forms: Rhetorical Forms
3.1.2 Tongue Twisters

3.1.3 Riddles
3.1.4 Similitudes
1.0
Introduction
This unit introduces you to other traditional oral narrative forms. These forms differ and
assume significance from one ethnic group to another. They are presented in
sentences/phrases. They are passed from one generation to the other through the word of
mouth. They are used mainly to embellish speech, for entertainment and inculcation of
societal values on the younger generation.
2.0
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
3.0
Identify these oral forms in speeches
Define tongue twisters, riddles and similitudes
Identify them in written literature
Discuss the influence of oral speech forms on the Nigerian literary tradition
Main Content
Riddles, proverbs and tongue twisters are rhetorical forms of oral narratives. They play
important role in the speech act of the people in different traditional societies. They are
used as ornaments of speech for effective and persuasive communication in the
traditional society in the rhetorical education of the child, for entertainment and to
promote fluency in speech. Participation in these narrative forms increases the personal
repartee (the power give quick and arousing answer). It helps the participants to be witty.
25
Most Nigerian novelists, playwrights and poets make effective use of these oral narrative
(speech act) forms, in their words.
3.1
Rhetorical Forms.
These are those forms that are closely connected with rhetoric or the act of speech in the
traditional society. They include Tongue Twisters, riddles and proverbs and are used as
ornaments of speech for effective and persuasive communication. The rhetorical forms of
oral lit in any Nigerian culture include these genres that are used in speech for persuasion
or for more entertainment. This involves the skillful deployment of the resources of the
language of a people for effective and persuasive communication.
3.1.1 Tongue Twister

Tongue Twisters in whatever language fulfill very important roles in the rhetorical
education of the child. They help to promote fluency in speech. They do so by
confronting the child with patterns of speech error in the language. It is expected that
through constant confrontation with such patterns or errors in the language the child is
expected to learn to overcome speech errors of this kind. He therefore grows up groomed
linguistically to overcome slips of tongue. This is in recognition of the difficulties the slip
of tongue can cause speech. In tongue twisters, a child is expected to repeat a set words
or phrases as fast as possible and as many times as possible. In such games and practices
s/he perfects his/her speech patterns and avoids or overcomes error in speech.
Tongue Twisters also present patterns of word play or pun as well as patterns of
alliteration and assonance which make for sweetness in speech thereby making whatever
one says memorable and enjoyable. Tongue twisters play very important roles in the
education of the child, as it helps the child in the development of his/her communication
skills. I will give two examples, one in vernacular (Igbo) and the other one in English.
1. Nwanyi na-akwa akwa, I na-akwa akwa na okuku yili akwa na-enu akwa akwalakwa
di na-enu akwa.
We see that the word akwa is repeated nine times.
Nwanyi na-akwa
26
Akwa cloth
I na-akwa akwa crying
Okuku yili akwa egg
Na-enu akwa cloth
Akwalakwa sewn
Di na-enu akwa bed
The literal translation is

The woman who sews/is sewing, are you crying that the hen laid an egg on top of the
cloth you have sewn and placed on the bed.
2.
I saw father Francis, frying four fresh fish for the few fresh fathers from Calabar.
3.1.2 Riddles
Riddle is also part of the rhetorical form of oral literature. Riddles are quizzes or
enigmatic questions or descriptions wrapped up in a figurative language. Riddles consist
of a complete system of verbal expression which encompass the major rhetorical
expression used in the language of a particular people. In the traditional society, riddles
involve two contestants either as individuals or groups. The first group poses the question
and the other to give the answer. In Igboland, it starts with gwam gwam gwam tell me,
tell me, tell me. This is followed by tell me what In this way, participation in riddles
enables the child and or adult to increase his/her personal repertoire of traditional
rhetorical devices. The materials of riddles are drawn for every area of reality in the
world like the natural environment, aspects of the culture and practically from every
realm of human life/experience. In this way, they help to expose the child to his
environment by presenting various facts of experience in striking and memorable images.
They help in the process of initiating the child into the culture of his own society. Some
examples of riddles from Igbolanguage are:
Q:
Tell me the plate washed by God that never dries (Language?)
A:
Tongue
27
Q:
Tell me two people walking under the rain; the rain beats one person but does not
beat the other person
A:
Pregnant women
3.1.3 Proverbs
Proverbs deal with all aspects of life. They are used to emphasize the words of the wise
and are the stock in trade of old people, who use them to convey precise moral lessons,
warnings and advice since they make a greater
impact on the mind than ordinary
discourse. The judicious use of proverbs is usually regarded as a sign of wit.
Proverbs are often marked by terseness of expression, by a form different from that of
ordinary speech and by a figurative mode of expression abounding in metaphor.
(Finnegan 399). They are picturesque, figurative and at the same time poetic in nature
and these qualities differentiate them from the normal everyday speech or discourse.
A few examples of Nigerian proverbs from various tribes, which are translated into
English, are given below:
1.
Too much speed in wrestling is always followed by a bad fall.
2.
If you do not provide for old age, you cannot expect old age to be good for you.
3.
The ear that pays no heed to advice is usually cut off with the head.
4.
A monkey broke the razor after shaving, not knowing that the hair would soon
grow again.
5.
A poor mans hen is his cow
6.
A short man hangs his bag where his hand can reach it.
7.
A disobedient fowl obeys in a pot of soup.
8.
Size is the legacy of the elephant.
The proverb occupies a commanding position in the rhetorical arsenal of African

cultures. Proverbs constitute a dominant device, whether in everyday conversation or
more serious, formal talk (Finnegan 39). In Igbo culture, it is described as the palm oil
with which words are eaten. They are in fact the most prevalent category of rhetorical
28
devices in any oral tradition. Proverbs are wise sayings, observations of nature and of the
cultural environment, comments on human relation and statements of law and custom
wrapped up in memorable images by means of striking images. They serve as quotable
quotes in various kinds of communicative events, be they story-telling, oratory or the
performance of poetry. They also serve as formulae in various acts of communication in
which they feature. They are particularly useful in oratory in which they constitute,
alongside other similitudes, the major ingredients of speech.
Self Assessment Exercise.

Identify the rhetorical forms contained in the passage above from Chinua Achebes
Things Fall Apart.
There was a wealthy man in Okonkwos village who had three huge barns,
nine wives and thirty children. His name was Nwakibie and he had taken .
the highest but one title which a man could take in the clan. It was for this
man that Okonkwo worked to earn his first seed yams.
He took a pot of palm wine and a cock to Nwakibie. Two elderly

neighbours were sent for, and Nwakibie's two grown up sons were also
present in his obi. He presented a kolanut and an alligator pepper, which
was passed round for all to see and then returned to him. He broke it,
saying: We shall all live. We pray for life, children, a good harvest and
happiness. (1) You will have what is good for you and I will have what is
good for me. (2) Let the kite perch and let the eagle perch too. If one says
no to the other, let his wing break.
After the kolanut had been eaten Okonkwo brought his palm wine from the
corner of the hut where it had been placed and stood it in the centre of the
group. He addressed Nwakibie, calling him Our father.
Nna anyi, he said. I have brought you this little kola. As our people say,
a man who pays respect to the great paves the way for his own
29
greatness. I have come to pay you my respects and also to ask a favour.
But let us drink the wine first.
Everybody thanked Okonkwo and the neighbours brought out their

drinking horns from the goatskin bags they carried. Nwakibie brought
down his own horn, which was fastened to the rafters. The younger of his
sons, who was also the youngest man in the group, moved to the centre,
raised the pot on his left knee and began to pour out the wine. The first
cup went to Okonkwo, who must taste his wine before anyone else. Then
the group drank, beginning with the eldest man. When everyone had drunk
two or three horns, Nwakibie sent for his wives. Some of them were not at
hone and only four came in.
Is Anasi not in? he asked them. They said she was coming. Anasi was the
first wife and the others could not drink before her, and so they stood
waiting.
Anasi was a middle-aged woman, tall and strongly built. There was
authority in her bearing and she looked every inch the ruler of the women
folk in a large and prosperous family. She wore the anklet of her
husbands titles, which the first wife alone could wear.
She walked up to her husband and accepted the horn from him. She then
went down on one knee, drank a little and handed back the horn. She rose,
called him by his name and went back to her hut. The other wives drank in
the same day, in their proper order, and went away.
The men then continued their drinking and talking. Ogbuefi Idigo was
talking about the palm wine taper, Obiako, who suddenly gave up his
trade.
30
There must be something behind it,; he said, wiping the foam of wine from
his moustache with the back of his left hand. There must be a reason for
it. A toad does not run in the daytime for nothing.(Achebe)
4.0
Conclusion
The rhetorical forms are sayings that express fundamental truths of human life or
experience in concrete or abstract terms. Their languages especially in the case of
proverbs and riddles, are usually allusive, enigmatic, codified, graphic and vivid. They
are used to embellish speeches and enhance effective and competent communication. An
orator who skillfully employs the use of these forms is respected in the community. They
help to enliven and enrich speeches. Tongue twisters, riddles and proverbs form the
preparatory grounds and resources for oratorical arts. Tongue twister help in fluency,
riddles provide images and encourage witticism while proverbs present images and ideas.
Together, they all help the traditional orator to communicate in a beautiful and effective
manner.
5.0
Summary
In this unit, you have been exposed significantly to the detailed description, and
articulation of the rhetorical form of oral literature. Some illustrations were used to make
the meaning explicit and for easier understanding of these forms.
6.0
List any five each of tongue twisters, riddles or proverbs in your own culture, and
translate in English language..
7.0
References/Further Reading
Finnegan, Ruth (1977) Oral Literature in Africa. Kenya: Oxford University Press.
Taiwo Oladele (1985). An Introduction to West African Literature. Kenya: Thomas
Nelson.
31
Unit 3
Introduction to Oral Poetry
Contents
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Traditional Oral Poetry
3.2
Musical poetry
3.2.1
Lament
3.2. 2
Dirge
3. 2. 3. Rhapsody
3.3
Invocative poetry
3.3.1
Self Praise
3.3.2
Panegyric
3.4
Didactic poetry
3.5
Narrative poetry
3. 6.
Ritual poetry
3.7.
Casual poetry
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor Marked Assignments
7.0
1.0
Introduction
In the last unit, we discussed the narrative forms of oral literature. They are likened to
prose form of written literature. In this unit you will learn more about the traditional
poetic forms. The knowledge gained from this unit will help you not only in your studies
but in your appreciation of the various types of poetry as you encounter them in real life
at different traditional ceremonies.
32
2.0
Objectives
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
Identify different types of traditional poetry
Differentiate different types of oral poetry
Be in a position to discuss and appreciate traditional poetry
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Traditional Oral Poetry
Traditional Oral Poetry comprises performances in form of songs, chants or recitation in

which the performer binds himself in advance to follow a certain regular rhythmic
pattern. Under this we have folk songs which are songs with choric refrains in a call-andanswer-pattern. In most cases the song has alternating sole lines and verses that serve as
the chorus or refrains. Some of them present coherent stories while some of them are just
sung for entertainment. In Yoruba land, Ewi is a common term for poetry and it is sung at
different occasions. So, there is the Ewi that is sung at weddings like the bridal poetry
called Ekun Iyaw and Rara Iyawoo; the one for hunters is the Ijala; Oriki is for the praise
of an individual, family and lineage; while the Iwi Egungun is for the Egungun
masquerade and Orile for towns/race. Each poetic form has its own peculiar rhythm and
occasion for rendition.
They have professional poets who render poems to the
accompaniment of music.
3.2
Musical Poetry
This is poetry in form of chant performed to the accompaniment of music. This includes
various types of lyrical performances. The lyric is a short emotional poem in an
expression of emotion which is composed to follow a particular rhythm. Here the word
lyric is referred to in the modern sense as poetry which expresses intense emotion.
There are two types of such of emotional expressions which are emotions of joy
(rhapsody) and emotions of grief (elegy). Elegy is further divided into lament and dirge.
33
3.2.1. Lament:
This is personal elegy because it expresses personal grief without reference to any
particular event. It could be about the tragic circumstances in the world at large or to
other causes of grief in the individuals personal life. The poet generally renders his
laments ladened with philosophical statements. Laments are presented mostly when a
person or group of people are oppressed or on cases of injustice.
3.2.2 Dirge/Elegy: Is the type of elegy that is common at funeral/burial ceremonies and
is usually musical. It also contains philosophical statements about the inevitability of
death, the grief and other effects of death on the living.
3.2.3 Rhapsody
Rhapsody is the category of the musical type of joy. In this form of oral poetry the
individual celebrates causes of happiness in his own personal life and in the world around
him. It is a kind of chant usually common in minstrels. A man bursts into it when he is
happy himself and the world. It expresses his sense of total well-being. It is also the kind
of chants by maiden at moonlight plays and or at marriage ceremonies lullaby could also
be categorized as rhapsody.
3.3
Invocative Poetry
This poetry addresses a second person in an attitude of veneration or respect. The

addressee could be human, plants, animals or inanimate objects. This is one major
category of invocative poetry that is found mainly all over Africa in form of praise. It
comprises a series of praises or celebration of the achievement of the individual animal or
objects. Also in the invocative poetry is the poetry of self-praise. Self praise poem as the
name implies occurs in a situation where one sings his own praises while in the panegyric
poetry accolades are lavished on the presumed deserved person/or animal/object. Here is
an example of invocative poem from Yorubaland below:
34
Traditional Poetry
Salute to the Elephant
O elephant, possessor of a savings-basket full of money
O elephant, huge as a hill, even in a crouching posture.
O elephant, enfolded by honour; demon, flapping fans of war.
Demon who snaps tree branches into many pieces and moves on to the forest farm.
O elephant, who ignores I have fled to my father for refuge,
Let alone to my mother.
Mountainous Animal, Huge Beast who tears a man like a garment
And hangs him up on a tree.
The sight of whom causes people to stampede towards a hill of safety
My chant is a salute to the elephant.
Ajanaku who walks with a heavy tread.
Demon who swallows palm-fruit bunches whole, even with the spiky pistil-cells.
O elephant, praise named Laaye, massive animal, blackish-grey in complexion
O elephant, who single-handed causes a tremor in a dense tropical forest
O elephant, who stands sturdy and alert, who walks slowly as if reluctantly.
O elephant, whom one sees and points towards with all ones fingers
The hunters boast at home is not repeated before the elephant.
Ajanaku looks back with difficulty like a person suffering from a sprained neck.
The elephant has a porters-knot without having any load on his head.
The elephants head is his burden which he balances.
O elephant, pause named Laaye, O death, please stop following me
This is part and parcel of the elephants appellation.
If you wish to know he elephant, the elephant who is a veritable ferry-man
The elephant whom honour matches, the elephant who continually swings his trunk,
His upper fly-switch,
Its the elephant whose eyes are veritable water-jars
O elephant, the vagrant par excellence
Whose molar teeth are as wide as palm-oil pits in Ijesaland.
O elephant, lord of the forest, respectfully called Oriiribobo
35
O elephant whose teeth are like shafts

One tooth of his is a porters load, O elephant fondly called Otiko
Who has a beast-of-burdens proper neck
O elephant, whom the hunter sometimes sees face to face
O elephant, whom the hunter at other times sees from the rear
Best who carries mortars and yet walks with a swaggering gait
Primeval leper, animal treading ponderously. (Translated by A. Babalola)
Self Assessment Exercise.

What qualities of invocation does this poem possess?
3.3.1
Self Praise
Praise poetry is in form of praises of another person and also a praises of oneself. The
former is the panegyric treated below in 3.3.2. and the latter presents poems in praise of
oneself. In it, the individual, or masquerade, chants own praise. This genre is found all
over the country. In Awka for instance a masquerade like the Agaba, Okwomma or Idu
praises itself with names that portray its prowess. For example, a masquerade refers to
itself as the dry meat that fills the mouth; the wind that that cannot be trapped and
many more. Some warriors or noblemen do the same thing sometimes. We find such also
in Tess Onwuemes
The Reign of Wazobia the Regent praises herself as the
masquerade /Who dances the hot steps of the new day,

The finger that laps the soup when it is hottest(130). Also in Yoruba land, there is an
Oriki in which the individual praises himself as we find below
Emi ni Akinmogun ma sa
Arija ma sojo
Apogun pote
Apote pogun
Ogbagba agbote mole gba, gba, gba a
Anjounu eyan ti o nsun nile,
Ti o fun nba ara re leru (from Dr. Olu Akeusola, the Otunba Akinrogun 1 of Oni Land).
36
The translation:
I am Akinrogun, the royal warrior that can never refrain from war
That can never be intimidated by any conflict
That crushes wars and uprisings 2cc
He who wields the sledge hammer that destroys confrontation completely.
A spirit-like person that sleeps at home and is afraid of himself.
3.3.2
Panegyric
In the traditional Nigerian societies, especially among the Hausas and Yorubas, the royal
courts that flourished were characterized by wealth, power and pleasure. Poets were part
of the court retinues and their main specialty in poetry rendition was panegyric as they
compose elaborate praise poems to eulogize their kings and other noblemen. Apart from
royal households, the Oriki in Yoruba land is used to praise an individual, a family or a
lineage. Poets who specialize in them render them as the occasion demands. In the Oriki,
The individual is praised with accolades and his ancestry is traced. Each family has an
Oriki and each community has its own oriki too. According to O. A Adewale, he has two
versions of individual Oriki, In his father lineage, his Oriki starts with son of an
Elephant. The elephant here symbolizes wealth, majesty/royalty. In the one from his
mothers side, he is addressed as Son of a lion which depicts bravery and fearlessness.
The Oriki has an ability to intoxicate the addressee. This intoxication is seen as some
people as possession. This is because sometimes when the praises is being rendered the
addressee may be carried away by the accolades that he give out more that is expected to
the poet. Some panegyric poems could be classified as heroic poems when they recount
the exploits of heroic deeds of an individual, gods, families or communities
3.4
Didactic
This form of poetry teaches moral, spiritual and philosophical lessons. It offers advice or
provides moral instruction on the moral codes of the society. It teaches mainly the young
ones on how to comport themselves and how to be responsible citizens of the society.
37
3.5
Narrative
This includes the epics, it is a specie of heroic narrative poetry which celebrates the
achievements of a hero. Usually, the epic presents the emergence of an individual as a
champion in the society against the background of evil in the society. History is
celebrated in another category of narrative poetry. In this kind of narrative poetry, the
major character is that community itself. Other characters are a galaxy of personalities
associated with the development of the community. This is called historical narratives.
There is also the mythological verses which recount myths. Myth as seen in unit one, is
specific account concerning gods or super-human beings and extra-ordinary events or
circumstances in a time that is altogether different from that of ordinary human
experience. Every myth presents itself as authoritative, always an account of facts, no
matter how completely different they may be from the ordinary world. Myth occurs in the
history of all human traditions and communities and is a basic constituent of human
culture. This poetry that presents exclusively one aspect or another of the peoples myth
may be described as mythological poetry e.g. The Fulani myth of creation tells how the
world was created from a drop of milk.
The Fulani Creation Story
At the beginning there was a huge drop of milk.
Then Doondari came and he created the stone.
Then the stone created iron;
And fire created fire;
And fire created water;
And water created air.
Then Doondari descended the second time.
And he took the five elements
And he shaped them into man
But man was proud.
Then Doondari created blindness, and blindness defeated man
But when blindness became too proud,
Doondari created worry, and worry defeated sleep;
38
But when worry became too proud,

Doondari descended for the third time,
And he came as Gueno, the eternal one.
And Gueno defeated death.
3.7
Ritual Poetry
This comprises of recitations and speech forms is verse that are spoken chanted or recited
in magical or religious contexts. They include all kinds of prayers, divination chants,
oracle chants, curses or malediction chants, and incantations by magicians. A good
example is presented below:
Breaking Kolanut
God the Creator
Who lives on high
And his eyes cover the whole ground
Who lives under the ground
And no dirt soils him;
Who lives in the waters
And is dry;
Who moves with the winds
The wind is never seen by eyes
And yet air is everywhere,
I come with greetings
And with pleadings!
GOD THE TRYST MAKER

Who makes tryst with men,
Makes appointments with them
Where and when he pleases,
And they cannot escape!
God who creates and who destroys
39
Who beats up human beings

And consoles them;
Crushes them and remains their friend;
Who brings and who takes away,
And who creates
Before the created knows,
At down we open our doors and our mouths,
At night we close our doors
But not our minds!
It is KOLA I bring!
Its all I can offer!
A little baby
Can only hold its mother
As far as its hands can go!
KOLA is small
And yet is big!
Like the sacrificial food,
It is more important that it goes round
Than that it fills the stomach
Our fathers fathers
And their fathers before them
All our ancestors
Saw all the fruits of the land
But thy chose kola
As the prime substance for hospitality
And for offerings:
What an old man lying down has seen,
Has the young man ever seen better
Though he perches on the highest tree?
40
Of all food on earth,

Only kola
Is not cooked by water and fire
But by spoken word!
The rich can afford it! And the poor can afford it;
And kola is the biggest offering
Men bring to you GREAT GOD
To whom the swallower of what swallows an elephant
And with an hippopotamus tucked into its mouth
And palmyra as chewing stick,
Whistles freely,
Is smaller than spittle!
It is not that kola

Is the sweetest food on earth,
Or that it fills the stomach fastest;
But its only with kola
That we pray for life.
And whoever brings kola
Brings life,
And brings health,
And brings prosperity,
And brings peace,
And children,
And what we shall feed them with!
For its YOU, God
Who brings kola
And ordains its manner of breaking.
The KOLA
Is like a mound in the middle of the arena,
On which we stand and speak in the assembly
41
Of people, and of spirits,

And our ancestors,
And YOU Great God
The TRYST MAKER,
And the words reach the ears theyre made for!
So our fathers fathers fathers
Hear my voice!
God hear my voice!
I am a little innocent child who washes his stomach only!

But your eyes see me
And you can judge;
If Ive ever touched the wife of a relation
Or seen the nakedness of a sister;
If Ive ever stolen what belongs to any human being
Or oppressed a widow or cheated an orphan;
Or borne false witness, or spoken calumny;
If Ive killed any human being
With knife or spear,
Or arrow or rope,
Or poison or witch-craft,
If Ive done any of these things,
May this our land
And the Mother Earth EAT ME!
But if none of these is my guilt

And my fellow-man would afflict me
Because of anger of the heart or anger of the eye,
Then let whoever comes to kill me
KILL HIMSELF!
42
Anybody who says he must see me and my household

With evil eyes
Let his eyes perish in the seeing!
Any person who says an innocent house-hold
May not sleep
Make him roost with the chicken
I pray for the good of the people in the bush,
And the good of those at home;
For the good of those in the hills
And the good of those in the valleys;
For the good of those at work
And for the good of those at play,
But if a man I can stand by does not stand by me
Let what kills traitors kill him
If a spirit I can vouch for does not vouch for me
Let what kills spirits kill it.
If anybody would bring poison into this house

Let his polluted hand enter his mouth!
Let no guest bring evil to his host;
On his departure
May no hunch grow on his back.
Let a rat not dare to eat the bag of a medicine-man
And let the medicine-man not dare curse the rat.
It is said that an innocent man,

Guiltless of any sin big or small
Crosses the waters on a piece of calabash;
That its with a snails good tongue
That the snail moves over thorns.
So III keep clean my hands;
43
You will defend me from cows:

A man cannot wrestle with a cow.
If I must suffer for my offences

It is just;
If for the guilt of my children
III bear it
The mouth speaks what earns the jaw a slap.
A mans head shakes the ants nest.
His trunk suffers for it.
What is good is what we want.
I have not asked you to give that to me only:
Eating everything alone is bad eating!
If the kite perches,
Whichever denies the other the right to perch.
May its wings break.
GOD
May we never be in need and find no helper.
A man who has friends is greater than a wealthy man!
Give our wives fruitfulness
One blow, one fall.
Give us children
And give us the means to feed them.
Let any of us or our children
Who goes out to work
Come back
With plenty of money,
And come back safe.
Let any weed that brushes us
On our departure
44
Brush against us on our return

It is not an evil weed.
When we are at the back,
Let evil be in front;
And when we are in front
Let evil be behind
Let no illness come
And let no doctor cure.
Let no one be ill
And let no one heal.
But I have not spoken and it is final
You have the yam;
And YOU have the knife.
To whomsoever you give
And in whatever measure, he will eat!...
I break the KOLA NUT
(Traditional Poetry from the Igbo by Lawrence Emeka)
3.7
Casual Poetry
These are poetry of incidental and non-serious type found in various situations in social
relationships. A good example is greetings to welcome the new moon, as is seen in
Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. Some of the casual poems are found in the hawkers
song used to sell merchandise and many others.
4.0
Conclusion
In the traditional communities songs are rendered virtually at every occasion especially
during festivities festivals and ceremonies. These songs are poems and they permeate
every aspect of the Nigerian life and culture. They derive their names from the different
occasions during which they are performed. The poems are presented appropriately to
suit each occasion. A dirge for instance cannot be rendered during a wedding ceremony.
The composer in the traditional society is aware of this fact and composes appropriately.
45
5.0
Summary
This unit has introduced you to oral traditional poetry. You have also learnt the different
forms of poetry and occasions they derive from. You have learnt too that some of the
traditional songs you are familiar with are forms of poetry. You will now be able to
classify and appreciate them appropriately.
6.0
List five types of oral poetry and the occasions where they will be performed
appropriately.
7.0
Chukwuma, Helen (1994) Igbo Oral Literature: Theory and Tradition. Abak: Belpot.
Finnegan, Ruth (1977) Oral Literature in Africa Kenya: Oxford University Press.
Senanu K. E, and T. Vincent (ed) (1988). A Selection of African Poetry (New Edition).
Harlow Essex: Longman.
Onwueme, Tess (1993) Three Plays: The Broken Calabash, Parables for a Season, The
Reign of Wazobia. Detroit: Wayne State University Press
46
Unit 4: The Performance Tradition

Contents
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Traditional Drama
3.1.1 The Evolutionist School

3.1.2 The Relativist School
3.2.
Festival
3.3.
Ritual
3.4.
Ancestor Worship
3.5.
Masquerades
3.6.
Story Telling
3.7.
Carnival
3.8.
Puppet Shows
3.9
Popular Theatre
3.10
Music and Dance
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
References/Further Studies
1.0
Introduction
In this unit you will be introduced to different forms of traditional performances that
could be classified as drama. You will learn that Western parameters of drama should not
be used to ascertain what constitutes drama in the traditional Nigerian society. Dramatic
performances are part of the traditional way of life as they are seen in traditional festivals,
rituals and other performances and ceremonies.
2.0
Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able:
47
To identify various forms of traditional performances
To identify dramatic elements in the performances
Ascertain the ones that could be classified as drama.
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Traditional Drama in Nigeria
All aspects of oral literature involve one sort of performance or the other. The story teller
performs his story, and the poet also performs but the degree of performance of each
genre varies and is not comparable to the traditional dramatic performances. Drama as an
art form thrives on performance because it involves an imitation of an action, an
enactment or a re-enactment of a story in lifelike situations. The aim is to entertain,
lampoon, condemn, satirize, educate or to inculcate moral values. In all these, action or
imitation of an action is involved.
Aristotelian concept of drama with its emphasis on imitation, plot, dialogue, conflict and
so on has generated much controversy on what constitute drama in the context of
Nigerian traditional performances. Based on the Aristotelian concept Ruth Finnegan
declares that drama did not exist in African societies before colonization. According to
her, Africans had what she described as certain dramatic and quasi-dramatic
phenomena (500). Her stance created a division among Nigerian dramatic scholars on
the definition of African traditional drama. Some of them oppose her while others align
with her totally or with some modifications. Consequently, there evolved two schools of
thoughts on that contentious issue. These are the relativist school of thought and the
evolutionist schools of thought.
3.1.1 The Evolutionist School

This school headed by M. J. C. Echeruo and he argues that the traditional festivals are not
drama but rituals.(Ogunbiyi 7) They opine that these festivals emphasize songs and
dances with little or no attention to plot and dialogue. It insists that until a festival or
ritual is forced to yield its story, the dramatic content will remain an integral part of
ritual. Echeruo, in his argument insists that there must exist a story to be enacted or
48
imitated for a performance to be classified as drama. In his contribution, Kalu Uka

(insists) that what is usually called drama is not yet drama but essentially elements of
drama ( quoted in Ogunbiyi 7). Ola Rotimi also hinges his argument on the presence of
an imitation of action in the performance for it to be termed drama. He opines that any
ritual display which contains mimetic impulse ought to be classified as drama not ritual
(Ogunbiyi 7).
This school insists therefore that for any performance to be classified as drama, it must
contain elements of an imitation of an action and a story to be enacted or re-enacted.
They conclude that the ritual festivals in Africa must conform to the Aristotelian concept
of plot as the soul of drama, to be regarded as drama.
3.1.2 The Relativist School

The views of the relativist school, championed by Ossie Enekwe and J. A. Adedeji, is
that drama and ritual are reciprocal in function and similar in structure so one can easily
lead to the other (Ogunbiyi). It means that it is difficult to separate ritual and drama,
therefore, drama exists in traditional performances. Supporting this view, Emmanuel
Obiechina wonders why Greeks parameter should be used in the evaluation of drama in
Nigeria. This school believes that theatre is first and foremost an experience so should
be experienced in different ways by people in different cultural milieu.
We believe that drama which is an art is an outcome of a creative instinct. A creative

person is an imaginative individual who is capable of impressing an audience with the
product of his imagination. Traditional African drama and theatre are embedded in
performances. These include, rituals, festivals, story-telling, masquerade poetry
composed performances, music/dance, puppet shows and many other forms of
performances. We also believe that for drama to exist there must be an element of
imitation of an action. Dialogue and unified plot structure should not be considered as
obligatory in dramatic performance. However, in some traditional performances ritual
and theatre are so interwoven that it becomes difficult to extricate the drama embedded in
such performances.
49
3.2
Festival
A festival is a periodic feast, a celebration of an event. It includes forms of entertainment

and performances and which are often held at a particular time of the year. African
festival theatre brings together ideas, actions, aesthetics which are partly sacred
(religious) and partly secular (sometimes profane). For instance, there could be a new
yam festival to thank a particular god or pay homage to him for a good harvest and pray
for a better yield in the following year. A man sets out with this noble intent but along the
line, gets drunk, molests people or indulges in other unwholesome acts. You see now that
there is a mixture of the sacred and the profane in his action.
Festival theatre is different from theatre festival. The former is a theatre produced as
festival. The latter is a conscious attempt to declare theatrical productions in a given
environment. Festivals are important in the Nigerian traditional society because of the
following reasons:
Festivals uphold and promote solidarity and collective consciousness among a

particular people.
They are characterized by collective euphoria where the sacred and the profane
are interwoven. Usually there is a suspension of the rules and norms of ordinary
life.
They are characterized by non-work posture. Leisure is the central element in

festivals so people look forward to festivals as a period of enjoyment and
relaxation. There is usually a gradual change of occupational activities. Many
festivals take place during the period of rest for the people when there is less to
be done in the farms. Festivals provide a forum for an entertainment and
recreation for the people.
3.3
Ritual
Ritual is an honest act which follows a particular pattern, is performed for a particular
effect (result) and in accordance with the tradition. In the early times, sometimes, the
seasons did not come as expected or calamity may strike in a community. In this event of
an abnormality in the cosmos, men felt that the gods were angry and that they had
50
offended the gods, one way or the other. They then devise means or ways of atoning for
their sins and or appeasing the gods. Sometimes this appeasement is conducted only once
but at other times it becomes a regular form of ceremony for the community. When it
becomes a regular occurrence following a definite pattern to achieve a specific result, it
becomes ritual. So, ritual is a continuous practice of a group of people either to satisfy
custom or cause certain things to happen. It is a kind of rite that is performed faithfully, a
re-enactment that looks like drama but different from drama because of intent. When the
intent is simply to entertain, it is drama and audience is made up of human beings. But if
the intent is to achieve a particular result and audience is supernatural, it is ritual. The
audience is the people to whom the message is directed and the priest is medium through
which the message is relayed, and the suppliants are the actors. Ritual is a transformation
of belief into action through enactment.
3.4
Ancestor Worship
In the Nigerian traditional communities ancestral worship is very common. Deceased

relatives, especially the elders, are regarded as ancestors and are believed to have some
influence on their younger generations. People therefore, are cautious not to offend their
ancestors but whenever such thing happens, such ancestors are appeased. Apart from the
appeasement, ancestors are invoked or revered from time to time as the occasion
demands to intercede or intervene for the living in some critical moments. In some Igbo
societies for instance, after breaking the kolanut, a piece of the kolanut is thrown outside
for the ancestors to eat before the mortals would eat their own share. Even in the prayers
preceding the breaking of the kolanuts, the ancestors are invoked for protection as we
have seen in Unit 3. Also, before taking a gulp of palm wine, part of the wine is used to
pour liberation to the ancestors before the mortals drink their own.
In many homes, there were, and are still shrines for the ancestors. In some communities,
particular tree are dedicated to them. In Awka, Anambra State usually a tree is planted in
honour of an ancestor whenever a first male child is born. It is called Ogbu chi Ogbu is
a type of Boabob tree and this tree represents the persons god. From time to time, he is
expected to perform some sacrifice at this tree or make some supplications. These minor
51
gestures are performed freely by any adult male, preferably the eldest in the family.
However, whenever there is a serious problem or in a communal reverence, the diviner is
usually consulted and he prescribes the requirements for the ceremony. In this case, the
priest acts as a mediator between the living and the dead. While the living worship the
dead in with reverence in supplication, penitence, invocation or thanksgiving. This in
some cases these ceremonies or assumes a higher sacrifice dimension, and culminates in
a festival. You can see that some form of representation and imitation of action is
involved. The priest yields his personality as a person and assumes the role of a priest.
Some of the ancestor worships involve masquerades. In some communities the

masquerades represent the ancestors. Adedeji explains that Alarinjos are bound to the
Egungun culture by ancestor worship and participate at Egungun festivals. He also
explains that Sango a one time Alafin of Oyo introduced the phenomenon of the ancestor
worship called baba (father) or later Egungun (masquerade). In other tribes and
traditional societies, ancestor worship is equally present in different names and
dimensions. Try to find out how the ancestors were worshiped in your own community.
We are concerned with the ancestor worships at the communal level. Some of them take
place periodically while some occur as the need arises.
3.5
Masquerades
In most traditional African societies, masquerades are seen as gods or heroic ancestors.
They take different forms and there are many varieties depending on the region, the
purpose, the content and the pattern. They are usually masked figures of various kinds. A
mask is a covering or a disguise used to transform the identity of the individual or the
wearer into that of another character. So there is an element of impersonation. In
traditional African societies, we can identify different types of masks according to their
functions based on the areas of the body covered. (Thus we head pieces, face masks and
body masks).
52
3.6
Story Telling as Theatre
In traditional African society, story-telling is in some cases seen as theatre. Stories are
told as forms of entertainment. These stories are often enacted in the sense that to a
greater or smaller degree, the speech and gestures of their characters are imitated by the
narrator, and the action is largely exhibited through dialogue. The theatrical and
sometimes dramatic performance is heightened by the frequent occurrence of music and
sometimes rudimentary dance movements. Usually, at the beginning and end of the story,
there is a form of witty exchange between the narrator and the audience. This is called
focus formulae in oral literature. The popular one in English is story-story, the audience
responds story. This is to get the attention of the audience and sometimes to create
humour. These used draw the middle and is used by the story teller to draw attention to
the moral aspect or the significance of the story. Also, in the course of the story the
narrator introduce a song by, or representing the actions of one of the characters and this
is taken up antiphonally by the audience, which acts as the chorus. In this way the
audience partakes in the dramatic enactment of the story. Occasional too, the narrator
could moves among the audience to emphasize a point or imitate a particular character. It
includes mime gymnastics and acrobatics that are sometimes structured to or orchestrated
by music.
3.8
Carnival
Carnival is a public celebration that is held periodically at a particular time of the year. It
involves the community appearing in groups according to affiliations like age-grades or
families. Each group tries to beat the other group in their presentations which involve
flamboyant costumes, music and dance. In the riverine areas, the carnivals are in form of
boat regatta in the rivers while in other communities, the performers perform along the
streets. In Lagos the Fanti cultural carnival is very popular.
3.8
Puppet Shows
Puppets are models of human beings or animals that are manipulated to move by means
of devices. These devices could be human hands/fingers or strings. These models are
created according to the roles and the stories to be presented. They are used in dramatic
53
performances. They come in different shapes and sizes but the sizes are made as small as
possible for easy manipulation. In the Nigerian setting, the puppets are used for both
entertainment and edification. A common feature of puppet shows in Nigeria is that they
reflect moral prejudices sanctions of communities and the depiction of social ills. They
inform, educate and entertain through laughter. The actions of the puppets are usually
explained through dialogue, narration or music/dance.
Puppet shows are popular in the Northern part of Nigeria. In the Kwagh-Hir theatre a
narrator tells the story in fragmentary episodes with jokes that help to liven up the mood
of the participation while the performance by the puppets is going on. Some of the
puppets are naturalistic while others are grotesque and ridiculous, but all reflecting
moral prejudices and sanctions of the community (Enem 250). The incidents they reflect
cover both abstract and realistic situations, attitudes and behavioral patterns of the people
and other universal human situations.
Here Puppets are manipulated to present dramatic performances. They come in different
shapes and styles depending on the characters they represent. The common feature is that
they reflect moral prejudices, sanctions of the communities and other social ills. Usually,
they inform, entertain and educate through laughter comedy/satire. The actions of the
puppets are explained through music, songs and narration.
In Bornu also the puppet show is a popular form of entertainment. The puppets are called
the dogodogo in Kanuri and the manipulated is known as dogodogoma. Unlike in the
Kwahir puppet shows that involve many manipulators the Bornu show features only one
manipulator who carries the puppets in a hyena bag. He plants a stout forked slick, places
his bag in front of it and sits behind the stick. He uses his flaming gown to build a tent
which is supported by his head and the stick and brings out his hand above his head to
manipulate the puppets. He delivers the lines in a still voice to the accompaniment of
drums from drummers behind him. Each scene tells a story on social issues R.R Ellison
recounts that the action is highly dramatic in one scene, a thief enters a mans house and
54
is just about to escape with his last when the mans wife raises an alarm and the husband
emerges and gives the thief a sound beating. (252)
3.9
Popular Theatre
This is a form of theatre that is commonly approved and widely liked by the common
people in a given community. The performer here does not need a text, or an elaborate
stage but a place, time and an audience. Here entertainment and amusement are foremost
is the minds of the performers and their theatres are so flexible that they can adapt easily
to any environment. The Yoruba traveling theatre was a popular form of entertainment in
the communities.
3.10
Music and Dance
Most of the traditional performances are embedded in music and dance. However we
have decided to discuss them separately because they on their own are forms of
traditional performances. Also some dances contain some re-enactment of stories. A good
example is the Ohafia War Dance, some dance dramas from northern Nigeria or the
Egwu Amala from Delta State.
Dance is usually accompanied by music. In traditional Nigerian society, dance is a form

of entertainment during festivals and other traditional ceremonies and rites. Some of the
dances are for mere entertainment while many of them are re-enactment of feats/incident
or the dance is usually used to communicate or promote dramatic intention.
Music is while according to Meki Nzewi, dance is stylized and structured movement in
time and space. Dance involves or at the marginal, implies music so both are somehow
inseparable Dance includes mime gymnastics and acrobatics, structure to, or
orchestrated by music.
Many people conceptualize dance of mere entertainment but in the oral literature, some
forms of dance are drama. Dance drama is very common in the traditional society. The
Egwu amala of the Delta Igbo is a good case in point. In the north wooing and marriage
are common features in their dance drama.
55
4.0
Conclusion
Drama is an art that is an outcome of the imagination, the creative instinct of man. In
drama, the artist strives to impress an audience with the product of his imagination. In the
same vein, the artist in oral literature tries to impress his audience with his art which is a
product of his imagination. Traditional Nigerian drama is embedded in performances,
like ritual, festivals, puppet shows, ancestral worships, masquerades, carnivals music and
dance. Some of these are so interwoven that it is difficult to separate them.
5.0
Summary
In this unit you have been exposed to different forms of performances in Nigeria.
However, it does not encompass all the wide range of performances in Nigeria. The
popular Yankamanci, Hausa comedians performances and other dramatic skits, satires
and full blown comedies performed in different parts of the country are not included here.
You have learnt also that drama is significant in traditional performances but varying
degrees.
6.0
Write a short note on one traditional performance in your community which you think is
drama.
8.0
Ellison R.T.E. (1981) A Bornu Puppet Show in Ogunbiyi (ed) Drama and Theatre in
Nigeria: A critical source Book. Lagos: Nigeria Magazine.
Enem, Edith(1981). Kwagh-hir Theatre in Yemi Ogunbiyi (ed) Drama and Theatre in
Nigeria: A Critical Source Book. Lagos: Nigeria Magazine.
Nzewi, Meki (1981) Music, Dance Drama and the Stage in Nigeria in Yemi Ogunbiyi
(ed). Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book. Lagos: Nigeria
Magazine.
56
.
Ogunbiyi Yemi (ed) (1981) Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book.
Lagos Nigeria Magazine.
Taiwo, Oladele (1985 ed) An Introduction to West African Literature. Nairobi: Nelson
Finnegan, Ruth.(1977).Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.
Echeruo, M.J.C (1981). The Dramatic Limits of Igbo Ritual in Yemi Ogunbiyi (ed)
Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book. Lagos: Nigeria
Magazine.
Enekwe, Ossie (1981). Myth, Ritual and Drama in Igboland in Yemi Ogunbiyi (ed)
Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book. Lagos: Nigeria
Magazine.
Adedeji, J. A. (1981). Alarinjo: The Traditional Yoruba Travelling Theatre in Yemi

Ogunbiyi (ed) Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book. Lagos:
Nigeria Magazine.
57
Unit 5
History as a Source of Nigerian Literature
Contents
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Contents
3.1
Fiction
3.2
Falsehood
3.3
History
3.4
Literary Artists Vs History
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
In this unit, you will know more about fiction and the relationship between literature and
fiction. We will also try to differentiate between fiction and falsehood. Finally will find
out the correlation between history and literature, and how literary artists make use of
history in their works.
2.0
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be in a position to:
3.0
a.
Differentiate between falsehood and fiction
b.
Identify the relationship between history and literature
c.
Explain how a writer could draw his material from history
Main Content
Fiction, Falsehood and History
The three concepts of fiction, falsehood and history are inter-related as long as they all
tell stories. The distinguishing factors is how the stories are told. The important factor is
58
the intent or motivation. What differentiates one from the other is the intention of the
story teller in each category as well as the level of distancing from actuality.
3.1
Fiction
Fiction is an imaginary work. It means that the stories you read in the novels and plays
are products of the writers imagination. Fiction writers try to craft stories that are as
close to reality as possible though they are not real-life experience. A good novelist
observes his society, incidents, and situations around him very closely and based on his
observation, he creates his own story. Creative writing is a form of self-expression. The
writer can get his germinal idea from an incident and develops it into a story. He could
create a story based on a real life experience but the story is not factual because he does
not report the incidents accurately. That is why Plato threatened to ban them from his
republic. He insisted that the artists deceive people with their stories which look like reallife accounts yet they are products of the artists imagination.
The writers story may be close to an original incident but is not exactly the same. The
names of characters and sometimes, the setting, are fictitious. This is what makes it a
fiction. Let us take Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart for instance, it is possible that a
man like Unoka existed in a certain village. He may have had a son who rejected his
fathers way of life, aspired for greatness, worked for greatness, achieved greatness and
perhaps eventually falls. But, this mans story can never be the same with Okonkwos
story. Some fictions are so true to life that some people feel that their own stories are
being told. This explains why in some novels, the publisher warns that all the events and
characters presented are fictitious and that any semblance to any living person is
regretted.
The fiction writers motivation is to share an experience. S/he wants to express himself,
to let others into what is in his mind. He wants to communicate his personal feelings or
opinion on certain issues in his society to make his society a better place. As Chinua
Achebe puts its:
The important thing is that you have something inside you,
59
something burning, something that wants to come out something

that you want to communicate to other people, to fellow human
beings so it may be a story, it may be whatever. And if you dont
have a chance communicating, you are unhappy (83).
3.2
Falsehood
Sometimes, people interchange fiction with falsehood. You all know that the opposite of
truth is falsehood (a lie). We talk of falsehood in real life experiences when someone tells
a lie orally or in a publication. We find falsehood mainly in journalism where facts are
distorted or outright lies are told to make sensational headlines and stories that would
boost the marketing of their papers. Falsehood in writing is when you present a false
story and want people to believe that it is true. If for instance, an undergraduate who is
not intelligent approaches a lecturer to solicit for marks and the lecturer refuses, the
student gets his friends in the media to frame the lecturer and publish a story that claims
that he has been sleeps with female students in his office. In this story, the lecturers real
name and university are mentioned. The intent is to disgrace the lecturer or even get him
sacked. But in fiction, even if the lecturer sleeps with his female students, the writer will
just pick the theme of sexual harassment in universities and depending on the intention,
crafts a story on that. In the second story, the lecturer may be caught pants down and
sacked to serve as a deterrent to others. Those of you who watch super story may recall
the episode on Mr. Lecturer. This is fiction and not falsehood.
3.3.
History
History is a factual documentation of events in the society. In history it is expected that

there should be no distortion of any type. Accurate names dates, places and incidents are
documented in history. It is unfortunate that history as a subject has been neglected in the
secondary schools in Nigeria. This is a national tragedy because it is through history that
citizens learn more about their leaders past events, and other important incidents in their
country. It is through history that we learn about the great Oyo Empire, Kanem Bornu
Empire, the exploits of Queen Amina of Zaria, the Alaafin of Oyo, Kan-Kan Musa and
many other great leaders and empires. If not for history we will not have known of the
60
Aba womens riots of 1929 and many others. Though history, also, we learn what
happened in other countries in the past for instance, the origin of slave trade and the final
abolition of slave trade, are good examples of historical events.
History as stated earlier dwells on accuracy. The motive is simple and straight forward. It
is to record important events, major achievements and notable land marks in the society.
So historians must make sure of the facts of the story before documentation.
Through oral literature, historical accounts are passed from one generation to the other.
Some of such accounts in many towns include how the inter-tribal wars in pre-colonial
Nigeria were fought. Some of them are still being recalled. The effect of the war,
especially as it affects the relocation of some towns, are also recounted. However, with
the advent of western education, printing and publishing, the history of many towns are
being documented in print for posterity. So history is not close to reality but is reality
itself.
The creative writer writes from the innermost part of his/her being. William Wordsworth
calls it an overflow of powerful emotions. The motive of the creative artist therefore is
to release that emotion that is boiling inside you and it wants to come out (Achebe 83),
for the edification of the society. The intention of the creative artist is to instruct, to
inform and to entertain.
3.5
Literary Artist Vs History
Creative artists write from their imagination but sometimes they draw their materials
from history. A civil war was fought in Nigeria from 1967 to 1970. Ideally, there should
be only one authentic (historical) account of that civil war from Major Chukwuma
Nzeogwus coup in January, 1966 to the Biafrian surrender in January 1970 presented by
Major General Effiong. All the major participants, on the both sides should be mentioned
for instance he narrated how Col Ifeajuna and others were executed in Biafra as
saboteurs, the Aburi conference, the killings of Major General Aguiyi Ironsi, Colonel
Samuel Ladoke Akintola and others must be documented in details with specific mention
61
of real names, specific time, year, or dates authentic towns or locations. The major
battlefields, like the Nsukka sector, Abagana sector and the blowing up of the River
Niger Bridge at Onitsha most not be left out. This is history and there is only one such
history.
On the other hand, in fiction, there have been so many novels, and poems on the civil war
it is difficult to mention all of them. Each writer imaginatively, creates a story from his or
her perspective depending on what is boiling inside of him/her that he or she wants to
share with the society. Festus Iyayis The Heroes for instance focuses on the wanton
destruction of human and material resources; the effect of the war on innocent civilians;
destroyed relationships; and the fact that the officers sit back to enjoy while other ranks
fight and die in the war front. The names are fictitious though there are some allusions to
real life events like General Gowons wedding.
Lord Lugard, the colonial Governor-General of Nigeria wanted a unification of northern

and southern Nigeria later known as amalgamation. He approached Attahiru for
friendship but was rejected. Attahiru was not just interested in the protection of his
territorial integrity but also the Islamic religion. He had seen how the British subdued or
defeated the neighbouring towns so declared that The only relationship that can exist
between a believer and an infidel iswar (27 ).
On their own part, the colonial masters were eager to conquer and annexe Sokoto as fast
as possible before the French that had made an inroad into the northern Nigeria and was
moving close to Sokoto through the north of Katsina (Ajayi 65) war became inevitable.
In a fierce battle, Attahiru bravely tried to defend his kingdom but because the colonial
masters had more sophisticated weapons, he was defeated and he died gallantly in the
battle.
The Civil war in Nigeria became a major concern to the Nigerian writers in the sixties
and seventies. The Nigerian Civil War took place between 1967 and 1970 and was said to
have claimed the lives of over 100,000 soldiers and numberless civilians affected the
62
Nigerian literary scene in many ways. It claimed the life of one of the countrys most
celebrated poets, Christopher Okigbo, and caused untold hardship to other writers like
Wole Soyinka, who were detained for crying out against the atrocities perpetrated in the
war.
However, the war provided inspiration for many writers particularly those directly
involved. These writers poured out their frustration, anger and memories in considerable
quantities and qualities. For instance, Elechi Amadi wrote a powerful novel, Sunset in
Biafra (1973), depicting his war-rime experience. Other testimonies to the madness of the
era were Soyinkas The Man Died (1972), Chukwuemeka Ikes Sunset at Dawn (1976),
Ken Sarowiwas Sozaboy (1985), Flora Nwapas Never Again (1976) and Chimamanda
Ngozi Adichies Half of a Yellow Sun (2007).
Another historical event that has provided material for fiction in Nigeria is colonialism.
During the colonial period the deposition of kings who resisted the colonial incursions
into their territories was rampant. Two of such kings are Attahiru and Oba Ovwenrem
Nogbaisi. Two plays have been written based on the latter one by Ola Rotimi and the
second by Ahmed Yerima. Also Ahmed Yerima has written a play on the deposition of
Attahiru. The play, Attahiru is about Sultan Muhammadu. Attahiru 1 of Sokoto. The play,
set in Sokoto between 1907 and 1903 the colonial period from the ascension of Attahiru
as the 12th Caliph of Sokoto and the Sarkin Musulmi to his death in the battle of Burmi.
The playwrights pick the main historical incidents of what happened to the kings and
based on their perspectives produced beautiful plays that remind the audience of the
historical events while entertaining them. Other historical plays include Femi Osofisans
Morountodun ( 1982 ) and Ola Rotimis Hopes of the Living Dead ( 1988 ).
Both the historian and the artist need to carry out a research to authenticate their
documentation. The historian needs a more thorough and exhaustive research to ensure
accuracy. The creative artists needs a research to ensure that he gets the correct account
of the particular incident/event s/he wants to depict in his/her work. Here the research is
not usually comprehensive. In most cases, he gets his material from the historians
63
document, and presents it with additional information from his imagination to make his
work interesting and class.
4.0
Conclusion
Sometimes fiction and falsehood are used interchangeable. This explains why Plato
proposed to banish artists from his Republic. According to him they tell lies and deceive
people. He insists that they can only fight and win wars in their works but cannot do the
same in real life. Although some falsehoods are imaginary tales, they are told for selfish
reasons. Generally fiction which is an imaginary art is produced for the benefit of the
audience, the society. The fiction writers motive is to inform, to educate and to entertain.
Fiction differs from history because history has nothing to do with imagination. The
historian is a documentarian for s/he records facts the way they are and not the way they
appear to him, the way he wants them to be or the way he imagines them. So, he deals
with raw facts, undistilled, undiluted. Creative writers present these facts from their
perspectives, distilled, filled with ingredients added to make a pleasurable reading.
5.0
Summary
You have learnt the similarities and differences between fiction, falsehood and history.
You have also learnt the fiction is a product of the writers imagination and that the writer
writes through his or her experience. He can base his story on the society, on people,
incidents, myth, legend and history. The important point here is that he or she does not
reproduce the material the way it is, but he embellishes it to create a unique entertaining
story from which the reader or audience can learn some lessons.
6.0
Differentiate between fiction and falsehood.
8.0
Achebe, Chinua (1958). Things Fall Apart. London: Heinemann

Ajayi, A J. (1970). A Textbook of West African History. Lagos:Longman.
64
Achebe, Chinnua in Ezenwa-Ohaeto (ed) (2003). Chinua Achebe: Straight from the
Heart. Lagos: Stone Press.
Iyayi Festus (1986 ). The Heroes. Harlow, Essex: Longman
65
MODULE II:
COLONIALISM
AND
THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF
NIGERIAN LITERATURE
Unit 1 Colonialism in Nigeria

Unit 2 Africa in the Colonialist Literature: The writing of Joyce Cary, Joseph Conrad,
Sir H. Rider Haggard, and R.L Stevenson.
Unit 3 The Rise of Modern Nigerian Poetry and Prose
Unit 4 Early Nigerian Novelists: Oluadah Equiano, D. O. Fagunwa, Amos Tutuola,
Cyprian Ekwensi and Chinua Achebe
Unit 5 Pioneer Nigerian Poets- Dennis Osadebey, Nnamdi Azikiwe, and Gabriel Okara.
UNIT 1:
COLONIALISM IN NIGERIA FOR NIGERIAN WAY OF LIFE
Contents
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Contents
3.1
3.2
Colonialism and the Nigerian Culture
3.3
Colonialism and the Nigerian Tradition
3.4
Colonialism and the Nigerian Religion
3.5
Colonialism and the Nigerian Politics
3.6
The implication of Colonialism on Nigerian literature
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
References for Further Reading
66
1.0
Introduction
It is not possible to talk about Nigerian literature without the mention of the Nigerian
colonial experience. In this unit you will learn more about the Nigerian colonial
experiences and its impact on the development of Nigerian literature.
2.0
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Recount the Nigerian Colonial Experience
List its effects on Nigerian tradition
State how it affected Nigerian culture
State its influence on Nigerian Socio-Political Experience
Learn its influence on Nigerian religions and belief system
State its relationship with Nigerian literature
3.0
Main Content: Colonialism in Nigeria
3.1
Europeans at a point in their history became so adventurous that they sailed to other parts
of the world and claimed that they discovered these areas. Africa was the worst hit in this
discovery expedition. Christopher Columbus was said to have discovered while Mungo
Park is the acclaimed founder of the River Niger. If they had discovered these areas,
made history, included their names in their Guinness Book of Records, the word
colonialism would not have emerged. The truth is that these countries and communities
were in existence before the exploration of West Africa by the colonialist. They
discovered continents, countries and towns and felt that the inhabitants of these areas
were insignificant and so decided to humanize them. First of all, they imposed
themselves on countries, peacefully or by force. Those who did not resist them, they
settled peacefully with them and those who resisted them were subdued through a
military force. Africans had bows, arrows, spears and clubs as weapons while their
adversaries came with sophisticated guns. In the face of the guns, Africans became
powerless. They imposed their civilization through education, culture, religion and
politics. They deposed kings and installed warrant chiefs. People that lived together
67
harmoniously were torn apart. One of the gravest evils of colonialism is the slave trade
through which many innocent Nigerians were cargoed abroad for cheap labour to work in
the plantations of some of their colonies.
European countries scrambled for space in Africa. Each of them claimed the countries
where they were the first to arrive as their colonies. Thus some countries in Africa were
colonized by the British, some by the French, some by the Spaniards, some by
Portuguese and so on. The struggle for space led to the partition of Africa to avoid a large
scale war among the world powers then. This explains while in West Africa you hear
terms like Francophone and Anglophone countries. Francophone countries refer to the
countries that were colonized by France while the Anglophone countries were those
countries colonized by Britain.
Nigeria is an Anglophone country. The Europeans, who arrived in Nigeria from Britain,
came with their civilization that was heralded by many. The Christian priests and
evangelists were sent ahead of the political set. In some cases they came together but the
evangelists were the first to approach the indigenes with their religion of peace and
salvation. As the saying goes, they came with the cross in one hand and the gun in the
other. As the priests moved, the administrators followed to quell any resistance wherever
there was one. They imposed their government, religion and culture, on Nigerians.
Gradually some Nigerians acquired the western education and fought for independence
which was granted in 1960. Nigeria got her independence without bloodshed unlike
Kenyans and South Africans. The reason is that the colonial administrators did not
discover any solid mineral or fertile land for tea, coffee or other produce. If they had
discovered, for instance, crude oil, the fact that they were scared away by the thick rain
forest, mosquitoes, and malaria would have been nullified. After all, despite the hostility
from the Niger Delta, they are still in the creeks drilling oil.
68
3.2
Colonialism and the Nigerian Culture
Nigeria was and is still a plural society. There are many ethnic groups and the language,
food, mode of dressing and the general cultural attributes of each group is unique. The
colonial masters condemned the culture of the people and termed it barbaric. They
claimed that the people did not wear dresses, and those who did, did not cover their
bodies very well. They forgot that the climatic conditions in Europe differ from that in
Nigeria. However, they imposed their way of dressing on the people. The traditional way
of dressing was condemned but now our sensibilities are being assaulted daily on the
screen, posters and every where with obscene nudities another importation from the west.
In the traditional society, people went about naked in innocence, but in contemporary
Nigeria influenced by colonialism, nakedness is sold for money. Nigerian cultural
festivals were condemned as fetish, while their own, especially Christian feast days were
glorified and celebrated.
However, they did not succeed in destroying all aspects of the Nigerian culture. People
still ate their food, and observe most of other aspects of their culture like language and
literature. Some Nigerian festivals still exist till date.
3.3.
Colonialism and the Nigerian Tradition
Tradition is the way things are done in a particular place, situation or circumstance. It
comprises the norms and values of a people. The tradition of learning in NOUN, for
instance, is that course materials are given to students, they study at home and go for
facilitation for discussions. The tradition of a people involves the totality of the culture,
customs, the dos and donts in that society. Nigerian traditions were condemned.
Some of them include polygamy, killing of twins, kingship, some rituals associated with
the cycle of death and burial, the system of outcasts, abandoning a man in an evil forest
to die because he committed an abomination and many others. Some of the abrogated
ones like killing of twins is applauded. The colonialists destroyed traditional boundaries
and created artificial ones, thus forcing some people into a different socio-political set
ups.
69
3.4
Colonialism and Nigerian Religion
The most devastating effect of colonialism on Nigeria succeeded through religion.

Nigerians seem to be too fanatical about religion. Before the colonialists arrived in the
country, there existed traditional religions practiced differently by each community.
These are the oldest religions as both Islam and Christianity were introduced in the !9th
Century. This means that traditional religion existed in the North before a greater part of
Northern Nigeria was converted to Islamic religion during the Jihad of Utman Dan Fodio
of the 19 th century. The southerners worshipped God through different means in shrines,
grooves, river banks. Ancestors were revered, and in other natural places. They are seen
as the living dead since they still have influence on the living. They are invoked for
intercession in times of adversity and are honoured in times of plenty before the advent of
Christianity..
3.5
Colonialism and Politics
Each ethnic group or town in Nigeria had its own system of government before the
advent of the Europeans. In the north, the Emirs were at the helms of affairs. They ruled
their subjects with perceived justice and the subjects were very loyal to the emirs. With
this, peace reigned in the society. That system of government had its rules, regulations
and a hierarchy that was abided by and respected by all. Offenses were punished while
good deeds were extolled.
In the western region the Yorubas had their Obas, and other ethnic groups had their kings
with different names. These kings had their council of chiefs who ruled with them as
advisers, chief warriors, judges and so on. Citizens subjected themselves to the laws of
the land. Any offender knows the punishment that awaits him or her and accepts it
without question.
Most of the Igbo tribes did not have the type of kings mentioned above. They were ruled
by council of elders or titled chiefs. Every member of that society knows his or her place
and lived in conformity to the rules and regulations of the community and carried his/her
obligations appropriately.
70
Nigerian societies, like many societies in the world, had a system of patriarchy that
privileged men. But despite that, women did not complain before the advent of
colonialism because in pre-colonial societies, there were checks and balances ensuring
that gender roles did not translate into economic and political impoverishment of women
(Ngugi in preface to Tess Onwuemes Tell It To Women,1994)
Unfortunately, colonialism came with discriminations of race, gender, class, religious

affiliations, and other influences. The dominant social class, those close to the colonial
administrators developed prejudices and negative attitudes towards the local government.
Gender roles became questioned, for instance, a man is expected to marry only one wife
unlike in the traditional society where a man was free to marry as many wives as he could
cater for. Polygamy had and is still has its problems and women have tried to challenge it
in different ways different from western concepts of resistance.
The biggest blow on the indigenous politics was the introduction of warrant chiefs. These
warrant chiefs snubbed and in some cases abused the existing system of government in
their societies. They were very corrupt and manipulated and oppressed their people
especially their perceived enemies. They extorted money and other materials from the
people to judge cases in their favours. The bribery and corruption entrenched in the
Nigerian system by colonialism through these warrant chiefs and their aides are still with
us till date. The process of selection of leaders that was not by merit influenced the
Nigerian political system so much that its eradication remains a mirage.
3.6
The Implication of Colonialism on Nigerian Literature
One of the most outstanding effects of colonialism on Nigerian lifestyle and culture is the
evolvement of Nigerian literature. As a result of colonialism, Nigerian literature moved
from orature to written art. Colonialism introduced western education in the country.
Consequently, some Nigerians acquired the skill to read and write. They were able to
read the literature of other countries and other forms of writing. These, influenced the
development of Nigerian literature the way we have it now. The Nigerian artists sought to
71
be like others, to record their stories for others to read instead of presenting them to a
selected audience in their localities, the written stories had a wider audience.
The writers were also able to read what foreign authors wrote about Nigerians or Africans
and wrote their own reactions against such pieces of writing. Chinua Achebes Things
Fall Apart is said to be a reaction against Joyce Carys Mister Johnson. Achebe was able
to react, to present his own view because he could read and write. This means that
colonialism had a positive impact on Nigerian literature. Other implication of colonialism
on Nigerian literature is that it provided early Nigerian writers with themes for their
works especially in prose and poetry. Colonial themes, like the culture clash, tradition/
modernity, oppression, subjugation and many others.
Western influences began to affect Nigerian literature as early as the eight century AD
when Arabic ideas and culture were introduced to Africa. Later in the fourteenth century,
written and spoken Arabic flourished in Northern Nigeria and by the seventeenth century,
some Hausa literature had been translated into Arabic. Christian missionaries accelerated
the importation of Western education into Nigeria during the nineteenth century. Some
native black Moslems reacted to the incursion of colonialists with protests in poetry.
Aliyu dan Sidi, for example, utilized the oral literature tradition to write poetic protests
against the missionaries. However, other Yoruba authors, such as D.O Fagunwa and Isaac
Delano, wrote novels promoting the missionaries and teaching the Christian religion.
Although Fagunwa and Delano offered Christian religious instruction and preached
acceptance of western ideas, both relied heavily upon their ancestral folktales in creative
writing. Fagunwas pieces in particular show an extensive use of proverbs, riddles,
traditional
jokes
and
other
lore
central
to
Yoruba
belief.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/d.o.fagunwa)
In various parts of the country, novels developed around 1930. Centered upon fantastic,
magical characters of humans and fairies, Hausa novels, called non-realistic novels,
were based on folktales. The mysterious characters transmuted into other beings;
fairies, animals, and humans. All conversed among one another. Of Muhammadu Bellos
72
fantasy novel Gandoki, Ajuwon comments, One is led to say that the book is a reduction
of Hausa oral tradition to written literature (Richardson 56). In the 1930s, Igboland also
saw a growth in the number of novelists who expressed the dedication of their people for
the Christian missionaries. While poetry of that period emphasized devotion to Allah
(shunning the Christian god), Pita Nwanas 1935 prize-winning book Omenuko shows the
style of didactic intention (Emenyonu 34). Racism was common theme in early
Nigerian literature.
4.0
Conclusion
It is clear that colonialism affected the Nigerian society culturally, religiously, socially
and politically. It has negative effects on the society but it also had positive effects on the
society because without colonialism, may be no Nigerian citizen would not have been
educated. Consequently, Nigerian literature would have remained an oral art that is
transmitted from one generation to the next through the word of mouth. The implication
is that it would have been difficult for one tribe to learn about the literature of other tribes
in Nigeria. Without colonialism may be there would not have been any country like
Nigeria with a lingua franca - English
5.0
Summary
You have learnt from this unit that colonialism had both positive and negative effects on
the country. One of the outstanding positive effects is the education of Nigerian and the
birth of Nigerian written literature.
6.0
List and discuss three effects of colonialism on Nigerian literature.
8.0
Emenyonu, Ernest The Rise and Development of Igbo Novel in Yeme Ogunbiyi (ed)
Perspectives on Nigerian Literature: 1700 to the Present Vol. Two. Lagos:
Guardian Books.
Ogunbiyi, Yemi (ed) (1985). Perspectives on Nigerian Literature. (Volumes One and
73
Two). Lagos: Guardian Book.
Olaniyan, Richardson (ed) (1987). Nigerian History and Culture. Hongkong: Longman.
Onwubiko, K.B.C (1967): School Certificate History of West Africa. Book one A.D
1000 1800. Onitsha: Africana Educational Publishers.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/d.o.fagunwa)
74
Unit 2
Africa in the Eye of Colonialist Literature
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content Colonialist Literature

3.1
The Writings of Joyce Cary
3.2
The Writings of Sir M. Rider Haggard
3.3
The Writings of Robert Stevenson
3.4
The Writings of Joseph Conrad
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
In this unit, you will be introduced to some of the works of some colonialist writers. The
intention is to expose you to the views of the colonialists on Africa as depicted in their
literary works. You will see in this unit that Africans are depicted as cannibals, corrupt
people and
people with low mentality.
Chinua Achebes reaction to this
misrepresentation is included in this unit.
2.0
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
3.0
Discuss the influence of colonial literature on African Writers
Discuss the presentation of Africans in such works
Main Content: Colonialist Literature
Colonialist literature refers to literary works written by colonial masters in Africa,

Nigeria. As we have seen in unit one, the colonialists came to Nigeria with their
75
civilization in form of religion, education, politics and culture. They tried to impose
their way of life on Africans who they saw as uncivilized.
This view of Africans as savages, uncivilized, nave and brutal is portrayed advertently or
inadvertently in their novels. Most of the novels were inspired by their experiences in
Africa. As a creative output, each writer records his own perspective of the encounter
between Africans and the west.
The Influence of Colonialist Literature on the Development of Nigerian Literature

Chinua Achebe admits that he was actually motivated to write novels because he wanted
to correct the lopsided portraiture of Africans in colonialist novels especially Mr.
Johnson which is set in Nigeria. He alluded to these works as part of his motivation for
becoming a writer calling them appealing novels about Africa. More specifically he has
said:
I know around 51, 52, I was quite certain that I was going
to try my hand at writing and one of the things that set me
thinking was Joyce Carys novel, set in Nigeria, Mister
Johnson, which was praised so much and it was clear to me
that it was a most superficial picture not only of the country
but even of the Nigerian character and so I thought if this
was famous then perhaps someone ought to look at this
from the inside. ( Achebe 89)
Looking at this from the inside involved drawing on the model of his own Igbo society
and its oral traditions. By reconstructing a picture and narrative of Africa and using
Carys fiction as a point of departure, Achebe set out to challenge the colonialist
depiction of Africans and their society.
76
3.1
The Writing of Joyce Cary
Arthur Joyce Lunel Cary was born in Derry, Ireland, on December 7, 1888. Throughout
his childhood, Joyce Cary spent much time with his grandmother in Ireland and in
England. Although he always remembered his Irish childhood with affection and wrote
about it with great feeling, Cary lived in England for the rest of his life. The feeling of
displacement and the idea that lifes tranquility may be disturbed at any moment
informed much of his writing.
In 1906, determined to be an artist, Cary studied Art in Edinburgh. He did not fare well as
a painter so decided to apply himself to literature. He was an adventurous young man and
in 1912, Cary served as a Red Cross orderly during the Balkan Wars. During the First
World War, he served with a Nigerian regiment fighting in the German colony of
Cameroon. The short story Umaru (1921) describes an incident from this period in which
a British office recognizes the common humanity that connects him with his African
sergeant.
Cary was wounded at the battle of Mount Mora in 1916. He returned to England on leave
got married to Gertrude Oglivie. Three months later, Cary returned to service as a
colonial officer, leaving a pregnant Gertrude in England. Cary held several posts in
Nigeria including that of magistrate and executive officer in Borgu. Cary began his
African service as a stereotypical colonial officer, determined to bring order to the
natives, but by the end of his service, he had come to see the Nigerians as individuals
facing difficult problems, including those created by colonial rule.
By 1920, Cary concentrated his energies on providing clean water and roads to connect
remote villages with the larger world. His wife wanted him to resign and go back to
England but he could not due to financial reasons. However later on he was able to sell
some of the stories he wrote in Africa to The Saturday Post through a literary agent. His
works were then published in this American magazine under the name Thomas Joyce.
This provided Cary with enough incentive to resign from the Nigerian service and settled
with his wife in Oxford. They had four sons.
77
Cary worked hard as a writer but his brief economic success soon ended as the Post
stopped publishing his works. Cary worked at various novels and a play, but nothing sold
and the family soon had to take in tenants.
However, in 1932, Cary managed to publish Aissa Saved, a novel that drew on his
Nigerian experience. The book was not particularly successful, but sold more than Carys
next novel, An American Visitor (1933). His next novel, The African Witch (1936) did a
little better and his finances improved.
Although none of Carys first three novels was particularly successful critically or
financially, they are progressively more ambitious and complex. He decided to change
the structures and style so he wrote his next novel Mister Johnson (1939), entirely in the
present tense, which is now regarded as one of Carys best novels.
Some of his other works are: Castle Corner (1938), Charley Is My Darling (1940), A
House of Children (1941), The First Trilogy (1941 44), and the Horses Mouth (1944)
which remains his most popular novel.
Carys themes include the tension between creativity and colonial administration, which
destroys the old as it fashions the new; the conservative desire to preserve things as they
are; the difference between liberty which consists of a lack of restraint, and freedom,
which lies in the ability to act; and the sense that human life is difficult and happiness
elusive; that fleeting joy is lifes only reward; and that love is necessary to humanity. We
will treat his most popular novel Mister Johnson which has been criticized greatly by
African literary scholars Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart is said to be a re-action to
this novel.
3.1.2 Mister Johnson (1939) is the story of a young Nigerian who had an unsuccessful
career in the service of the British colonial regime. Although the novel has a comic tone,
the story itself is tragic. Johnson, a young African, is assigned as clerk at an English
78
district office in Fada, Nigeria. He is from a different district and is regarded as a

foreigner by the native. However, he works his way into local society, got married there
but never really fitted in. he also has difficulties in adjusting to the regulations and
mechanism of the district office and his official duties. Meanwhile, the district officer,
Rudbeck, is dissatisfied with his work and life in Africa. Rudbeck decided to build a road
linking Fada to the main highway and larger population centers. Johnson, as Rudbecks
clerk is happy about the project.
Johnson is one of Carys joy-filled characters, possessor of a great energy that infects all
around him. People are drawn to Johnson and follow him without realizing that they are
being led. Indeed Johnson has no clear idea of where he is going. His delight is in
seeing those around him happy. His mood infects Rudbeck and, when Johnson suggests
how the books may be fiddled to support Rudbecks road project, the colonial officer
agrees. Unfortunately, Rudbecks swindle is uncovered and he returns to England to be
with his wife. Johnson now goes to work for Gollup, a retired British sergeant who has
married a native woman and runs a local store.
Unlike Rudbeck, Gollup is an abusive drunk, racist, but he admires Johnsons good
humored courage. Johnson, in turn, enjoys the compliment to his courage. On one
occasion, Gollup attacked him and he retaliates. Gollup does not take the incident
seriously so does not change his attitude towards Johnson, but he cannot have an
employee who has struck him in public. Johnson is therefore tired and leaves Fada.
Meanwhile, Rudbeck is recalled because of a shortage of political officers. Immediately
he recommences his road-building project, but funds were inadequate so he was forced to
manipulate to provide the needed funds. His superior cautions him to be careful because
another scandal will destroy his career.
Rudbeck recalls Johnson and Johnsons infectious enthusiasm makes the road-building
successful. Johnsons stay is short-lived because Rudbeck discovers that Johnson has been
engaged in petty graft and dismisses him. Johnson turns to theft from the store to support
his lifestyle and, when Gollups the storekeeper discovers this, Johnson kills the
79
storekeeper. Johnson is tried for murder. The trial brings Rudbeck to the breaking point.
Johnson is found guilty and begs Rudbeck to keep him from the gallows by killing him.
Rudbeck follows his heart rather than the rules and does so, though the act is expected to
destroy his career and possibly have other ramifications, legal and personal.
Chinua Achebe has said that Mister Johnson struck him as superficial and helped from
his determination to write his own novels about Nigeria. Other critics have found Carys
portrayal of his main character patronizing and Johnson himself childish. But these
criticisms miss the universal quality of Johnson as one of the worlds creators. It is
important to see Johnson as an individual character and not as a generalized racial type.
3.2
The Writings of Rider Haggard
Henry Rider Haggard was born at Bradenham, Norfolk, the eighth of ten children, to Sir
William Meybohm Rider Haggard, a barrister, and Ella Doveton, an author and poet. His
father had a low opinion of him so sent him in 1875 to what is now South Africa, in an
unpaid position as assistant to the secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, Lieutenant-Governor of
the Colony of Natal.
He returned later to England in 1882, studies law and was called to the bar in 1884. His
practice of law was desultory, and much of his time was taken up by the writing of
novels, which he saw as being more profitable. Rider Haggard lived at 69 Gunterstone
Road in Hammarsmith, London, from mid 1885 to circa April 1888. It was at this
Hammersmith address that he completed King Solomons Mines. (1885). This was
heavily influenced by the larger than life adventures he met in Colonial Africa.
Haggard is most famous as the author of the novels King Solomons Mines and its sequel
Allan Quatermain, and She and its sequel Ayesha, swashbuckling adventure novels set in
the context of the Scramble for Africa (the action of Ayesha however happens in Tiber).
He is also remembered for Nada the Lily (a tale of adventure among the Zulus) and Eric
Brighteyes.
80
While his novels portray many of the stereotypes associated with colonialism, they are
usually acclaimed for the degree of sympathy with which the native populations are
portrayed. Africans often play heroic roles in the novels, although the protagonists are
typically, though not invariably, European. Notable examples are the heroic Zulu warrior
Umslopagas and Ignosi, the rightful king of Kukuanaland, in King Solomons Mines.
Having developed an intense mutual friendship with the three Englishmen who help him
regain his throne, he accepts their advice and abolishes witch-hunts and arbitrary capital
punishment. Three of his novels are written in collaboration with his friend Andrew Lang
who shared his interest in the spiritual realm and paranormal phenomena.
Haggard also wrote about agricultural and social reform, in part inspired by his
experiences in Africa, but also based on what he saw in Europe. At the end of his life he
was a staunch opponent of Bolshevism, a position he shared with his friend Rudyard
Kipling. The two had bonded upon Kiplings arrival at London in 1889 largely on the
strength of their shared opinions, and the two remained lifelong friends. He was a prolific
writer. His other works include:
Cetywayo and His White Neighbours; Remarks on Recent Events in Zululand
Natal, and the Transvaal (1882) Dawn (1884) The Witchs Head (1884)
Hunter Quatermains Story (1885); Long Odds (1886) Jess 91887), A Tale of Three
Lions (1887) Mr. Meesons Will (1888) Maiwas Revenge (1888).
Me Fellow Laborer and the Wreck of the Copeland (1888)
Colonel Quaritch, V. C. (1888) Cleopatra (1889); Allans Wife (1889) Beatrice (1890)
The Worlds Desire (1890); co-written with Andrew Lang; Eric Brighteyes (1891);
Montezumas Daughter (1893); The People of the Mist (1894); Joan Haste (1895); Heart
of the World (1895) Church and State (1895) The Wizard (1896) Doctor Therne (1898)
Swallow (1898) A Farmers Year (1899) The Last Boer War (1899) The Spring of Lion
(1899) Montezumas Daughter co-written with Andrew Lang (1899)
Elissa; The Doom of Zimbabwe (1899); Black Heart and White Heart; a Zulu idyll
(1900).
http://en.wikipedia.org/rider-Haggard # writing career.
81
3.3.
The Writings of Robert Stevenson
Stevenson was born Robert Lewis Balfour Stevenson in Edinburgh, Scotland, on 13

November, 1850, to Thomas Stevenson, a leading lighthouse engineer, and his wife
Margaret. Lighthouse design was the family profession. Stevenson spent the greater part
of his boyhood holidays in his maternal grandfathers house. Now I often wonder, says
Stevenson, what I inherited from this old minister. I must suppose, indeed, that he was
fond of preaching sermons, and so am I, though I never heard it maintained that either of
us loved to hear them.
Stevensons parents were both devout and serious Presbyterians, but the household was
not incredibly strict. His nurse, Alison Cunningham (known as Cummy), was more
fervently religious. Her Calvinism and folk beliefs were an early source of nightmares for
the child; and he showed a precocious concern for religion. But she also cared for him
tenderly in illness, reading to him from Bunyan and the Bible as he lay sick in bed.
Stevenson recalled this time of sickness in the poem The Land of Counterpane in A
Childs Garden of Verses (1885) and dedicated the book to his nurse.
He was an only child, strange-looking and eccentric, who found it hard to fit in when he
was sent to a nearby school at six, and at eleven. However, he mixed well in lively games
with his cousins in summer holidays. His frequent illnesses often kept him away from his
first school, and he was taught for long stretches by private tutors. He was a late reader,
first learning at seven or eight; but even before this he dictated stories to his mother and
nurse. Throughout his childhood he was compulsively writing stories. His father was
proud of this interest: he had himself written stories in his spare time until his own father
found them and told him to give up such nonsense and mind your business. He paid for
the printing of Roberts first publication at sixteen, an account of the covenanters
rebellion, published on its two hundredth anniversary, The Pentland Rising: a Page of
History, 1666 (1866).
It was expected that Stevensons writing would remain a sideline as he entered the
University of Edinburgh to study Engineering. From the start, he showed little or no
82
enthusiasm for his studies and devoted much energy to avoiding lectures. This time was
more important for the friendship he made: with other students in the Speculative Society
(an exclusive debating club), particularly with Charles Baxter, who would become
Stevensons financial agent; and with one professor, Fleeming Jenkin, whose house
staged amateur drama in which Stevenson took part, and whose biography he would later
write. Perhaps most important at this point in his life was a cousin, Robert Alan Mowbray
Stevenson (known as Bob), a lively and light hearted young man, who instead of the
family profession had chosen to study art. Each year during vacations, Stevenson traveled
to inspect the familys engineering works. He enjoyed the travels, but more for the
material they gave for his writing than for any engineering interest: the voyage with his
father pleased him because a similar journey of Walter Scott with Robert Stevenson had
provided the inspiration for The Pirate. In April 1871, he announced to his father his
decision to pursue a life of letters. Though the elder Stevenson was naturally
disappointed, the surprise cannot have been great, and Stevensons mother reported that
he was wonderfully resigned to his sons choice. To provide some security, it was
agreed that Stevenson should read Law (again at Edinburgh University) and be called too
the Scottish bar. Years later, in his poetry collection Underwoods (1887), he looked back
on how he turned away from the family profession:
In other respects too, Stevenson deviated from his upbringing. His dress became more
Bohemian: he already wore his hair long, but he now took to wearing a velveteen jacket
and rarely attended parties in conventional evening dress. Within the limits of a strict
allowance, he visited cheap pubs and brothels. More importantly, he had come to reject
Christianity. In January 1873, his father came across the constitution of the LJR (Liberty,
Justice, Reverence) club of which Stevenson with his cousin Bob was a member, which
began Disregard everything our parents have taught us. Questioning his son about his
beliefs, he discovered the truth, leading to a long period of dissension with both parents:
What a damned curse I am to my parents! As my father

said you have rendered my whole life a failure. As my
mother said, this is the heaviest affliction that has ever
83
befallen me. O Lord, what a pleasant thing it is to have

damned the happiness of (probably) the only two people
who
care
damn
about
you
in
the
world.(http://en.wikipedia.org//writing career.)
He settled in Upolu, Samoan Islands and adopted the native name Tusitala (Samoan for
Teller of Tales, i.e. a storyteller). His influence spread to the natives, who consulted
him for advice, and he soon became involved in local politics. He was convinced the
European officials appointed to rule the natives were incompetent, and after many futile
attempts to resolve the matter, he published A Footnote to History. This was such a
stinging protest against existing conditions that it resulted in the recall of two officials,
and Stevenson feared for a time it would result in his own deportation. Fortunately, he
was spared.
In 1894 Stevenson was depressed feeling that he had exhausted his creative talent. He
insisted that he had overworked bitterly. He even feared that he might again become a
helpless invalid. He rebelled against this idea: I wish to die in my boots; no more Land
of Counterpane for me. To be drowned, to be shot, to be thrown from a horse ay, to be
hanged, rather than pass again through that slow dissolution. He then suddenly had a
return of his old energy and he began work on Weir of Hermiston. Its so good that it
frightens me, he is reported to have exclaimed. He felt that this was the best work he had
done. He was convinced, sick and well, I have had splendid life to it, grudge nothing,
regret very littletake it all over, damnation and all, would hardly change with any man
of my time (http://en.wikipedia.org//writing career).
Without knowing it, he was to have his wish fulfilled. During the morning of 3 December
1894, he had worked hard as usual on Weir of Hermiston. During the evening, while
conversing with his wife and straining to open a bottle of wine, he suddenly exclaimed.
Whats that! he then asked his wife, Does my face look strange? and collapsed
beside her. He died within a few hours, probably of a cerebral haemorrhage, at the age of
44. The natives insisted on surrounding his body with a watch-guard during the night and
84
on bearing their Tusitala upon their shoulders to nearby Mount Vaea, where they buried
him on a spot overlooking the sea. Stevenson had always wanted his Requiem
inscribed. His novel Treasure Island is very popular among Nigerian students.
His novels include:

Treasure Island (1883); The Black Arrow: A Tale of the Two Roses (1883); Prince Otto
(1885); Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886); Kidnapped (1886); The Master
of Ballantrae (1889); The Wrong Box (1889); The Wrecker (1892); Lloyd Osbourne
Catriona (1893); also known as David Balfour, is a sequel to Kidnapped.
The Ebb-Tide (1894); co-written with Lloyd Osbourne.
Weir of Hermiston (1896). Unfinished at the time of Stevensons death, considered to
have promised great artistic growth.
St. Ives: being the Adventures of a French Prisoner in England (1897)
Unfinished at the time of Stevensons death, the novel was completed by Arthur QuillerCouch.
3.4
The Writings of Joseph Conrad
Joseph Conrad whose name at birth was Jozef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski was born in
December 3, 1857 and died in 3rd August, 1924. he was a Polish but became a British
subject in 1886. He is regarded as one of the greatest novelists in English though he did
not speak the language fluently until he was in his twenties (and hen always with a
marked Polish accent). He wrote stories and novels, predominantly with a nautical
setting, that depict trials of the human spirit by the demands of duty and honour.
Conrad lived an adventurous life, dabbling in gunrunning and political conspiracy, which
he later fictionalized in his novel The Arrow of Gold. Apparently, he experienced a
disastrous love affair that plunged him into despair. In 1878, after a failed suicide attempt
in Marseille by shooting himself in the chest, he as a childhood ambition to visit central
Africa was realized in 1889, when Conrad contrived to reach the Congo Free State. He
became captain of a Congo steamboat, and the atrocities he witnessed and his experiences
there not only informed his most acclaimed and ambiguous work, Heart of Darkness, but
85
served to crystallize his vision of human nature and his beliefs about himself. These
were in some measure affected by the emotional trauma and lifelong illness he contracted
there. During his stay, he became acquainted with Roger Casement, whose 1904 Congo
Report detailed the abuses suffered by the indigenous population.
On 3rd August 1924, Conrad died of a heart attack. He was interred at Canterbury
Cemetery, Canterbury, England, under his original Polish surname Korzeniowski.
The singularity of the universe depicted in Conrads novels is such as to open him to
criticism. Conrad is at pains to create a sense of place, be it aboard ship or in a remote
village. Often he chose to have his characters play out their destinies in isolated or
confined circumstances. Arguably Conrads most influential work remains Heart of
Darkness, to which many have been introduced by Francis Ford Coppolas film,
Apocalypse Now, inspired by Conrads novella and set during the Vietnam War. The
novellas depiction of a journey into the darkness of the human psyche, still resonates
with modern readers. In Conrads time, literary critics, while usually commenting
favourably on his works, often remarked that his exotic style, complex narration,
profound themes and pessimistic ideas put many readers off. Yet as Conrads ideas were
borne out by 20th century events, in due course he came to be admired for beliefs that
seemed to accord with subsequent times more closely than with his own.
3.4.1. Heart of Darkness

In Heart of Darkness, Conrad refers sarcastically to the supposedly noble aims of
European colonists, thereby demonstrating his skepticism about the moral superiority of
white men. This, indeed, is a central theme of the novel; Charles Marlowes experiences
in Africa expose the brutality of colonialism and the false rationalization given for it.
Ending a passage that describes the condition of chained, emaciated slave workers, the
novelist remarks: After all, I also was a part of the great cause of these high and just
proceedings. Conrad, whose own native country had been colonized by European
powers, empathized by default with other colonized peoples.
86
Joseph Conrads The Heart of Darkness is a dark, disturbing and haunting tale about
colonial powers and trading companies, exploiting the riches and people of Dark
Continent to fill their hungry belly. In this narrative, Captain Marlowe is hired by the
Belgium trading company to search for a mysterious, most successful employee (of the
same trading company) and powerful man named Mr. Kurtz.
Inside the Dark Continent on river Congo, Caption Marlowe finds out that the boat he is
to be captain of has sunk, before he can begin his job he must salvage and repair the
vessel. When he finally meets Kurtz, he realizes the terrible deeds the man has committed
with the threat of violence and abuse of power. He recognizes Mr. Kurtz as pure evil and
a man without any morality at all. There is a saying Power corrupts, But absolute power
corrupts absolutely Mr. Kurtz has enthroned himself as God and King of the poor and
illiterate native people. Outside the house of Mr. Kurtz, Captain Marlowe saw several
stakes displaying human skulls. A horrific sight, he later finds out that Mr. Kurtz has
become cannibal, and the skull belongs to the poor victims. Mr. Kurtz used brutal and
inhuman violence to not only subdue and enslave the natives and force them to work for
him, but to turn over their ivory and their very lives to him. He becomes the great white
conqueror and god and despite his violence and brutality, his native subjects and victims
respect and revere him. Instead of bringing light of civilization to the Dark Continent, the
thirst for power, riches and omnipotence has turned Mr. Kurtz into an evil monster with
diseased and dark heart and amoral personality. Its the journey not into the Dark
Continent, but into an exposition of how deadly and devilish a civilized man can sink for
mere game of power and riches.
His works include:

Almayers Folly (1895); Heart of Darkness (1899); Lord Jim (1900); The Inheritors
(with Ford Madox Ford) (1901); Typhoon (1902, begun 1899); Romance (with Ford
Madox Ford, 1903); Nostromo (1904); The Secret Agent (1907); Under Western Eyes
(1911); Chance (1913), Victory (1915); The Shadow Line (1917); The Arrow of Gold
(1919); The Rescue (1920); The Nature of a Crime (1923, with Ford Madox Ford); The
Rover (1923).
87
4.0
Conclusion
The colonialists presented here are mainly novelists. In these novels the colonialists
present Africans and black people as people with little or no intelligence. Some of them
are not as biased as some critics claim. Mister Johnson for instance could be seen as any
other character in any race that is not too vicious or too virtuous. But most African critics
see him as a racial representative of Africans which may not be the intention of the
writer. The portrayal of the African society is that of a place where crime and moral
decadence abound.
5.0
Summary
You have learnt more about the perceived biased and lopsided portraiture of the African
society in colonialist literature. Some of the novels are still available in the market. Try to
get copies read them and form your own opinion.
6.0
List the three colonial novelists discussed in this unit and four novels written by each of
them.
7.0
Achebe, Chinua quoted in Duerden Dennis, and Cosmo Pieterse eds. African Writers
Talking A Collection of Radio Interviews. London Heinemann, 1972.
Ajuwon Bade (1987) Oral and Written Literature in Nigeria in Richard Olaniyan (ed)
Nigerian History and Culture Hong Kong: Longman..
Online wikipedia dictionary
http://en.wikipedia.org//writing career.
88
Unit 3
The Development of Nigerian Literature
Contents
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Early Missionaries
3.1.1 The Islamic Missionaries
3.1.2 The Christian Missionaries
3.2
Colonial Education
3.3
The Publishing Houses
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
In the last unit, you learnt how the colonialists depicted Africans in the literary works
they wrote which were set in different countries in Africa. In this unit you will learn how
Nigerian literature the way we know it today developed. We will trace the rise of
Nigerian Literature by introducing you to the establishments and issues that influenced
the development of Nigerian Literature. Some of those influences are the early Christian
and Islamic missionaries, colonial education and the efforts of publishing houses, which
made the publication of the literary works possible.
2.0
Objectives
Identify the role of missionaries in the development of Nigerian Literature.
Discuss the impact of colonial education on Nigerian literature
Identify the contribution of the publishing houses to the growth of Nigerian

literature.
89
3.0
Main Content
3.1
The Early Missionaries
Early Christian and Islamic scholars contributed immensely to the development of

Nigerian Literature.
3.1.1 The Islamic Missionaries

The religion of Islam was introduced in Nigerian Hausa states through the wangera
traders from Mali in the 13th century. However, the religion became widespread in the
14th century with the arrival of Maghili from Kanem. He was followed by some other
missionaries who were either merchants, pilgrims or Mallama. Islam is a form of religion
and also a form of education.
Consequently, the spread of Islam was accompanied by the spread of Islamic education.
The implication of this is that Islamic scholars and clerics were produced simultaneously,
the people were converted to a religion, and at the same time were given Arabic
education.
The Jihads, of the 19 th century accelerated the spread of Islam. Apart from education and
religion, Islam is not only a religion but also a way of life, so it brought other benefits in
its trail. The leaders of the Jihad were learned in every conceivable standard.
Consequently education received adequate attention after the Jihads. Koranic schools
were opened and there was a great stimulus to learning. Islamic civilization was
introduced and other oriental cultural achievement such as the art of reading and writing
as the media of disseminating the religion (Yahaya 10) was also introduced. Arabic was
the medium of instruction so the early literary output in Hausaland was written in Arabic.
Scholars wrote books and poems. These were read and translated to Hausa but later, the
Arabic letters were converted to produce the Ajami. Similarly, roman letters were
converted to produce the Boko. This means that the bulk of early Hausa literature were
written in Ajami and Boko. The old and the young embraced the new re-awakening of
90
knowledge. Muslim scholars led by Uthman Dan Fodio and others contributed to literary
attainments of the era.
Shehu Usman Dan Fodio was said to have composed 480 poems. His daughter, Nana
Asamau wrote 17 poems, his brother, Shehu Abdullahi Fodio wrote 8 poems and his
son, Isan Kwere, 7 poems, many of his disciples and other scholars also composed
poems.
These poems, like other poetic works in other literary traditions vary in length ranging
from 11 to 450 stanzas (Yahaya 12). At that time, there were printing press or publishing
houses so these scholars wrote with ink on plain sheets of paper and their disciples and
pupils copied them out. These poems were had religious undertones or backgrounds as
preachers recited some relevant sections of relevant poems to illustrate or emphasize a
point in sermons. Apart from poetry which appeared to be the popular genre of literature
at this stage of the development of Nigerian literature, other Islamic scholars wrote other
imaginative works too.
Arabic became the literary and sophisticated language of the society. The learning and
enlightenment stimulated by the Islamic religion produced many intellectuals, and among
them were literary artists. Consequently, the Islamic way of life affected the style,
content and purpose of literature. Islamic literature flourished throughout the Northern
region. Some radical movements emerged and used the literary medium to propagate
their ideologies or criticize the power elite. The literature of this period in the Islamic
states were written mainly in verse.
Gradually, there was an attempt to transcribe the Arabic literature into Hausa. The result
of this effort was the emergence of a language known as Ajami, a fusion of Arabic and
Hausa. This was widely used for literary purposes. But the literary tradition that resulted
remained essentially Islamic, with models drawn from classical Arabic prototypes
(Darah 2).
91
3.1.2 The Christian Missionaries

The Christian religion was another powerful catalyst of change that greatly influenced the
development of Nigerian Literature.
Just like Islam, Christianity contributed a good deal to the development of Nigerian
literature. Unlike the Moslems, the Christians came first and foremost with the
conversion of the Nigerians they encountered. The early Christian missionaries seemed to
have had an ultimate goal of winning more souls for Christ. The viewed the traditional
Nigerian religion as barbaric, fetish and idolatrous. The adherents of the traditional
religion were regarded as pagans who were doomed and if not converted would end up in
hell fire, a place of intense suffering and gnashing of teeth forever. However, they also
brought along western education which enabled some of their converts to learn to read
and write.
The Portuguese missionaries worked in Benin in the 16th century. But their new faith had
a meteoric existence due to the resistance of Ede to the anticipated cultural disintegration
which a total acceptance of Christianity might engender within the Edo society. Apart
from Benin, the missionaries made an early incursion in Calabar and Warri but were not
quite successful. This means that the Roman Catholic Church made a feeble attempt to
Christianise Nigeria before the high blown missionary enterprise in the 19th century
Nigeria.
Another missionary attempt to evangelise Nigeria came with the expedition of the Niger
of 1841. The aims of the expedition included the promotion of trade in the metropolis,
signing of treaties with local chiefs, and the building of school and churches. The British
also wanted to establish an equivalent of Freetown in the heart of Nigeria, Lokoja was
their choice. Unfortunately, fever broke out on board the ship and fifty (50) out of the one
hundred and fifty (150) Whiteman died of an ailment that was suspected to be malaria.
This expedition failed. That not withstanding, it succeeded in setting up some
establishments in Lokoja which became a springboard for the missionaries in later years.
92
The missionaries realized the necessity of writing in Nigerian Languages to facilitate

their works evangelisation so initiated moves towards the development of the indigenous
language. First of all, they decided to encourage indigenes to undertake the preaching of
the gospel. One of such preacher was Ajayi Crowder who later became the first African
Bishop who joined the 1841 mission in Nigeria. They were joined later by Rev. J.C.
Taylor. Ajayi and Taylor both Yoruba and Igbo ex-slaves respectively. They were given
the task of founding the Niger Mission. Crowther sailed up the River and founded
another station at Lokoja while Taylor was left in charge of Onitsha. The returning slaves
were returning then helped to establish missions in Egba, Abeokuta, Badagry and other
places. As they raised preachers, they educated them and some of them engaged in
imaginative writings those in the influence of the missionaries on the Nigerian literature
is mainly through colonial education which will be treated in the next segment. (3.2).
3.2
Colonial Education
The Christian missionaries like their Moslem counterparts did not concentrate only on
religion and evangelization as discussed. They consciously contributed to the socially and
economically uplift of Nigerians. One of the remarkable contributions of the missionaries
is the reduction of Nigerian languages to writing. Some of the results of their labours in
this direction is the production of the Igbo vocabulary, and the translation of the Bible
and Anglical Prayer Book into Yoruba by Ajayi Crowder. In 1884, he published A
Vocabulary of the Youruba Language (Falola 24) Consequently, literate and semi literate
Nigerians started writing, first in their indigenous languages. They started with textbooks
and later literary works.
This linguistic achievement is very important in the development of Nigerian Literature
because language is an integral part of a peoples culture and the medium of expression in
literature. This development of the vernacular made it possible for early Nigerian literary
writers like Peter Nwana, Daniel Fagunwa and Mallam Tafida, to have produced their
masterpieces in their indigenous Nigerian languages.
The missionaries established primary schools at first for the children of the converts and
later admitted other children whose parents, though not Christians, allowed to go to
93
schools. These children were exposed to literary words mainly poetry and prose from the
western world. As these children grew, they were influenced by the literature of other
people and sought to write their own. Nigerian writers were all products of western or
Arabic education acquired in Christian and Koranic schools. Thus, colonial education
contributed immensely to the development of Nigerian literature. In the Secondary
schools were established in the country mainly in the Western and Eastern parts of the
country. The products of these schools became teachers, catechists and priests.
Classical literature was introduced in the schools. This ignited the interest of Nigerians in
literature. But most importantly colonial education made it possible for Nigerians to be
able to express themselves in both the indigenous and English language both in speech
and written forms. This led to the establishment of indigenous newspapers which
encouraged literature. The products of these schools were among those who championed
the Onitsha market literature, a prominent landmark in the development of Nigerian
literature.
3.3
The Publishing Houses
We have decided to mention the publishing houses here because without them, the
literary works would have remained in the manuscript form. The implication is that it
would have had limited audience like the early Hausa poems which were copied by
pupils and disciples. But with the publishing houses, the tedious and arduous task of
copying which in some cases may not be copied accurately, is removed the copied
materials have shorter life spans as they could easily be destroyed or lost.
Publishing helps writers in three major ways:
First, quality economy and posterity. Good publishing was encouraged; usually
companies ensure that before they publish a particular work, that it has met a
certain acceptable standard. They send the manuscripts for evaluation, the
evaluator assessed the work and made a recommendation if he/she recommends
that the work be published, the publishers also have in-house editors who would
help to ensure that the work, to a large extent is error-proof. This is why students
94
are encouraged to read good literary works especially novels and plays to increase
their proficiency of the language. After the evaluation of a particular manuscript,
the recommendations of the evaluator are incorporated by the writer before the
final publication.
Secondly, publishers help to widen the scope of the market for the author.
Publishers invest in the publication of a book with profit-making intent. They
therefore devise strategies for marketing as many copies of the book as possible to
ensure high profit margin. In doing this they are circulating the work to a wider
audience and popularizing the work and the author. For instance Chinua Achebe
is known all over the world because his early novels were published by
Heinemann, a publishing company that was able to market the novels all over the
world. If Things Fall Apart remained as a manuscript, like some poems of the
early Islamic scholars, may be some of us will not know anything about the novel
today. In fact, without the publishers, we would not have been discussing the
Nigerian written literature.
Finally, publishers help to elongate or even perpetuate the life span of a book.
Publishers print a certain number of a particular work and depending on the sale,
the work is reprinted as many times as possible depending on the demand. Other
publishers could obtain the copyright from the original publisher and continue the
publication of the works even long after the demise of the writers. In Nigeria,
writers like Fagunwa, Cyprian Ekwensi, Flora Nwapa, Ola Rotimi, Zulu Sofola
and Ezenwa-Ohaeto are dead but we are still reading their works. Publishers
ensure that literary works outlive their writers and the works are preserved for
posterity. We still read Shakespeares plays that were written in renaissance
England in the 17th century.
Early publishing companies in the country include Faber and Faber, Heinemann
Longman and many others.
95
4.0
Conclusion
The development of Nigerian literature was influenced by external forces, mainly

colonial education and religion. These missionaries established Quranic and Christian
schools. Such influences from the Christian and Muslim missionaries helped Nigerians to
read and write. Thus they were able to read the works of classical literary writers. This
education aided the reading of foreign literatures and the writing of indigenous ones. The
publishing houses also had a tremendous positive impact on the development of Nigerian
literature.
5.0
Summary
In this unit which is a bit historical, one has taken you through the coming of early
missionaries Moslem and Christian to Nigeria and how they contributed to the
development of Nigerian literature. Their major contribution as you have seen is the
establishment of schools and the education of Nigerians among whom were literary
artists.
6.0
List and discuss the contribution of the publishing houses in the development of Nigerian
literature.
7.0
Darah G.G. (1988) Literary Development in Nigeria in Ogunbiyi (ed) Perspectives on

Nigerian Literature 1700 to the Present. Volume one Ikeja: Guardian press.
Essays in Literature: African Books Networks http://www.hbooknetworks.com
Falola, Toyin(1988). Earliest Yoruba Writers in Ogunbiyi (ed).

Perspectives on Nigerian Literature 1700 to the Present. Volume One Ikeja:
Guardian Press.
Yahaya, Ibrahim Yaro (1988). The Development of Hausa Literature in Ogunbiyi (ed).
96
Perspectives on Nigerian Literature 1700 to the Present. Volume One Ikeja:

Guardian Press.
97
Unit 4
THE RISE OF NIGERIAN LITERATURE
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Writings in Vernacular
3.1.1 Hausa Literature
3.1.2 Igbo Literature
3.1.3 Yoruba Literature
3.2
The Writings of Oluadah Equaino
3.3
The Writings of Amos Tutuola
3.4
The writings of Cyprian Ekwensi
3.5
The writings of Chinua Achebe
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor/Marked Assignment
7.0
1.0
Introduction
We have seen from Module One that Nigerian literature began with the oral tradition
because oral literature is the root of African literature. The oral literature as the name
implies was rendered orally by the unsung heroes of our literary past like the bards, story
tellers, griots, priests and many others.
In this unit, you will be introduced to the works of early Nigerian writers in both
indigenous and English languages. These writers are all novelists. You will see that their
works were derived from the basic element of oral literature. Although one could claim
that the dramatic genre was popular in the Onitsha Market Literature as you will see in
the next unit, the novel as a full fledged literature developed before drama. These novels
depicted the preoccupation of these early writers.
98
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Identify the early Nigerian novelists
Identify the thematic preoccupations of these writers
Trace the gradual evolvement of the novel in Nigeria.
Identify the influences and aims of these writers
Main Content
The early Nigerian writer wrote mainly in the prose form. Their works range from
personal accounts which started with could be classified as fantasy and developed to the
realistic mode of the novel.
3.1
Writings in Vernacular
Whenever we discuss the Nigerian novel, the focus is usually on the novels written in
English language. Little or no attention is paid to the novels or other forms of literature
written in Nigerian indigenous languages. Sometimes, we learn of such works in the
secondary schools when we offer subjects like Igbo, Hausa or Yoruba. These are the
officially recognized languages in Nigeria consequently, they are the ones taught in the
secondary schools and in some department in the tertiary institutions.
However literature also abound in other major Nigerian languages. For instance there are
many literary artists who wrote in the Efik language but E.N. Amaku towers above the
rest. The Efik fiction evolved from the oral literature of story telling. In Edikot Mbuke
which is regarded as his greatest prose work (Babalola: 50) he uses animal characters
like Ekpe (Leopard) who is famous for his agility and the Ikut (Tortoise) who is notorious
for his craftiness to tell interesting stories that intermingle fantasy with reality. These
novels in the indigenous languages help to improve, the vocabularies of, popularize and
perpetuate such languages. They also contribute to the linguistic development of the
languages.
99
Literature in local languages occupies a very important position in the development of

Nigerian literature but Nigerian literature in any foreign language had its roots in the oral
heritage of the writers traditional background. In the words of Ernest Emenyonu, every
Nigerian who tells or writes a story today in whatever language, is reflecting consciously
or unconsciously something of his past, something of his peoples or communitys
heritage. An authentic study of Nigerian literature must, therefore, begin by examining
and appreciating the origins and development of literature in Nigerian indigenous
languages, (34).
3.1.1 Hausa Literature

The development of the novel in Hausa is influenced by the Hausa folklore and Arabian
tales. The written tradition was introduced to northern Nigeria in the 15th century by Arab
scholars and traders. The Hausa folklore is unique in the sense that it is prominently,
though not exclusively, peopled with animals who have human characteristics and
tendencies. These tales are in fact a significant reflection of human society in which
seniority is determined not by age (as in real Hausa society) but in most cases by sheer
physical size (Babalola: 57) and strength. In such stories, the tiny animals survive
through their wit and greater intelligence. In most cases, they outwit the more powerful
animals. In the human tales, the weaker people use certain qualities like keen and
upr ight moral conscience to overcome their adversaries. Another prominent stereotyped
figure in Hausa literature is the Ogre which is usually an incredible gigantic man-eating
monster who hoards wealth and keeps a young beautiful woman hostage as a maid or
wife in his solitary abode. Usually a human hero fights him and eventually overpowers
him and sets the hostage free. This hero is usually endowed with courage, strength, fatal
sword or arrow and other charms that aid his victory. Another human stereo-type from
the political point of view is the figure of Waziri who is usually very wicked, cunning,
disloyal and power-hungry. These are reflected in many Hausa fictions from the earliest
period. As discussed in unit, the rise of Hausa fiction was facilitated by the establishment
of elementary and provincial schools in the northern parts of Nigeria between 1909 and
1928 and the interest of the government in the development of books especially literature.
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The first set of literature were translations from Arabic to Hausa by the translation
Bureau set up by the government. The bureau was later renamed Literature Bureau to
accommodate works by indigenous authors. This bureau organized fiction-writing
competitions in Hausa encouraged indigenous author to write literary works. Many
writers entered for the competition but only five outstanding entries were selected and
published. They were Ruwan Bagoja by M. Abubaka Iman, Shehu Umar by M. Abubakar
Tafawa Balewa, Gandoki by Bello Kagara, Idon Matambayi by M. Mohammadu Gwarza,
and Jiki Magayi by M. Tafida. These were the first Hausa novels which are still
published as classical Hausa literature (Yahaya 15).
These authors made use of the oral traditions in form of story-telling especially in their
use of the narrator. However, some of these novelists made use of historical facts, while
some of them historical facts with fantasy. A good example is Shehu Umar who starts his
novels with a story-telling session in which the narrator recalls past historical events,
based on reality of life of the people to his audience. According to Yaro Yahaya, Gandoki
also starts with the narration of past events concerning the wars of British occupation of
Hausa land. From real life situations, he plunges into the world of fantasy as Gandoki, the
hero engages in skirmishes with djinns and other supernatural beings. Ruwan Bagaja is
pure fiction that depicts a hero, Iman who sets out in search of healing water. He
succeeds in getting the healing after overcoming all the obstacles, and forces in the
wonderland of djinns in the East. In appreciation of the literary quality of Abubakar
Imams work, the government employed him to work with the literature Bureau where he
produced his Magana Jarice in three volumes. In this work, he adopted the style of the
Arabian Nights but the sources remained the Hausa folktales. He also fused the tales with
the English Grimms Household Tales and the Arabic Khalila wa Dimna. He fused them
with drastic touches of originality, by giving the narration of the stories a unifying
theme through key recurring figures (Yahaya 16). Thus Abubakar Iman became the first
prolific Hausa novelist.
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In 1953, the North Regional Literature Agency (NORLA) was set up to augment the
activities of the literature Bureau. Through these agencies, the Government helped to
accelerate the growth of Hausa literature.
3.1.2 Igbo Literature

We saw in the last unit that the missionaries encouraged the development of indigenous
languages. These missionaries needed to study these languages to aid their evangelization
mission in Nigeria. The origin of Igbo literature could be linked with the beginnings of
formal studies of Igbo language in the mid 19th century as a result of the efforts of the
missionaries to develop the indigenous language. The development of Igbo orthography
propelled some Igbo men to write in their language. According to Ernest Emenyonu,
Rev. J. F. Schons publication of A Grammar of the Ibo Language in 1840 aided the
development of Igbo literature. Rev. Ajayi Crowther and other missionaries also helped
in to collate the unwritten Igbo materials and to put them in the written form.
Other publications followed but the Isoama-Ibo Primer published by William Baikie was
a turning point for literature in Igbo. This work contains a translation of the first chapter
of St. Matthews Gospel, Igbo alphabets, words, phrases, sentence patterns, the Ten
Commandments and the Lords Prayer. It also contains some extracts, which according to
Emenyonu, became the first literary creative in Igbo written literature. The book was
revised and enlarged in 1927 to include more essays on religious and secular topics and a
long narrative riddle on about the sun and a folktale. After the revision, the title was
changed to Azundu and it remained the major work in literature in Igbo language for
nearly a century. This and other such publications eventually served not only the primary
religious purpose of evangelization but also as a sound foundation for the written
indigenous literature in which folktales and other genres of oral tradition were recorded
and woven into poetry, short stories and novels in Igbo language. In addition to textbooks
in Igbo, literary texts were also written. The development of this literature like the
development of the Nigerian literature, is based on oral narratives and the portrayal of
life, traditional values, proverbs and other aspects the Igbo culture.
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Pita Nwanas Omenuko was the first full-length literary work in Igbo. Omenuko
contained a lot of wit, volatile humour and insistent moral overtones (Emenyonu). The
sayings of Omenuko the major character is likened to John Ploughmans talks as
Omenuko remained the dominant literary piece in Igbo language for about three decades.
F. C. Ogbalu contributed immensely to the development of Igbo literature. Apart from his
own writings and efforts to promote the language, his varsity Press, Onitsha helped in the
publication of Igbo literature and other literary works. This publishing house helped to
encourage and revitalize the Igbo literature. Subsequently, Leopold Bell-Grams
Ijeodumodu Jere and D. N. Acharas Ala Bingo were published in 1963. D. N. Achara
also published Elelia Na ihe Omere in 1964. These novelists made significant use of the
repertoire of Igbo oral heritage in form of proverbs, riddles, and other unique nuances of
the language.
3.1.3 Yoruba Literature

It is said that Yoruba Literature may have pre-dated the 19th Century because of Northern
Yorubas contact with the Islamic religion. This presumption is based on the fact that
Islam is associated with learning. However, after the fall of Oyo empire in early
nineteenth century, Ilorin became a centre of learning because of its close contact with
Islam. Yoruba Imams and teachers then must have written literary works but there is little
or no evidence to authenticate this fact. Again if such works existed, they may have been
written in Arabic.
Later in the 19th century with the return of liberated slaves and the establishment of
Christian mission schools in Yoruba land, efforts were made by scholars to write both in
English and Yoruba languages. However, Samuel Ajayi Crowthers A Vocabulary of the
Yoruba Language (1843) laid a solid foundation for the written literature in Yoruba
language. Another major influence on the development of Yoruba literature was the
cultural nationalism in Yoruba land that started at about 1880s. The Yoruba elite tried to
rekindle their customs and institutions and this gave rise to an agitation for the teaching
of Yoruba history, in schools. Consequently, some of the educated ones with creative
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abilities started writing Yoruba literature which they hoped would help to document their
cultural and social norms so that their traditional forms of folklore, legends, histories, and
parables will not get into oblivion or extinction. Moreover, the schools needed these texts
in their curricula.
The pioneer Yoruba literary scholar is E. M. Lijadu. He was a school master and catechist
for the Anglican mission in Ondo. His works were mainly in oral literature and religion.
They include Ifa: Imole Re Ti Ise Ipile Isin Ni Ile Yoruba (1887); Orunmila (1908) and a
book on poetry Kekere Iwe Orin Aribiloso (1886). A romantic fiction in pamphlet form
Dolapo Asewo Omo Asewo was written by an anonymous writer in 1890. The work
presented a story in a plot that followed a logical sequence though it contained some
obscenities. Alo Meje, a pamphlet, a collection of short stories was published in 1893.
Many imaginary stories were also published in Newspapers.
What could be regarded as the first novel in Yoruba is Itan Emi Segilola by I. B. Thomas
which was published in 1930. It was serialized earlier in 1929 in a newspaper, Akede
Eko. This was followed seven years later by Daniel Fagunwas Ogboju Ode Ninu Igbo
Irunmole. Fagunwa has remained an outstanding Yoruba novelist. He uses allegory that is
based on Yoruba folktale tradition in which every event can be used to teach a moral
(Isola:79). His novel is presented in an episodic plot that usually revolves around the
adventures of a brave hunter on a dangerous journey. It contains some popular Yoruba
tales that are loosely strung together. However, he invents some of the stories and
borrows some from Christian religious literature and other literary sources. The hero
encounters some difficulties but in the end, he surmounts the obstacles and accomplishes
his task triumphantly.His successful attempt inspired other writers like Ogundele who
published Ejigbede Lona Isalu Orun and Ibu Olokun (1956); Omoyajowo who wrote Itan
Odeniya Omo Odeleru (1957); Fatanmis Korimale Ninu Igbo Adimula and others
wrote like what could be regarded as fantasy like Fagunwa though they were not as
successful as him.
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One of the first attempts at the writing of a realistic novel in Yoruba was made by Delano
who wrote Aiye Daiye Oyinbo (1955). It is based on the story of Babalola, an Oba who
resists the incursion of the colonialists in his territory. Like many other traditional
leaders, he fails because he could not match the superior arms of his adversaries.
3.2
Olaudah Equiano
Before the written tradition developed in Nigeria, a Nigerian, an ex-slave, Olaudah

Equiano had published a book in Europe. He became the first African to write a literary
work in English language. The novel titled The Interesting Narrative of the Life of
Olaudah Equiano, or Vassa Gustava, The African: Written by Himself was published in
it in 1789. marked a significant point in the development of Nigerian literature.
The novel contains an account of how he was kidnapped as a boy of 12 from his village
of Essaka, near Benin and sold to a white slave trader. He recounts how he eventually got
his freedom. The novel is presented in the first person point of view. He states clearly in
the novel that he is an African and that the story was written by himself.
He describes with nostalgia his African home. The novel is divided into three sections. In
the first section, he gives an account of his country and the way he was sold into slavery.
The second section is an account of his various adventures and his personal
achievements. Finally the last section presents his involvement in the anti-slave
movement and his attempt to get the British government to develop other forms of trade
in Africa.
In this brief description above, one would be inclined to think that this is an
autobiography but it is not. He may have presented a personal account but this is
imaginatively presented and it cleared the path and led the way for not just Nigerian
literature but laid the foundation for the contemporary protest literature in Africa.
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3.3
Amos Tutuola
The real indigenous Nigerian literature in English was pioneered by Amos Tutuola. His
work, The Palmwine Drinkard is famed to be the first Nigerian novel, having been
published in 1952. This novel is seen as a link in the transition of Nigerian literature from
vernacular to English language and to the western literary tradition. It preceded Cyprian,
Ekwensis People of the City which is regarded as his first novel though he started earlier.
The original title of Tutuolas novel was the Palm-wine Drinkard and His Dead Palm
wine Tapster in the Deads Town.
The novel is presented in an episodic plot technique but the loose episodes are bound
together by the quest motif which is central to the novel. In it, the palm wine Drinkard
losses his tapster and because he could not live without drinking palm wine, he goes to
the land of the dead in search of the tapster and to bring him back to earth to continue
tapping wine for him. On reaching the land of the dead, he is told that once some one has
been certified dead in the land of the living, the person cannot be resurrected. However
he is compensated. His tapster gives him a magical present that would help him cope
without him when he gets back. This novel like Fagunwas, is a fantasy.
The novelist draws extensively from the story telling, myth, legend and other forms of
Yoruba and Oral traditions. The major critique of the novel is on the language. The story
is presented in a language that could be called a transliteration of the story-teller
presentation in Yoruba. Perhaps like Coleridge in Kubla Khan, Tutuola recorded his
story as the inspiration came to him. His proficiency in English language is very low and
this could be attributed to the death of his father that made him drop out of school in
primary five. However, this shortcoming could be over-looked given the manner in which
he captures the English language spoken by the ordinary people in his community. In
spite of this apparent flaw, the novel was a huge success. It brought him to the limelight
and instantly an international fame. He followed it with the publication of other novels
like My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (1952), Simbi and the Satyr of the Dark Jungle (1955)
Ajaiye and His Inherited Poverty (1968). The Brave African Huntress (1958) The Witch
Herbalist of the Remote Town (1981). He died in 1997.
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3.4
Cyprain Ekwensi
Cyprain Ekwensis People of the City (1954) is regarded as the first West African novel
in modern English. His first creative work was a collection of short stories Ikolo the
Wrestler and other Ibo Tales published in 1947 and The Leopard Claw also in 1947. In
1948, he published his first pamphlet in the Onitsha Market Literature tradition. His other
works include The Passport of Mallam Illa (1960), Jagua Nana (1961), Burning Grass
(1962) and many others. He has about twenty six novels and novella and could be said to
be the most prolific novelist in Nigeria.
Interestingly, Cyprian Ekwensi studied forestry and pharmacy. He later studied

broadcasting. He worked and retired with the media where he rose to the rank of the
Federal Director of Information in 1961. This does not mean that he did not practice his
original profession but he seemed to have been involved in a lot of professions and
excelled in all. He was a teacher, a journalist, a pharmacist, a diplomat, a businessman, a
company director, a public relations consultant and a writer. A writer summarized his
personality thus:
There are two Cyprian Ekwensis. Cyprian Ekwensi, the

Nigerian novelist, broadcaster, short story writer, the man
who lives in the world of ink and Literature and Cyprian
Ekwensi, the pharmacist, the man of the white coat,
dispensing medicine, sterilizing injections and controlling
drugs (quoted in Emenyonu.22).
His most controversial novel was Jagua Nana which has been the only novel that was
debated upon by Nigerians in the house of parliament. This was when a foreign
companys proposal to adapt the novel for the celluloid was stopped. The novel uses the
heroine, Jagua Nana, a prostitute to satirize the Nigerian Society especially politics. Jagua
was an Ibo lady who abandoned her husband in Enugu, went to Lagos and became a
superlative prostitute. Through her profession, she got involved with all sorts of men
from the top civil servants/politicians to rouges and armed robbers. In her encounter with
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these men, Ekwensi explores the theme of corruption in the Nigerian Economic and
Socio-political system. The political story in the novel is that of exploitation of the
people, fraudulent abuse of power, reckless embezzlement of public money and ultimate
forfeiture of public trust (Emenyonu 24).
The issues raised in the novel though published more than four decades ago, are still
relevant to our contemporary experiences - rigging of election, assassination of political
opponents, misuse of public funds, the existence of the suffering people who are in the
majority and many other social vices are still burning issues in contemporary Nigeria.
Jagua Nanas only regret is that she could not bear a child of her own. However, she
ended as a very wealthy woman because one of her customers, a top politician left a lot of
money that belongs to his party with her. When he died, nobody could claim the money.
It became Jagua Nanas money. Cyprian Ekwensi died in 2000
3.5
Chinua Achebe
Chinua Achebe has remained a household name all over the world because of his novel
Things Fall Apart. In his early novels, Achebe addressed basic African problems like
colonialism and propagated African values to the world. His emergence in the Nigerian
literary scene marked a milestone in the Nigerian literary scene. It is difficult to discuss
Nigerian Literature without mentioning Things Fall Apart which is said to be a reaction
to Joyce Carys Mister Johnson which we discussed in the last unit.
In the novel, Achebe presents a once peaceful and harmonious Igbo society that was torn
apart by the exploits of the colonial masters in Igbo land. His early works focused on the
invasion of Igbo land by Europeans, and the subsequent imposition of their laws,
customs, government and religion on the indigenes. This imposition succeeded mainly
because they condemned the existing culture, religion and socio-political institutions of
the people. The Christian religion was the most potent tool, so with it, the converts were
brainwashed and they turned against their own people. This divide and rule tactics helped
to destroy the society.
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In Things Fall Apart, this theme of clash of cultures is presented through Okonkwo who
is a successful man, hardworking, honest, courageous and brave. He however acts
irrationally at times because he does not want to be termed weak. Unfortunately, he
destroys himself in the process of fighting the colonialists. Apart from Things Fall Apart,
Achebe has published other novels like, Arrow of God, No Longer Ease, A Man of the
People, Anthills of the Savannah and others that include novelettes, collection of short
stories, and poems.
In his novels, Achebe is noted for his brevity and simplicity in his use of language. In
Things Fall Apart, he captures an ideal Igbo society, their government, religion, festivals,
rituals and other ceremonies. He uses the Igbo proverbs, riddles, folktales and other forms
of the Igbo oral tradition to stamp a mark of uniqueness in his novels.
Chinua Achebe remains the most read African author in the world. His successful first
novel, Things Fall Apart, first published in 1958, has sold millions of copies and has been
translated into numerous languages. Like many African writers, Achebes primary focus
has been African identity. In particular, he has been highly critical of the way that
Western literature has portrayed native Africans. His work also explores the many
detrimental effects of centuries of colonialism on the African continent. In his fiction,
essays, criticism, poetry, and even childrens literature, Achebe has questioned not only
how the West views Africa but also how Africa views itself. Achebes potent social
commentary has earned him worldwide acclaim.
Chinua Achebe was born into an Ibo family on Nov. 15, 1930, at Ogidi in Eastern
Nigeria. He was educated at a government college in Umuahia, and he graduated from
the University College at Ibadan in 1954. He worked for the Nigerian Broadcasting
Corporation but his spent greater part of his life as a lecturer in various universities in
Nigeria and abroad. In 1990, Achebe was involved in a serious car accident that left him
paralyzed from the waist down
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4.0
Conclusion
Nigerian novels are written in both English and local languages. In the Northern part of
the country, the government encouraged and supported the writings in Hausa. In the east
and the west, individual writers wrote as inspired. However, in Western Nigeria, there
was an agitation and movement against foreign culture and literature. This, directly or
indirectly affected the literary productions in Yoruba. In all the cases, education was a
propelling factor as tribes wanted their children to also learn through the local languages.
Christianity also played an important role in the development of Nigerian Literature as
church leaders needed to communicate with the indigenes. Consequently, they
encouraged and indeed, pioneered the development of some Nigerian languages.
The Nigerian novel in English language started with fantasy that presented some looselystrung episodes of fantastic incidents. Novels in both languages drew a lot of materials
from the oral tradition especially that of story-telling (folktales).
5.0
Summary
We have seen in this unit that the Nigerian novel grew out of the peoples oral literature.
We have also learnt that novels were written in both indigenous languages and English.
These novels present fantastic tales with didactic motives. They also presented the
Nigerian societies before the advent of colonization, during the colonial period and the
effect of the encounter between Nigerians and Europeans. Social ills in the society are
also reflected in these early Nigerian novels. Some of the novels are based on historical
events.
6.0
List and explain briefly, the focus of Nigerian early writers in English language.
7.0
References/Further Reading.
Emenyonu, Ernest The Rise and Development of Igbo Novel in Ogunbiyi (ed).
110
Ogunbiyi, Yemi (ed) (1988) Perspectives on Nigerian Literature 1700 to the present.
Volume Two. Lagos: Guardian Books.
Falola, Toyin (1988) Earliest Yoruba Writers in Yemi Ogunbiyi (ed) Perspectives on
Nigerian Literature 1700 to the Present volume one. Lagos: Guardian Books.
King, Bruce (ed) (1974) Introduction to Nigerian Literature Lagos: Evans Brothers.
Taiwo, Oladele (1967) An Introduction to West African Literature. Lagos: Nelson
Yahaya, Ibrahim Yaro (1988) The Development of Hausa Literature in Yemi Ogunbiyi
(ed) Perspectives on Nigerian Literature 1700 to the present volume one. Lagos:
Guardian Books.
Httm://www.writers.com/asp
Online wikipedia dictionary

http://en.wikipedia.org//writing career.
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Unit 5
The Pioneer Nigerian Poets
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Nigerian Languages
3.2
Dennis Osadebey
3.3
Christopher Okigbo
3.4
Gabriel Okara
3.5
John Pepper Clark
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
Poetry is a genre of literature which is also written in English and vernacular. It is a mode
of expression in forms of praise, songs, dirges and other forms of rhythmic expression. It
is important to note here that poems are not presented because of beauty alone but like
other literary artists, poets express their feelings, their concerns on issues and also use it
to satirize and criticize institutions or social ills. In the last unit we discussed the
emergence of the Nigerian novel and the thematic pre-occupation of early Nigerian
novelists. In this unit we will learn more about the early Nigerian poets and their
preoccupations. We will concentrate on the writers like we did in the last unit and will
not go into an indepth analysis of their works. The most outstanding poets are Dennis
Osadebey, Christopher Okigbo, Gabriel Okara, John Pepper Clark and Wole Soyinka.
2.0
Objectives
Identify some early Nigerian poets
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Discuss their medium of expression
Identify their thematic preoccupations
List some poems in other Nigerian languages
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Poems in Nigerian Languages
Like we did in the last unit, we will concentrate on poets who wrote in Nigerian
languages and also those who wrote in English language.
3.1.1 The Hausa Poets

Some Islamic scholars wrote poems in both Arabic and Hausa, some of those who wrote
in Hausa and their poems include Wali Danmasani whose poem Wakir Yakin Badar
presents a description of the Islamic war of Badar. Another poet of this period were
Mallam Muhammadu Na Birnin Gwari and Mallam Shiitu Dan Abdurraufo who
composed five poems each. These poets wrote in the late 18th Century.
Usman Dan Fodio was reputed to have composed about four hundred and eighty (480)
poems out of which twenty five (25) were in Hausa. One remarkable feature of the
literary composition of this period is that in the absence of a printing press, the poems
were written by these poets on plain sheets of paper from where they were recited by the
students after they had copied them. Also, blind beggars memorized the poems and
recited them to willing audiences on streets, market places and in front of mosques after
the prayers, poetry composition was popular and preceded compositions in other literary
genres: Amino Kano was another prominent poet in Hausa and he wrote from 1920
1950.
3.1.2 The Yoruba Poets

We saw in the preceding units that the Christian missionaries were instrumental to the
development of the Yoruba orthography which made writing in Yoruba possible. The
Yoruba poets started with the recording of the oral poetry of their people. However, a
missionary, Henry Townsends Yoruba Hymns (1848) is said to be the first attempt of
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writing a poems in Yoruba. Moses Lijadu helped to popularize the oral poets who could
not record their poems in form of writing because of their level of illiteracy. He collated
and documented some of them. Many of these early poems were presented in the form of
the traditional orinarungbe, a poetic form that is associated with the oro cult in Egba
land. Josiah Sowande (Sobo Ariobodu) was a very popular poet in this group as about ten
(10) volumes of his poems were published between 1902 and 1936.
Some poets of this period who were Christians, adapted the traditional poems to suit their
Christian perspectives. Others wrote protest poems in which they criticized some aspects
of Christianity which they felt, threatened the Yoruba traditional institutions. The most
popular poet in this group was Denrele Obasa. These earlier poets, influenced modern
Yoruba poets who are writing both in Yoruba and English.
3.2
Dennis Osadebey
Dennis Osadebey from Delta State, studied law in Britain and was called to the English
bar. He is one of the pioneers of independence and was a former premier of Western
Region. He was a politician and a poet. He was one of the earliest poets in Africa. Being
a politician involved in the nationalist struggle for Independence, his poems have
political undertones as they also serve as tools for the movement of national liberations.
While he was in England, he suffered racial discrimination from the whites who saw him
as unintelligent, so treated him with contempt. His popular poem Young Africas Plea
presents according to him the urge in the heart of the African to be free (Roscoe 15).
This poem presents an appeal that Africas custom should not be preserved as curious for
the western world. This reveals the poets nostalgic attachment to a heritage he believes
to be vanishing. Hence, his plea for untrammeled growth and a request to those who
doubt his talent to show their own nobility in their actions towards others.
This poem seeks respect for African customs and tradition. It is written in the concept of
African personality which is a nationalistic ideology of the Anglo-phone West Africans
while the Franco-phone countries talk of negritude. This ideology propounded by some
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English speaking scholars of West Africa argues that African tradition is noble and not
primitive. The African is an honourable, respectable man and not a savage. The African
is well brought up, has dignity, has history and has culture. So in another poem Arise
Africa, Osadebey calls on his brothers:
Ye noble sons of Africa, rise and shine,
Show forth your courage and your strength;
Lift up your banners, raise your great
And let your trumpets peal at length ensign,
To tell the world your day is come at last
This poem typifies the perspective of Osadebeys poetry as a tool for nationalistic
movement and the struggle for independence.
3.3. Christopher Ifekandu Okigbo

Christopher Okigbo was born in Ojoto, Anambra State, in 1932 and died in 1967. He was
a Nigerian Poet who died for the independence of Biafra. He is acknowledged today as
one of the outstanding postcolonial poet in the country. Within his short lifetime, he
established himself as a central figure in the development of modern poetry in Africa and
as one of the most important African poets in English. He saw poetry as a profession and
was dedicated to this profession. Okigbo excelled more in sports than in academics
during his youth. He attended Government College, Umuahia, in the late 1940s, then
went on to study Western classics at the University of Ibadan, where he received his B.A.
degree in 1956. After graduation from the university Okigbo held various jobs in business
and government. He taught secondary school from 1958 to 1960, and then worked in the
library at the University of Nsukka, from 1960 to 1962 before becoming a representative
for Cambridge University Press in West Africa.
The two collections of verse that appeared during Okigbos lifetime established him as an
innovative and controversial poet, although his poetry also appeared in the important
West African cultural magazines Black Orpheus and Transition. The two collections
Heavensgate (1962) and Limits (1964)reveal a personal, introspective poetry informed
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by a familiarity with Western myths and filled with rich, startling images. In one of his
poems, he sees Idoto as a goddess like the Muse who inspires him. He returns to the
goddess for poetic inspirations and his nakedness shows his total surrender. Water is also
a source of inspiration but the Christian religion and education separates him from the
goddess. The poem is in the African personality mode. He intermingles Christianity and
traditional images and feels that he needs to go back to his traditional religion. As a
writer he wears a mask which separates the artist in him and his true person. Some critics
refer to him as an obscure poet, his poetry is demanding and allusive. It draws freely from
the Roman Catholic religion of his family in Ojoto. Okigbo maintained that his poetry
should be viewed as an organic whole as it expressed his coming of age as a poet.
Okigbo moved to the city of Enugu on the eve of the Nigerian civil war (1967-1970), he
set up a publishing house, Citadel Press with Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe. When
war broke out Okigbo joined the Biafran forces, who sought to secede from Nigeria and
was commissioned as a major. In August 1967 he was killed in action at Ekwegbe, near
Nsukka. His last poems, published posthumously with much of his earlier work in
Labyrinths; with Path of Thunder (1971), shows a new focus on the impending civil
disturbance in his country.
An outstanding personality, Christopher Okigbo tells everyone not to be confined by their
cultural, political, artistic, creative and humane limits. Chinua Achebe refers to him as
the finest Nigerian poet of his generation as his work becomes better and more in the
world, he will be recognized as one of the most remarkable anywhere in our time.
(Achebe ix).
Christopher Okigbos poetic career was short lived. His first publication was in 1962 and
the last one in 1966. Within this very short period he composed and published poems the
poems though presented as separate entities, they are linked as they chronicle the
historical events in the country from the colonial period to the civil war.
In the poems, he presents his peoples cultural and historical experiences. Romanus
Egudu, opine that Okigbos poetry is distinct. It is characterized by an artistic excellence
116
that is firmly rooted in his own indigenous cultural tradition (60). Heavensgate (1962)
and Limits (1964) present the estrangement which the people suffered as a result of
their contact with the Europeans. However, Abdul Yesufu views these collections from
the ritualistic perspectives. He observes that they are essentially ceremonial poems
that celebrate, in turns, the fragmentation and restoration of a psyche and the cultural
matrixes within which it operates These poems are replete with ritual utterances,
symbols and movements which present a picture of a great preparation for and an
engagement in a life journey undertaken in order to recover the fragments of a person, of
his people and of his culture (236)
The dilemma of some people who could not
reconcile their alliance to the traditional religion and Christianity is therefore highlighted.
He presented the Christian foreign missionaries as birds of prey that swooped on the
traditional gods and destroyed them. He presents his return to his cultural roots in an
attempt to fuse his dismembered identity together. He sees himself as a a prodigal son
who returns to seek fogginess and reunification with his family and community. In the
traditional society, such return is steeped is a ritual that is expected to cleanse him and set
him free from the taints of the foreign culture. He therefore announces:
BEFORE YOU, Mother Idoto,
naked I stand;
before your watery presence,
a prodigal( 3)
In Silences (1963 1965) he presents the politics of the post independent Nigeria that
was characterized with rigging, confusion and purposelessness which led to the
disillusionment of the people. His poem The Path of Thunder depicts the military coup
of 1966 in Nigeria which he applauded and foretells the civil war and consequence of the
coup. His prophesy became a reality as the crisis after the coup culminated in the civil
war of 1967 in Nigeria. Unfortunately, he was killed in that coup.
3.4 Gabriel Okara

The Nigerian poet and novelist Gabriel Imomotimi Gbaingbain Okara was born in
Bomoundi in Bayelsa State, Nigeria, in April 1921. He has written many poems, the
117
most famous of which is "Piano and Drums". He may be described as highly original
poet and uninfluenced by other poets. He has been extremely successful in capturing
the moods, sights and sounds of Africa. His poems show great sensitivity, perceptive
judgments and a tremendous energy. He also shows a concern for what happens when
the ancient culture of Africa is faced with modern Western culture, as in his poem
"Once Upon a Time".
Okara belongs more to the pioneer fictionalist Amos Tutuola than the so-called
modern novelists. His novel The Voice has bees acclaimed to be one of the most
memorable works of fiction by African writers because of the uniqueness of the language
used in the novel. We are concerned here with Okara as a poet. The poems present issues
that border on colonization, post independence disillusionment, the events of the civil war
and the reconstruction and rehabilitation that followed the civil war. Like some of his
contemporaries such as Cyprain Ekwensi and T. M. Aluko, he went through secondary
school preparing for a profession and like them, he eventually turned to writing. He was
first published in the late 1950s, so belongs to the first generation of Nigerian writers.
3.4 J. P. Clark
J. P. Clark is one of the early poets in Nigeria. He studied English and worked as an
Information Officer, Journalist and retired as a Lecturer. He is also a playwright as you
will see in Module III. He is Ijaw by tribe so imageries from the creek and the riverine
areas of Nigeria abound in his poems. He studied English and pay attention to forms
and techniques in his works. He expresses personal emotions, ideas and observations in
his poetry. His poetry is not anchored on politics. He is a very conscious poet who says
many things in a few words. His style is therefore compact.
Clark relies a lot on images in the presentation of his ideas. His most popular poems
are Abiku and Night Rain. In the two poems, he makes elaborate use of visual
imagery. He presents human imagery of poverty and human suffering. His poems are
sensuous, they affect our senses and by cumulative effect of imagery he is able to relay
his message.
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His other poetry collections include Poems (1961), A Reed in the Tide (1965)
Casualties: Poems 1966 1968 (1970). A Decade of Tongues (1981) State of the
Union (1981) Mandela and Other Poems (1988). There is a mark of originality in his
poems and some of the themes he treats are poverty, the beauty of the landscape,
colonialism, the inhumanity of the race corruption and so on.
4.0
Conclusion
In this unit we presented some early Nigerian poets who wrote in local languages and in
English. Like the novelists, the poets are influenced by their oral tradition and the
historical development in the country. We have not tried to analyze any particular poem
since we are concerned mainly with the subject matters of the poems.
5.0
Summary
In this unit you have learnt more about early Nigerian poets and the focus of their works.
You learnt also that these poets exerted tremendous influence on the contemporary poets.
6.0
List the major historical developments in the country that influenced the early Nigerian
poets?
7.0
Achebe, Chinua and Dubem Okafor (1978) Dont Let Him Die: An Anthology of
Memorial Poems for Christopher Okigbo 193267. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.
Anyika, Francis (1987). Nsukka Journal of the Humanities Nos 516 June/December
1989. Nsukka: Faculty of Arts UNN.
Echeruo, Micheal J. C. (1992) Gabriel Okara: A Poet and His Seasons in

World Literature Today. http://www. Westafricareview.com/vol2.1.echeruo.html
Egudu Romanus Christopher Okigbo in Yemi Ogunbiyi (ed) Perspectives on Nigerian
119
Literature 1700 to the Present Volume Two. Ikeja: Guardian Books.
Nwoga, Donatus I (2000 ed) West African Verse. Lagos: Longman.
Ogunbiyi, Yemi (ed) (1988) Perspectives on Nigerian Literature 1700 to the Present
Volume One and Two. Ikeja: Guardian Books.
Okigbo, Christopher(1971). Labyrinths.London:Heinemann.
Roscoe, Adrian (1981). Mother is Gold, A Study of West African Literature. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Wren, Robert N. (1984) J. P. Clark. Houston: G. K. Hall & Company.
Yesufu, Abdul R. (2001) Ritual and the Quest for Selfhood in Okigbos Labyrinths and
Braithwaitess Masks in Jozsef, Pal and Szili Jozsef ed.
Neohelicon:ACTA
COMPARATIONIS LITERARUM UNIVERSARUM XXVIII/I. Dorderecht: Kluwer

Academic.
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Module III: The Development of Nigerian Drama

Unit 1 The Development of Drama from Alarinjo Itinerant Theatre to the European
Concert Tradition
Unit 2 - The Popular Traveling Theatre Movement: Hubert Ogunde, Duro Ladipo, Kola
Ogunmola, Moses Olaiya.
Unit 4 Nigerian Drama II: J. P. Clark, Wole Soyinka, Ola Rotimi, and Zulu Sofola,
Unit 5 Revolutionary Aesthetics in Nigerian Drama: Femi Osofisan, Bode Sowande,
and Tess Onwueme
Unit 1:
The Development of Drama from Alarinjo Itinerant Theatre to

European Concert Parties
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Alarinjo
3.2
Concert Shows
3.2.1 Foreign Concerts

3.2.2 Academy Concerts
3.2.3 Saro-Elite Concerts
3.2.4 Schools / Churches Concerts
3.3
Indigenous Plays
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
121
1.0
Introduction
In the last unit, we discussed the Nigerian pioneer poets and their contribution to the
development of Nigerian Literature. In this unit we will learn more about the
development of Nigerian drama from the traditional itinerant dramatists to the plays
written in the western literary tradition. We have itinerant dramatic and theatrical groups
or performances in other parts of the country but the Alarinjo will be used here as a
representative study. We will also see the influence of the Lagos concerts in the
development of Nigerian drama.
2.0
Objective
By the end of this, unit you should be able to:
Discuss the itinerant theatre
Discuss the contributions of the Alarinjo to the development of the Nigerian

literature.
3.0
List the contributions of the Saro-Elites to the development of Nigerian Drama
Identify the earliest Nigerian plays on stage
Main Content
We will try to trace the development of Nigerian drama from the itinerant drama groups
through the concert parties to the European concept of proscenium stage plays.
3.1
Alarinjo
The Alarinjo is regarded as the first professional traveling theatre among the Yorubas.
This theatre group evolved from the Egungun cult in Yorubaland. According to J. A.
Adedeji, the Alarinjo was originally part of the Egungun Society, the ritual of ancestor
worship at about the 16th Century. It transformed into a court entertainment due to an
aborted plan by some of the members to prevent an Oyo king, Alaafin Ogbolu on exile
from going back to his home land. It happened that a member of the Kings council the
Oyo Mesi, who was a representative of the Egungun Society initiated a dramatic
strategy to foil the move because many of the people have acclimatized and settled in
exile so the do not want to go back to the old Oyo.
122
Usually, before a king goes back to an abandoned home, he sends emissaries to inspect
the erstwhile sites which may have been in ruins and determine the level of security there.
It is expected that they must propitiate the gods, and make sacrifices before the final
move in took place (Adedeji 222). The dramatic strategy devised by the councilors was
to use some ghost mummers (masked actors) to scare the emissaries. The intent perhaps,
was to create a seemingly state of insecurity.
The actors were made up of six stock characters, each representing a councilor, the
hunchback (Bashorun), the albino (Alapinni), the leper (Asipa), the prognathus (Sanu),
the dwarf (Laguna) and the cripple (Akiniku). Initially the plan seemed to work as the
emissaries were frightened and went back. However, through another strategy by the
Alaafin, the actors were captured by six brave hunters. The Kings Ologbo (Ologbin) was
instrumental to the capture of the actors. He was a member of the Egungun cult, so was
aware of their plans and revealed it to the king who sent the six hunters to capture them.
The ghost-mummers were taken to the king as court of entertainers and placed them
under Ologbin Ologbo. They were made to entertain the councilors who masterminded
the plan. They enjoyed the entertainment but never forgave Ologbin. The drama became
know as the Ghost and was managed by Ologbin. It was later presented publicly
though the councilors invoked rain to stop the performance but the king stopped the rain
and the performance went on. The councilor later poisoned Ologbin and he died but the
king honoured him by burying him in the court when they settled finally in the old Oyo.
Meanwhile, the story of the Ghost Catcher became a state performance that was reenacted three times a year during the Orisa Oko (farm god) festival, during the festival
of Orisa Mole, and during the Oduduwa festival. It was also enacted during the
installation of a new Alaafin. The theatre became permanent part of court entertainment
in old Oyo. Ologbin before his death, got a wooden mask and costume for the group
while he coordinated the improvisations.
The Alarinjo, thus, was founded by Ologbin Ologbojo and it became a family affair,
members formed a guild. When he died, his maternal relation, Esa Ogbin took over his
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position as the head of court entertainment. He improved on his predecessors art and
popularized the theatre. It flourished but among the lineages who were members of the
guild. Gradually, many guilds emerged but each guild guided its secrets very well.
Competition set in, consequently specialization and professionalism became inevitable.
The desire for excellence by individuals helped to promote their style and later the actor
without a mask emerged as they travelled from place to place to perform. Thus just like
the medieval drama moved from the church to open spaces, the Alarinjo moved from the
court to open spaces where their performance evolved from the Ghost Catchers to other
forms of dramatic and theatrical performances.
Self Assessment Exercise

Link the Ghost Catcher episode to the development of Nigerian drama.
3.2
Concerts
As we said earlier, the Europeans came to Nigeria with their religion, education,
government and culture. They had a culture of going to the theatre to watch musical
concerts and this was introduced in Nigeria. Also in schools, some dramatic skirts were
referred to as concerts.
3.2.1 Foreign Concerts

The missionaries, the colonial administrators and other foreigners who worked in Nigeria
were used to concerts as forms of entertainment and relaxation in Europe. Sometimes,
especially during the visit of an important personality from Britain they tried to organize
a ball and other forms of entertainment.
The missionaries and teachers in particular tried to influence their parishioners and pupils
with the European civilization. This includes European forms of entertainment which was
of course regarded as being superior to that of Nigerians. The European concerts
therefore became one of the steps of doctrinal and cultural indoctrination (Gbilekaa 3)
Professional artists were not there to present the kind of concerts that obtained in Britain
but they entertained themselves one way or the other.
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3.2.2 Academy Concerts

The Academy was a socio-cultural club that was concerned with the promotion of arts,
science and culture in Lagos. They organized social activities like debating, singing,
poetic recitations, classical music and staging of concerts. The first patron of the
Academy was Bishop Ajayi Crowther and his sons were members. Other members were
drawn from the Lagos elite group. Some of them were J.P.L. Davis, Robert Campbell,
J.A. Otunba Payne, Charles Foresythe and many others. Their first concert was like a
variety show that featured songs, recitations, music and drama sketches.
Majority of Nigerians living in Lagos at this time were illiterates so they had nothing to
do with the concerts which were European in terms of form and content. However the
Saro-elite who were slaves who returned from Europe and; the emigrant communities
made up of mainly Sierra Leonians and Brazilians patronized the concerts. The slaves felt
superior to the indigenes since they regarded themselves as civilized black-Europeans.
Ironically the indigenes looked down on them because they were slaves. This slave
emigrant community and the Christians regarded the Nigerian traditional entertainment as
heathen and uncivilized so focused on the foreign forms of entertainments.
Unfortunately, the Academy was short-lived as their building was regarded as a brothel.
People though members of the elite class who felt that they were responsible gentlemen
in the society stopped patronizing them on moral grounds.
A member of the Academy, Otunba Payne founded Philharmonic Society to continue the
entertainment tradition of the defunct Academy. Their philharmonic hall at Tinubu
Square was later changed to Phoenix Hall. The society organized concerts, songs and
music also but later evolved as a band that performed at occasions and in their own
concerts. Another prominent band group later was the Lagos Espirit de Corps who
performed at important occasions for the colonialists and local chiefs.
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3.2.3 SaroElite Concerts

The Saroelite saw the European concerts as forms of status symbol and patronized them.
By attending such concerts, they felt that they had high Victorian tastes and were
enjoying the European style of leisure and recreation. As we said earlier it was ironical
that while they regarded themselves as being superior to the natives, the natives looked
down on them and despised them. They are regarded as slaves and in the society, the
slave has no worth, no status in law and in the society. The Europeans were not
particularly liked by the people so these ex-slaves were seen as fake Europeans who were
neither Nigerians or Europeans so has no locus standi to make contributions on important
issues in the society.
The feeling of arrogance and superiority of the natives became so manifest that the Saro
elite did not only notice it but it affected them. The natives felt that they could not
condescend to attend concerts that did not reflect the Nigerian culture. This disdainful
treatment they receive from the natives deflated their ego, affected them morally, socially
culturally and psychologically.
They were discriminated against in almost every fact of life-schools, churches, and the
civil service. The Saro elite abandoned the Brazilian and Sierra Leonean emigrants who
were still Eurocentric in their attitudes to life and started staging their own concerts
which infused indigenous Yoruba materials. These concert could be appropriately
labeled a theatre of protest, discontent and disillusionment because they were mainly a
reaction by these elites against discrimination in the church and in the colonial service
(Gbilekka 9). The mixture of traditional Yoruba materials or presenting the concerts in
Yoruba was a way off seeking acceptability and integration by language.
Some of the concerts were adaptations of bible stories which were presented with a
mixture of songs and recitations., some of the titles were Cornelius Agrippa The
Seven Champions of Christendom and the Raising of the Dead. Some of the concerts
were presented in Yoruba language. The concerts were criticized by the foreigners and
126
their allys. The critics regarded the concerts as sacrilegious and blasphemous especially
for the use of indigenous musical instruments, dance and language.
Many of these concerts were presented in school or church halls. The Europeans were
disappointed that the educated Nigerians could support the desecration of schools and
churches. However, they knew that they could not stop this form of entertainment so they
decided to build a hall that people could hire for secular or religious shows.
Consequently, the Glover Memorial Hall was built in 1899.
The negative attitude of the Europeans against the indigenous culture jolted some
educated Nigerian who started to view Christianity with skepticism. They regarded
Christianity and colonialism as collaborators, so, decided to study and reflect their own
indigenous culture. This led to the establishment of the Bethel African Church. Gradually
members of the European churches seceded to form their own churches, where they could
infuse traditional materials, especially music and dance, in their worship and
performances. The secession of these churches was influenced by the nationalist
movements.
3.2.4 Schools/Churches Concerts

Missionary schools contributed a great deal to the development of drama in the colonial
era. They had dramatic clubs or entertainment societies that organized concerts at the end
of their school calendar or during festivities like Easter and Christmas.
The Catholic Church was by far the greatest producer of drama during this period.
Drama, being a concrete art, is usually used for entertainment, information and education.
This church therefore utilized the dramatic medium to teach English Language in order to
enhance the communication between the foreigners and the indigenes. Drama also
facilitated the teaching of local language schools. The church founded more secondary
schools and this contributed immensely to the growth of dramatic presentations. The
French priests who founded St Gregorys College in 1818 organized grand concerts
where drama sketches and plays by playwrights like Moliere were staged. The Reverend
127
Sisters who founded St Marys convent were not left out of these performances which
were usually parts of Easter and Christmas festivities. These dramatic presentations were
so effective and popular that the Catholic Church built a hall that could sit about 800
(eight hundred) people for perhaps staging of concerts (Gbilekaa 6).
Gradually, other associations in the Catholic Church like the Catholic Young Men
Associations on also presented dramatic performances on their founders/feasts and other
significant feasts in the liturgical calendar. The dramatic performances were so popular
that they became household issues in and outside Lagos. One prominent feature about the
dramatic presentations of the Catholic Church was that they deal with both religious and
secular issues. They staged classical plays and musical renditions. Their plays therefore
attracted audience from every facet of the society. The popularity of these dramatic
performances became so high that the Church Missionary Society (CMS) accused the
Catholic Church of using the performances to lure converts to their own denomination.
This is an indication that the concerts were very important to the church.
The secular nature of some of the concerts influenced non-Catholics and led to the
establishment of other entertainment societies and clubs like The Rising Entertainment
society, Brazilian Dramatic Company, The orphan club; the peoples union, and the Lagos
Glee Singers. Also individuals like Robert Coker and Nathaniel King also organized
concerts.
These individuals, groups and churches organized the concerts for entertainment and for
economic reasons. Like in the Western tradition, tickets were bought by members of the
audience. Tickets for the performances by the Catholic Church were very expensive.
Sometimes, some youths who could not afford the tickets threw stones at the roofs of the
buildings where these shows were held. The exorbitant rate for the tickets excluded
majority of the people who could have attended the shows. Thus the colonial theatre in
Nigeria was not as popular as expected because it catered exclusively for only a section
of Victorian Lagosians. A majority of the natives who were illiterate were
uncultivated and quite naturally cut off from this cultural life which the elite group
128
promoted and acutely supported (Ogunbiyi 20). Inspite of the exclusion of a particular
section of the Lagos Community in Grand and public performances, pupils and students
in schools presented concerts and dramatic performances as part of the school calendar.
3.3
Indigenous Plays
The secessionists churches multiplied rapidly. One common feature of these churches is
their tilt towards cultural nationalism. They exploited indigenous forms of expression and
communication in their mode of worship. They infused traditional music and dance into
their liturgy. The Aladuras exploited the traditional medium spirit (divination) for their
prophecies and healing. All these reflected in their own dramatic performances. Theatre
groups started emerging and some of them were supported by the church. Some of the
groups started writing their drama scripts.
King Elejigbo and Prince Abeje of Kontagora by D. A. Oyedele was the first Nigerian
play. It was performed by Egba Ife drama group, but was jointly sponsored by Bethel
African Church and the St Judes Church Ebute Metta. It was presented in the Glover
Hall and the success recorded propelled the group to stage other plays. Other dramatic
groups joined in writing and performing indigenous plays but as time went on vulgarity
and out-right profanations found their way into these plays. More people criticized the
plays and their presentations. This, the outbreak of the first world war and other
historical, religious and cultural issues led to the decline of these productions. The
Church in particular in their protest against this form of drama, banned their
performances from their premises.
4.0
Conclusion
The Alarinjo theatre evolved from the Egungun masquerade group. It started with the reenactment of the plot by the Oyo-Mesi to prevent Alaafin from going back to old Oyo
from exile. The initial actors were made up of six stock characters whose subsequent
performances contributed to the development of Nigerian drama.
129
Lagos concerts at the onset was modeled after the Victorian England forms of
entertainment. The theatre was then elitist and geared towards conversion and
indoctrination. Christians, Schools, Churches, groups and individuals were involved in
the concerts. Consequently, they produced different forms of concerts. The Catholic
Church played a prominent role in the evolvement of drama from these concerts. The
secessionist churches contributed immensely to the development of indigenous plays as
they injected the indigenous language and the African concept of Total Theatre into the
performances and were responsible for the staging of the first indigenous plays.
5.0
Summary
We have seen in this unit how Nigerian drama developed from the Egungun Masquerade
cult through the Alarinjo theatre. Nigerian drama also developed from the Lagos concerts
of the late 18th Century. Originally, the concerts were elitist and the intent was for
winning more souls by Christians. Gradually the concerts moved from the religious to the
secular, and evolved into full-blown drama.
6.0
Trace the development of the Nigerian drama from the perspective of the secessionist
churches.
7.0
Adedeji, J. A. (1981) Alarinjo: The Traditional Yoruba Traveling Theatre in Yemi

Ogunbiyi (ed) Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book Lagos:
Nigeria Magazine.
Echeruo, M. J. C. (1981) Concert and Theatre in Late 19th Century in Yemi Ogunbiyi
(ed) Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: S Critical Source Book. Lagos:
Nigeria Magazine.
Gbilekaa, Saint (1997) Radical Theatre in Nigeria Ibadan: Caltop Publication.
King, Bruce (ed) (1971). Introduction to Nigerian Literature. Ibadan: Evans Brothers.
130
Ogunbiyi, Yemi (1981) Nigerian Theatre and Drama: A Critical Profile in Yemi
Ogunbiyi (ed) Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book. Lagos
Nigeria Magazine.
131
Unit 2:The Popular Traveling Theatre Movement

Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
1.0
3.1
The Operatic Theatre
3.2
Hubert Ogunde
3.3
E. K. Ogunmola
3.4
Duro Ladipo
3.5
Moses Olaiya
Introduction
In the last unit, we treated the influence of Lagos concerts on the development of
Nigerian drama. In this unit, we will study other influences as we move from folk opera
to the written plays.
2.0
Objectives
List some of the Yoruba Travelling Theatres
Identify the preoccupation of each group
Identify the link between the popular theatre and the written plays
Distinguish between folk opera and drama
3.0
Main Content
3.1
The Operatic Theatre
Opera is a musical drama. Operatic theatre here refers to the drama that combines acting
with an extensive form of music and dance. It is like dance drama. However, dance
drama is usually without verbal dialogue but the dialogue in opera is sung. A very good
example of opera is found in most Indian films. In this unit operatic is used to describe
the performances presented in pidgin or Nigerian languages that evolved from Christian
132
concerts but which are based structurally and thematically on traditional performed art
(Obafemi 13). It means that this type of theatre made use of themes, materials and the
form of traditional drama with elements from western dramatic forms. This theatre was
therefore influenced by the colonial experience through education, Christian religion and
other socio-cultural experiences that were imported to the country. In Yoruba land, this
theatre was very popular because of its roots in the traditional oral literature. The
practitioners of this theatre mixes different foreign musical forms and instruments with
the traditional forms and instruments.
We saw in the last unit how the Methodist Church banned concerts from their premises.
The Aladura church went a step further by banning the use of Yoruba talking drum in
their church during worships as these could be linked to traditional Yoruba religion.
However, they could not expunge the Yoruba idioms and strains from the lyrics of their
songs and hymns. The Yoruba operatic theatre later copied this style.
3.2
Hubert Ogunde
Hubert Ogunde worked as a teacher and later as a policeman. He was the son of a Baptist
clergyman. He was a devout Christian and an initiate of the cults of Oshogbo and
Egungun. He started his theatre career, under the patronage of the church. He was an
organist and composed many songs for the Aladura Church of God to which he belonged.
This church favoured the use of Yoruba cultural forms in their worship. He joined the
Native Air Opera which existed at the time and his theatrical talents were made manifest.
He injected beautiful Yoruba songs, music and dance into the performances of the group
and later the group left the church and went into professional theatre practice. His first
opera, The Garden of Eden and The Throne of God was commissioned by the church
to help it raise funds for the building of the church. The performance was a huge success
and launched him to the limelight. He resigned from the police force, founded a theatre
company called The African Music Research Party and went into full professionalism in
the theatre. He employed actors and actresses to act on full time basis. With this, Ogunde
laid the foundation for the modern professional theatre in Nigeria. Ogundes company
was the first to engage professional actresses. His employment of paid actresses
133
marked the first time in Yoruba theatre that woman were appeared in a play as
professional artists in their own rights. (Ebun Clark 296).
Ogunde treated social and political issues apart from the early religious themes. His plays
were used to satirize social vices. For instance, Human Parasites. A Tragedy in Two
Acts was a satire designed to expose the vulgarity and ostentatious ness of the Aso Ebi
Craze, which is presented as a social vice in the play.
His plays justified the dictum that drama mirrors the society because he presented the
socio-political issues of his time on stage. His plays Yoruba Ronu (Let the Yoruba
Think) and Otito Koro (Truth is Better) launched him into comments on political
issues. The plays were based on the political upheavals in the then western Nigeria, the
consequence of which was the declaration of the state of Emergency in that part of the
country. The government banned him from performing in the Western region.
Initially, due to financial constraints Ogunde could not perform his plays outside Lagos
but later he was able to tour Western and Northern Nigeria. In Jos, he was arrested,
detained, tried and found guilty on the charges against him on public provocation. He was
fined and released. The play he staged that put him in trouble was Strike and Hunger.
His play improved with each new performance by the addition of the new elements he
learnt from his tours. For instance, his first tour of Ghana was not successful, he came
back and fused more music to his performance to meet the taste of the audience there.
Thereafter, he undertook another successful tour of the Gold Coast. He also travelled
abroad to learn more about acting and stagecraft.
Like the concerts of the earlier period by the Christian missions, Ogundes theatre was
profit oriented. He charged exorbitant gate fees, married all his actresses and his children
were incorporated into the cast to save cost. From Opera, Ogunde started staging plays
based on folklore or mythology. The first of such plays was Half and Half which was
based on the old Owo myth of Igogo. Gradually, Ogunde moved from partly sung and
partly spoken lines to an all dialogue play. The first play in this mode was Princess
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Jaja. Ogunde also produced plays with Islamic themes. He wrote and presented many
plays in Yoruba and English but unfortunately none of them was published for posterity,
However he has remained the most popular and acclaimed dramatist of his time. He is
also acclaimed as the father of Nigerian theatre.
3.3
E. K. Ogunmola
E. K. Ogunmola was another prominent dramatist of his time. He founded the Ogunmola
Travelling Theatre. Like Ogunde, he started with staging religious themes in the operatic
mode. His plays were presented in Yoruba. Like Ogunde, he produced and directed his
plays. He also acted in the plays. He was initially dwarfed by the colossal figure of
Hubert Ogunde in the profession as the audience compared the two constantly. He moved
later to Oshogbo from Lagos.
Luckily, he got his breakthrough with the appearance of Robert July, a foreigner, in
Osogbo. He watched Ogunmolas performance and obtained a grant for him from the
Rockefeller Foundation for a six month study in the Drama department of the University
of Ibadan. The grant also aided Ogunmolas acquisition of a lorry, a generator, other
necessities and a revolving production fund. All these were to enhance his
professionalism in the theatre. His stay in the University helped him to produce an
adaptation of Amos Tutuolas Palmwine Drunkard. He produced other plays and toured
many parts of the country with productions. He became very ill at a stage but contrary to
expectations, he recovered and went back to the stage. During the period of his ill-health,
his wife managed to keep his theatre company going. When he recovered, Hubert
Ogunde helped him financially to re-launch himself on stage.
3.4
Duro Ladipo
Duro Ladipo founded the Duro Ladipo Theatre Group. Unlike Hubert Ogunde who
dominated the Yoruba traveling and operatic theatre for some decades, Duro Ladipo
theatre was short lived. As the director of the company. He was the son of an Anglican
clergyman but was a Sango novitiate.
135
He started his theatrical productions by adapting biblical stories for the stage.
He performed at the Mbari club in Ibadan and later founded the Mbayo Club in Osogbo.
He had three major plays Oba Maro that premiered in 1962, Oba Koso in 1963 (The
King Never Hangs) and Oba Waja: (The King is Dead) in 1964. His plays were mainly
historical though he was not concerned with the historical accuracy but with the impact of
the plays on his audience. Duro Ladipo retained Oshogbo as his base though he went on
tours within the country and overseas.
Duro Ladipo consulted widely, was open to criticisms and incorporated suggestions of
knowledgeable people in his art. He later transformed the Mbayo-Mbayo into a cultural
centre, an Arts Gallery and a meeting point for young artists who seek to develop their
talents. The centre also hosts the performances of these budding artists.
In his performances, he used traditional musical instruments, chants, music and dance.
Apart from stage plays and Operas, Ladipo also wrote T. V. plays in which he acted.
Prominent among them was the Bode Wasinmi, a monthly series that was shown on the
Nigerian Television, Ibadan.
His most popular play Oba Koso was performed in more than fifteen countries abroad,
for countless audiences at home and won the first place at the Berlin International Theatre
and cultural festivals in 1964. He also represented the country with the play at the
Commonwealth Arts festival in Britain in 1965 Duro Ladipo was seen as an ambassador
of Nigerian Culture.
3.5
Moses Olaiya
Moses Olaiya (Baba Sala)s theatre company, the Alawada Group was unique in its own
way. Its entertainment was farcical therefore seen as an unserious theatre. He has been
variously described as thriving on vulgarity and triviality, it was seen as being
Socially irrelevant. It is said to have lacked the profundity of late Ladipo; lacks the
political commitment of Ogunde (Obafemi 55). Yet he remains the most popular
entertainer and the most commercially viable professional theatre practitioner in his time.
136
Olaiya presents his plays as forces that makes use of exaggerations incongruities to teach
and entertain through laughter. He adopted the Yeye or Efe tradition of Yoruba (fun
making) to treat social issues. The main function of the Yeye concept is to provide fun
and laughter.
Originally, the traditional artist has a day off from dealing with rationally with serious
issues and is free to ridicule groups, individuals, laws, institutions and even gods. In
doing this, he suggest ways of ameliorating the anomalies or ills in the society. In
satirizing his targets, he provides entertainment for the audience. This Yeye tradition is
found, according to Adedeji in most traditional performances like Egungun
(masquerades) Gelede (the Mother Earth entertainment) and festivals. Other performance
groups also make use of Yeye to satirize social ills.
Olaiya adopts this satiric tradition and treats serious issues humorously as he ridicules
social ills and deviant behaviours in the country publicly. Some of his plays include
Dayamondi (Diamond) in which he ridicules the desperate and inordinate chase and
acquisition of wealth. The play encourages honesty, sound moral judgment and hard
work. The Director directs the satirical butt on company executives and top civil servants
who employ people based on bribery and corruption instead of merit.
In some of his presentations, he switches from Yoruba to pidgin to provide hilarious
entertainment. And like his predecessors his theatre is a mixture of dialogue, music and
dance.
4.0
Conclusion
The popular traveling theatre was indeed popular while it lasted. This theatre started with
the establishment of Ogundes Theatre Company. This theatre like contemporary literary
drama, integrates themes and forms of the Western theatre with the form of traditional
drama. The theatre was however rooted in the oral tradition of the people. Other common
factors of this theatre are the use of vernacular with the interjection of pidgin sometimes;
the use of music, songs and dances; and a heavy reliance on improvisation. This theatre
was basically for entertainment but at the same time, topical issues were treated.
137
Ogundes commitment stood out as he satirized even the Government and oppressive
policies. It was itinerant in nature so most of the plays were not scripted. The theatre, like
the Western theatre was profit oriented so gate fees were charged. Most of the theatres
were family ventures as the directors acted and married the actresses. In some cases, the
children were drafted into the company.
Some of them started from the church, dramatizing religious themes and stories from the
bible but eventually concentrated on historical, mythological and others contemporary
issues of their times. Their influence on contemporary playwrights is enormous as the
later still rely heavily on oral tradition for materials; draw themes from myth; history; and
relevant socio-political issues of their times. Contemporary playwrights also juxtapose
vernacular with English and sometimes with pidgin, which are all legacies of the operatic
theatre.
5.0
Summary
In this unit, we have seen the contributions of the popular traveling theatre to the
development of Nigerian drama. This star theatre started in the colonial period through
post colonial Nigeria to the modern period. The advent and proliferation of the celluloid,
Television plays and Home Videos have affected the continued existence of the traveling
theatre, and stage plays.
6.0
List the contributions of the traveling theatre to the development of Nigerian drama.
Beier, Ulli (1981) E. K. Ogunmola. A Personal Memoir in Ogunbiyi (ed) Drama and
Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book. Lagos: Nigeria Magazine.
Clark, Ebun, (1981) Ogunde Theatre: The Rise of Contemporary Professionalism in
Nigeria 1846 72 in Ogunbiyi (ed) Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical
Source Book. Lagos: Nigeria Magazine.
138
Gbilekaa, Saint (1997) Radical Theatre in Nigeria Ibadan: Caltop Publications
Obafemi, Olu (2001) Contemporary Nigerian Theatre: Cultural Heritage and Social
Vision. Lagos: CBAAC
Ogunbiyi, Yemi (1981) The Popular Theatre: A Tribute to Duro Ladipo in Yemi
Ogunbiyi ed. Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book. Lagos:
Nigeria Magazine.
Taiwo, Oladele (1985 ed) An Introduction to West African Literature Nairobi: Nelson
139

CONTENT
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Onitsha Market Literature
3.1.1. Theme
3.1.2. Audience
3.1.3. Style
3.2
Ene Henshaw
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
1.0 Introduction
In the last unit, we witnessed the birth of indigenous drama in Nigeria. In this unit we
will see how it blossomed through the Onitsha Market Literature and the efforts of the
first educated playwright in the Nigerian dramatic scene. You may wonder why we have
decided to include Onitsha Market Literature here since the writers in this tradition wrote
essays and novelettes too. The reason is that Veronica My Daughter, a play, by Ogali A
Ogali towered above other works of the period. It was adjudged the most popular.
Published in 1956, it hit a record sale of 250,000 copies. Honestly, the publishers (or
pirates) of the play are still smiling to their bank as it is still being studied.
We have also decided to bring in here the foremost Nigerian playwright, Ene Henshaw
whose play This is Our Chance is also very popular among students in the secondary
schools.
140
2.0
Objectives
Define the term Onitsha Market Literature
Identify some writers of that tradition
Identify some plays written then
Link the tradition to modern plays
Identify the foremost playwright in Nigeria
Identify his plays.
3.0
Main Content
We will start our discussion of Nigerian literary drama here with the earliest written
dramatic tradition in Nigeria.
3.1
The Onitsha Market Literature refers to a number of pamphlets, books and
other publications sold at the Onitsha Market in Nigeria in the 1950s and 1960s. During
this period, a vibrant literary genre emerged in Onitsha, the commercial nerve centre of
the eastern Nigeria and now Anambra State. Much of it was written in pidgin and Creole
varieties of English. This form of literature is now interesting to researchers as a
secondary source of information about social conditions of the time. General readers can
appreciate it for its creative use of colorful, non-standard English as well as its often racy
plotlines. The obvious characteristics of Nigerian literature here is that most of the writers
were amateur and of modest educational background. The books were inform of
novelettes, plays and inspirational materials. They were mainly pamphlets.
Onitsha Market Literature consists of stories, plays, advice and moral discourses
published primarily in the 1960s by local presses in the lively market town of Onitsha. In
the fresh and vigorous genre of Onitsha Market Literature, about twenty-one pamphlets
were produced from Onitsha Market and they exemplify styles of expression found in
this intriguing form of African popular literature. Some of the popular titles include:
How to Write Love Letters
How to Become Rich and Avoid Poverty
My Seven Young Daughters are after Young Boys.
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Scholars acknowledge the important role of Onitsha Market Literature. In his contribution,
Chinua Achebe describes the literature of that tradition as embodying the "social problems
of a somewhat mixed-up but dynamic, even brash, modernizing community." (Chinua
Achebe in the preface to Obiechinas book on Onitsha Market Literature). The works were
written by School teachers and civil servants and others with modest education. Their works
include stories, plays, advice and moral discourses that were all published by local presses.
Emmanuel Obiechina, a prominent scholar of Onitsha market literature, argues that this
African popular literature is "an integral, if unique and startling, part of the West African
creative scene. (Obiechina 65) and as a matter of fact became a springboard for the
development of written literature.
Among the most prolific of the writers were Felix N. Stephen, Speedy Eric, Thomas O.
Iguh, and O. Olisah, the latter two having also written chapbook plays about prominent
literary figures. Ogali A. Ogali seemed to be the most popular through his best seller,
Veronica My Daughter.
3.1.1. Theme
It is unfortunate that this vibrant literary tradition fizzled out after the civil war in Nigeria,
and the books except one or two have gone out of publication. However these voices from
the bookstalls of an African market enhance our understanding of the cultural contexts in
which they were written and provide valuable perspectives on a wide range of themes.
We do not know how many libraries in Nigeria have a catalogue of these publications but
The Kansas State University has one which consists of an array of popular literature
collected in 1966 by Thomas R. Buckman, former Director of Libraries in the University.
Buckman described the works as representing a unique form of popular literature in Africa
that reflected the serious concerns and social tensions of many of the people in newlyindependent Nigeria. Many pamphlets were handbooks offering advice in the face of
adversity--grave or light (Trust No-Body in Time Because Human Being Is Trickish and
Difficult). Much of the literature focuses on love relationships and illustrates a moral as the
drama ends in disaster (About the Husband and Wife Who Hate Themselves). Some of the
142
booklets detail trials and tribulations that a protagonist must overcome to achieve success in
the fast-paced urban environment of West Africa (No Condition is Permanent). Buckman
noted that the popularity of the works was an evidence of the great thirst for general
reading matter among the growing literate population in that part of the country(Internet).
Onitsha market literature made a significant contribution to resources exemplifying this
genre and to the general development of Nigerian Literature. The Onitsha market bookstalls
were destroyed at the outbreak of the Biafran War
3.1.2 Audience
Onitsha market literature is grounded among the masses, and it is their voices that we hear
in this amazing collection. The works were aimed at the new literate class of Nigerians such
as taxi drivers, mechanics, white-collar clerks, primary school teachers, small-scale
entrepreneurs and traders. In all the books were highly patronized by the youth. They were
written in simple English and presents basic concerns about sex, money and their style
enthralled a vibrant cross-section of Nigerians. Local publishers supplied creative and
enticing reading material to a public with a literary appetite that in turn gained confidence in
the local uses of English. Scholars hail this popular literature, in part conditioned and
compromised by the marketplace, as a major impetus for an eager literate public to
experiment with more serious and dynamic works of creative writing.
Although Nigerian literary artists such as Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka and Ola Rotimi
and Zulu Sofola hold well-deserved positions of honor as the creators of beautiful and
exceptional literature, most of the authors of popular market literature remain unknown and
unseen beyond the market. Cyprian Ekwensi, as noted earlier started his literary career with
the Onitsha Market Literature. The Kansass University has taken an initiative to document
the achievement of these obscure authors and their works. This initiative is highly
commended as it introduces these invisible authors to the widest audience possible through
the Internet, and provides a context to fully understand and appreciate this literature for the
masses.
143
3.1.3 Style
The style of the market literature is firmly grounded in African oral traditions with plays,
riddles and jokes as common features. Thus, the Onitsha pamphlets reflect earlier African
oral texts and their rich histories. The main preoccupation of these writers was to
communicate their ideas, to send a message, to educate, inform and entertain their audience.
So little or no attention is paid to aesthetics, the artistic excellence of the works technical
channel. Just as eager readers purchased Nigerian market literature 40-50 years ago, this
initiative makes Onitsha pamphlets accessible once again to a wide-ranging readership on
the Internet.
3.2
Ene Henshaw
Ene Henshaw straddled the worlds of medicine and literature so well at the same time. He
studied and practiced medicine and also wrote literary works.
In humility, he effectively impacted on his society with his great love for the arts and through
his medical practice. In both vocations he distinguished himself as a selfless patriot, indeed an
icon. He delved into the world of literature because of his desire to preserve the good African
tradition but at the same time, his plays were not only recommended text in Nigerian schools,
they also had electrifying effect on the young and impressionable minds of Nigerian youths.
In plot and style, Henshaw's works are quite simple, yet evocative. He wrote with such hilarity
that many would have thought he was a comedian. His flagship drama This is Our Chance
drips with so many medical terms it is not difficult to see that the author had something to do
with medicine. He was indeed a physician. The impact of the slim drama is such that decades
after many people had read it; they can still recall vividly its main characters like Bambulu (the
class teacher), Chief Damba and the bashful Princess Kudaro.
Henshaw's use of language in that drama is so engaging that students invariably find it
necessary to read the book a second time. The bombastic eloquence of Bambulu, the imperial
sagacity of Chief Damba and the angelic mettle of Kudaro all combine to make the book a
memorable piece of literature. This is Our Chance mirrors the condition of most Nigerian rural
144
communities at the time it was written. Teachers were top of the ladder in terms of western
knowledge. Some of them, however, over reached themselves. It is still easy to hear Bambulu,
the big-talking, love-struck school teacher, telling Princess Kudaro, Damba's daughter, of his
so-called medical invention which he described as "the child of my brain, the product of my
endeavour and the materialization of my inventive genius." He makes further claims about the
invention when he says: "It is an anti-snake bite vaccine. Western science has not succeeded in
producing anything so potent. But I Bambulu, have, without laboratories, without help,
produced this medicine from herbs of this village."
Such superfluous claims by a school teacher make the book a delight to read. The playwright
captured the true state of things at that time. Here was a teacher wooing a pretty princess by
making claims that few people in the village could contest, no matter how spurious it might
have been. The author wrote other equally successful plays.
In the medical field, Henshaw was no less successful, having risen to the position of Director
of Medical Services in the defunct South Eastern State. He later became a Chief Medical
Adviser to the Rivers State government in the area of tuberculosis control. His public service
went beyond medicine and literature. He also served as a member of the 1989 Constituent
Assembly where he chaired the committee on human rights. In that role he equally
distinguished himself as one of the most respected members of the Assembly. An Efik by birth,
Henshaw made friends across the nation. He was awarded the national honour of Officer of the
Order of the Niger (OON).
His works include: Children Of The Goddess, Companion For A Chief, Dinner For
Promotion, Enough Is Enough, Jewels Of The Shrine, Magic In The Blood, Man Of Character,
A Medicine For Love , Song To Mary Charles, Irish Sister Of Charity, This Is Our Chance
4.0 Conclusion
Onitsha Market literature refers to a number of pamphlets, books and other publications
written by people with moderate education and sold at the Onitsha Market in Nigeria in the
1950s and 1960s. Much of it was written in pidgin and Creole varieties of English. The
145
obvious characteristics of Nigerian literature here is that most of the writers were amateur
artists. The books were presented as novelettes, plays and inspirational materials and
published as pamphlets. However, a great Nigerian, writer Cyprian Ekwensi emerged from
that unique tradition
5.0
Summary
We have seen in this unit the emergence of a group of literary artists who wrote in moderate
English language. While they sought to entertain their audience, they made some money.
We also considered the first Nigerian dramatis, James Ene Henshaw .
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Who were the writers of the Onitsha market literature and what was their major thematic
preoccupation
7.0
References /Further Studies

Achebe, Chinua in the forward to Emmanuel Obiechina, An African Popular Literature:
A Study of Onitsha Market Pamphlets (Cambridge, 1973),
Lindfors, Bernth, A Preliminary Checklist of Nigerian Drama in English, Afro-Asian
Theatre Bulletin, II, no. 2 (Feb. 1967), 16-21.
Obiechina, Emmanuel, An African Popular Literature: A Study of Onitsha Market
Pamphlets (Cambridge, 1973), 1.
CRL Web site at: http://wwwcrl.uchicago.edu/info/camp/onitsha.htm (Dec. 19, 2002).
http://www.indiana.edu/~libsalc/african/onitsha.html (Dec. 19, 2002).
146
UNIT 4
NIGERIAN DRAMA II: FIRST GENERATION PLAYWRIGHTS
CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1.
J. P. Clark
3.2.
Wole Soyinka
3.3.
Zulu Sofola
3.4
Ola Rotimi
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we introduced you to the first indigenous drama written in English found
among Onitsha Market Literature pamphlets. We also saw the first real full-fledged play
in English pioneered by James Ene Henshaw. In this unit, you will be introduced to a
stage in the development of Nigerian drama. This generation of playwrights is also
referred to as the tragic aesthetic school.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be in a position to:
3.0
Identify the first generation playwrights
Ascertain the main pre-occupation
List some of the plays in this category
MAIN CONTENT
The dramatic literature of each period at any stage of development is a reflection and a
criticism of the societal values prevalent at the time. In this section, we will start out
147
discussion of sophisticated dramatists all of whom are university lecturers. We will

concentrate on their earliest preoccupation. Each play reflects the playwrights
background though some of them treated nationalistic themes in their works.
The playwrights that we will discuss in this unit fall under the tragic aesthetic school.
They present plays in which the burden of the society is placed upon a few to accept
that fate has determined a tragic path far them, in order that others may live (Benham
and Wake 20). The tragic character accepts the burden even at the expense of his life
willingly. This willful sacrifice is found in plays like The Gods are not to Blame and
Death and the Kings Horseman
Other themes found in these plays are celebration of culture, culture conflict, conflict
between the old and the new system. However in all these, the gods or supernatural
forces play important roles in the affairs of men. According to Chidi Amuta, the earlier
works of drama of these period were dominated by a certain preoccupation with the
metaphysical and the supernatural (154). They propose a tragic vision which hails
individual heroism.
3.1.
John Pepper Clark (Bekederemo)
Kalu Ukas introduction of J. P. Clark appears to be the best so far written about about
him. It is therefore quoted it for you here. Obviously, since Prof. Uka is a playwright and
a poet he seems well positioned to give a good introduction of a fellow poet. As a poet,
he convey so much in within such a small space. J. P. Clark, according to him.
was born in the eastern Ijaw area

of what is now called Delta State in Nigeria in 1935 out
of the mixture of rain forest, delta jungle, riverine
mangrove and water-spirits culture of Warri, Clark (Bekederemo)
clearly brings a philosophy of man and his environment which
informs his theatre. The sagas and epics of the Ijaw, the festive
Ekine drama and its conventions, as well as the borrowed elements
148
of classical western European dramahave all been, in one form or

another, fused into prevalent themes, techniques and tone of J. P.
Clarks plays. (75)
J. P. Clark retired as a professor from the University of Lagos. He set up a theatre group
with his wife, Ebun Clark, who is also a dramatist. Our discussion on Clark here is
strictly on his theatre.
It is difficult to say that this particular play is set in the colonial, pre-colonial or post
independence Nigeria. The physical setting is always clear. The plays represent an
overlapping of the past into the present. In Ozzidi for instance, Ozzidi is both the actor
and narrator. The narrator exists in the modern era where cars and national politics exist
but the hero, Ozzidi himself is a legendary hero who lived with his exploits in the past.
However, by the end of the play, the past and the present are blended as Ozzidi and the
narrator emerge triumphantly in the end.
His first play is Song of a Goat (1961) which appears to the most popular. In this plays,
through certain allusions, one could say that it is set in modern Nigeria of the 60s. the
actions of the characters which reflect a village that has not be touched by any element of
modernity contradicts the seemingly contemporary setting of the play. This ambiguity
helps the playwright to achieve his purpose of evoking his traditional background, their
norms and taboo.
Incest is a taboo in this culture that requires atonement. Although Zifa is impotent and
hides it from his wife, his wife Ebiere should not have had a sexual intercourse with his
husbands younger brother Tonye. She should have realized that in their culture that any
sexual intercourse wider deviant conditions requires propitiation if the families involved
are not to be cursed (Wren II).
Some of these early plays adopt the five act structure. The hero Zifa is a wealthy man in
his society. Unfortunately he is impotent and also bears a family curse. His wife as stated
149
earlier takes in a lover. Zifa discovers the pregnancy. But his aunt Orukokere who has the
gift of prophecy foresaw the tragic end of the play but nobody listens to her.
In his proud rage (tragic flaw) instead of calling his brothers to resolve the issue by
offering the right sacrifices for propitiation and atonement, he slaughters a goat as asks
his bother to force the head of the goat into the pot (error of judgment) which is an
impossible task. Like the classical Oedipus, he allows pride to rule his life so he defies
the gods, the seer and indeed the clan.
The slaughtering of goat in this play for sacrifice has terrible consequences because it is
done for the wrong reason. So symbolically it indicates his unacceptability of his brother,
his wife and their illicit relationship. Tonye hangs himself while Ebiere collapses. As Zifa
leaves the compound apparently to kill himself because a neighbour describes his suicidal
strides to the sea.
Clark does evoke traditional ways of life of his people. He makes use of riddles a lot, and
draws images from his surrounding. The image of a house is used by Ebiere to present to
the Masseur her husbands refusal to have sexual intercourse with her
it is not my fault. I keep my house
Open by night and day
But my Lord will not come in
Why? Who bares him?
I do not hinder him
My house his its door open I said (Clark)
Masseur later confronts Zifa but with riddles and the image of farmland. Zifa who comes
from the same cultural background understands easily.
Masseur:
you have allowed the piece of

fertile ground made over to
you to run fallow with elephant grass
150
Zifa:
what do you mean
Masseur:
anyone can see the ears and the

Tassels of the grass from afar off
Zifa:
has she told you something
You can see that not only novelists draw from oral literature, playwrights also do. Other
plays by J. P. Clark are Ozzidi (1966), The Raft (1964), The Masquerade.
3.2.
Wole Soyinka
Akinwande Oluwole (Wole) Soyinka was born in Abeokuta, Ogun State. He is a novelist,
a poet and a playwright. He is also a lecturer who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in
1986, the first African to be so honoured. He is acclaimed ambassador for the promotion
of African culture, human rights and freedom of expression. He has been playing an
active role in the political history of Nigeria. In 1965, he seized the western Nigerian
Broadcasting service studios and demanded for the cancellation of the rigged western
Nigerian. Regional Elections after which he was arrested and arraigned but freed later.
He was also arrested and put in a solitary confinement by the then Head of State, General
Gowon for his attempts at brokering a peace between the warring Nigerian and Biafran
sides. While in prison, he wrote poetry on tissue paper which was published in a
collection titled Poems from the Prison when he was released twenty two (22) months
later, he recounted his experiences in prison in his book The Man Died: Prison Notes
1972.
Despite his detentions and imprisonment, he has remained a consistent and outspoken
critic of bad leadership in his country and other countries. His play, A Play of Giants is a
satire on tyrannical leadership especially in Africa. He discovered his flair for creative
writing early in life. In his secondary school, Abeokuta Grammar School, he won
151
several prizes for literary composition (internet). After his studies at the Government
School Ibadan, he secured an employment as a Clark during which he wrote some radio
plays, and short stories that were broadcast on Nigerian radio stations. It is not surprising
then that at the University College Ibadan, he studied English Literature, Greek and
western history. He gives a detailed account of his early life in his book Ake: The Years
of Childhood.
In 1964, he was admitted to the University of Leeds, England to continue his studies in
English Literature under the supervision of his mentor Wilson Knight. There he met some
talented British writers and before he defended his B. A. Thesis he has successfully
engaged in literary fiction publishing several pieces of comedic nature. He also worked as
an editor for The Eagle an infrequent periodical of humorous character.
On completion of his first degree, he remained in Leeds where he wrote his first major
play, The Swamp Dwellers in 1958. In his plays, he attempts to merge the European
theatrical traditions with those of his Yoruba cultural heritage. In 1959, he wrote The
Lion and the Jewel, followed in 1960 by The Trials of Brother Jero. This last play
brought him to limelight which established his fame as Nigerias foremost dramatists.
In 1960, he received the Rockefeller Research Fellowship from University College,

Ibadan and returned to Nigeria. It was after that he produced his play, The Trials of
Brother Jero. His play which won the contest as the official play for Nigerian
Independence Day is A Dance of the Forest. The play is a biting criticism of Nigerias
political elite and his prophesy in that play is still being fulfilled as the country drifts
aimlessly due to the activities of the political elite. The play premiered in Lagos
performed by the theatre group that he established was titled The 1960 Masks. Soyinka
has contributed immensely to the development of Nigerian literature especially the
dramatic genre.
With the financial gains from the Rockefeller Foundation for research on African
Theatre, Soyinka bought a Land Rover and traveled throughout the country as a
152
researcher with the Department of English Language of the University College, Ibadan. It
was at this time that he published his famous criticism of negritude championed by
Leopold Senghor. It described it as a nostalgic and indiscriminate glorification of the
Black African past that ignores the potential benefits of modernization. He insists A
tiger does not shout its tigritudeit acts. In 1963, he produced his first feature-length
movie Culture in Transition. In April 1964, he published his famous novel, The
Interpreters.
Soyinka is both a creative writer and a critic of both literature and society. He does
hesitate to criticize the cult of personality and government corruption in African
dictatorship and this is reflected in most of his later plays. His other literary works
include:
Plays
The Swamp Dwellers, The Lion and the Jewel , The Trials of Brother Jero
A Dance of the Forests , The Strong Breed , Before the Blackout
Kongi's Harvest, The Bacchae of Euripides The Road, Madmen and Specialists,
Camwood on the Leaves, Jero's Metamorphosis, Death and the King's Horseman,
Opera Wonyosi, Requiem for a Futurologist, A Play of Giants,
A Scourge of Hyacinths (radio play), From Zia, with Love,
The Beatification of the Area Boy, King Baabu, Etiki Revu Wetin
Novels
The Interpreters
Season of Anomie
Memoirs
The Man Died : Prison Notes
Ak: The Years of Childhood
Isara: A Voyage around Essay
153
Ibadan: The Penkelemes Years: a Memoir 1946-65
You Must Set Forth at Dawn
Poetry collections
A Big Airplane Crashed Into The Earth (original title Poems from Prison)
Idanre and other poems
Mandela's Earth and other poems
Ogun Abibiman
Samarkand and Other Markets I Have Known
Abiku
"After the Deluge"
"Telephone Conversation"
Essays
Neo-Tarzanism: The Poetics of Pseudo-Transition
Art, Dialogue, and Outrage: Essays on Literature and Culture
Myth, Literature and the African World
"From Drama and the African World View"
The Burden of Memory The Muse of Forgiveness
Movies
Culture in Transition
Blues For a Prodigal
He established other theatre groups and won many awards. Soyinka is a theatre
practitioner, a producer and a director. He directs virtually all his plays and presents them
to local and international audience as he performs them in Nigeria and abroad.
154
3.3.
Ola Rotimi
Ola Rotimi, a playwright and director was born in Sapele to an Ijaw mother and a Yoruba
father. He studied in the United States of America and later returned to Nigeria. He
taught as a lecturer mainly in Awolowo University and University of Port Harcourt.
Many Nigerians today remember Ola Rotimi mostly for one thing he is the author of The
Gods are not to Blame. Since it was performed by the Ori Olokun Theatre in 1968, the
play has become a household name as it is widely-read and performed, either as
prescribed texts for students of literature in secondary schools/tertiary institutions or in
performance in locations that range from school halls, arenas, proscenium stage in
theatres or on the screen.
With a Nigerian government scholarship, Rotimi studied Fine Arts at Boston University
and writing at the school of drama at the Yale University. He wrote his first two plays, To
Stir the God of Iron (1963) and Our Husband Has Gone Mad Again (1966).
Ola Rotimis greatest contribution to the development of Nigerian drama is in his use of
language, and the use of oral tradition and history. Although he was trained in the
western theatre tradition, he incorporates his traditional Nigerian cultural forms, ethnic
dances and indigenous language into his predominantly English language plays. In his
plays, he often presents figures or incidents of historical importance in Nigeria in an
effort to highlight the relevance of the past to contemporary issues.
Ola Rotimi is concerned, primarily, with reacting the Nigerian audience at whatever
level of competence in the English language in which they operate (Obafemi 89). This
explains the level of language he uses in his plays. His need to reach his audience and
infuse the traditional forms in his plays, he prefers to produce them in the round, (see
your course material on Theatre Workshop to remind you of the theatre in the
round/arena), rather than on the proscenium stage. According to Rotimi the arena setting
is the only formation that approximates aboriginal theatre arrangement, at least in Africa.
That is why I prefer to use it. (Rotimi 60).
155
In terms of the language he uses, he explains:

English
you
know,
is
the
official
medium
of
communication in Nigeria. Inevitably I write for

audiences who are knowledgeable in this language.
However, in handling the English language in my plays, I
strive to temper the phraseology to the ear of both the
dominant semi-literate classes, as well as the literate
classes, ensuring that my dialogue reaches out to both
groups
with
ease
in
assimilation
and
clarityin
identification. (62)
This is evident in most of his plays, especially in Hopes of the Living Dead and If where
different Nigerian ethnic groups are represented in the play. In these plays pidgin is used
freely for effective communication because Rotimi realises that Nigeria is a multilingual
nation but that this cannot hinder national unity and also the futility of trying to unite
peoples who do not understand themselves (Iwuchukwu 290). Effective communication
helps in the reduction of instances of mistrust and suspicion which breed rancor and
misunderstanding among people (Iwuchukwu 291).
Ola Rotimis other plays include:

The Gods Are Not to Blame (1968), Ovonramwem Nogbaisi (1971) Hopes of the Living
Dead (1985) If (1990), Man Talk, Woman Talk (I have seen the manuscript but not the
published version).
Ola Rotimi died on August 18, 2000 at the age of 62.
3.4
Zulu Sofola
Onuekwuke Nwazuluoha (Zulu) Sofola was born in Isele-Ukwu, Aniocha, Delta State.
She had her early education in Nigeria and a first degree in English and Masters degree in
Drama at the Virginia Union University and Catholic University of America, Washington
respectively. She worked as a lecturer mostly at the University of Ibadan, U.S.A. and
University of Ilorin.
156
Zulu Sofola was the pioneer female dramatist in Nigeria and for a long time, one of the
prominent female dramatists in Africa, alongside Ama Ata Aidoo and Efua Sutherland.
She was not just the pioneer female playwright in Nigeria but for more than a decade she
dominated the Nigerian dramatic scene as the only important female playwright and
theatre practitioner.
The major criticism against Zulu Sofola is that she upholds tradition, thereby maintaining
the status quo. She is accused of not using her plays to uphold the feminists ideals,
especially in Wedlock of the Gods and The Sweet Trap. Mary Modupe Kolawole does not
agree with this view. She believes that:
Zulu Sofola lived as an epitome of the dynamic African woman
achiever who negotiated a space that corroborated her
philosophy which maintained that African women should assert
themselves positively instead of lamenting her marginalization
(4).
Zulu Sofola herself corroborated this view when she asserts in an interview with EzenwaOhaeto that the educated was clamouring for rights and privileges which the traditional
woman has already and that what in the Sweet Trap for instance, what the educated
woman was asking for, could not make sense. We do not know what the woman in
our tradition has and that is where our problem lies (80).
Zulu Sofola contributed a lot to the development of Nigerian drama. She wrote and
directed many plays. Her most popular plays are The Wizzard of Law and The Wedlock of
the Gods. Her other plays are The Sweet Trap, Memories of Moonlight, King Emend, Old
Wines Are Tasty, The Disturbed Peace of Christmas, The Song of a Maiden, The Love of
Life, Queen Omar Alike of Limbo, Fantasies in the Moonlight, The Operators, Game, The
Showers, Lost Dream and The Ivory Tower. She died on September 7, 1995 a few months
after her husbands death.
157
4.0
CONCLUSION
We saw in the last unit that the earliest form of literary drama in Nigeria is found among
Onitsha Market pamphlets of the 1940s and 1950s. the playwrights of that era like Ogali
A Ogali and Okinawa Elisa were men of modest education. They were joined later by the
educated dramatist, James Ene Henshaw was the first educated playwright. In this unit,
we have introduced the educated Nigerian foremost playwrights. These are J. P. Clark,
Wole Soyinka, Ola Rotimi and Zulu Sofola. These playwrights treat issues of social
concerns in their plays with materials drawn from mythology, legend, history and other
forms of oral tradition. In many of the play, gods and the supernatural played important
roles in the lives of the characters. Many of their plays support individual heroism as
against the collective heroism of the revolt playwrights as you will see in the next unit.
Ola Rotimi qualifies to be treated among the revolt playwrights but since he is one of the
pioneers, I decided to treat him along his contemporaries.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced to the earliest educated playwrights in Nigeria. We
have not treated any of their plays but inform you that the gods and the supernatural
played important roles in the lives of the characters. They draw the materials for many of
their plays from oral tradition of their people though they adopted the western theatrical
modes. This is understandable because of the influence of western education. Many of
them also studied abroad.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
List the four pioneer playwrights and at least three plays written by each of them.
8.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Ezenwa-Ohaeto (2003) Winging Words. Interviews with Nigerian Writers and Critics.
Lagos: Kraft Books.
Iwuchukwu, Onyeka (2004) The Town Crier and the Quest for Social Justice in Ola
158
Rotimis Plays in Journal of Cultural Studies (Vol. 6. No 2). Lagos: African

Cultural Institute.
Kolawole, Mary E. Modupe (ed) (1999) Zulu Sofola: Her Life and Her Works. Ibadan:
Caltop.
Vision. Lagos: CBAAC.
Rotimi Ola (1974) in interview with Bernth Lindfors in Dem Say: Interviews with Eight
Nigerian Writers.(University of Texas at Austin,)
159
UNIT 5
PROTEST AND POLITICS IN NIGERIAN DRAMA
CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1.
Protest and politics in Nigerian Drama
3.2.
Femi Osofisan
3.3.
Bode Sowande
3.4
Tess Onwueme
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we introduced the first generation Nigerian playwrights and listed some
of their plays. In this unit, we will introduce some playwrights who are tagged the second
generation Nigerian playwrights, and their preoccupation.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be in a position to:
Identify some of the playwrights in the protest tradition
Discuss the cause(s) for their revolt posture
List some of their plays
State what they are revolting against
160
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1.
Revolt in Nigerian Drama
Drama mirrors the society in very concrete terms through the interaction of actors on the
stage or on the screen. The playwright therefore records the social realities in his society
and presents the same on stage. Drama is therefore a product of the society since its
conceptualization is usually ignited by the socio-political issues of a particular society.
The first generation playwrights except for Ola Rotimi, did not dramatise revolt in their
plays.
Revolt is an act of protest against or a rejection of an existing authority, concept or an

idea. To revolt against something is to oppose or refuse to do or accept that thing. It
involves a break-away from or to rise against constituted authority. It could be violent, or
non-violent, in form of mild protest.
The revolt dramatists refer to those who use their works to urge the oppressed to revolt
against their oppressors. They use their works not just to protest against inequality,
injustice, or oppression in the society but insist on a revolt against the perpetrators of
injustice. Their aim is to correct the imbalance for the emergence of an egalitarian
society.
Revolt in drama is a product of mans discontent with his world and the desire to create
an enabling environment for the realization of a perfect society. Revolt in drama seeks
socio-political changes that would reverse adverse situations of modern life which
perpetuate the disintegration of the traditional world order (Brustein 5). Revolt in
Nigerian drama was therefore born out of dissatisfaction with the leadership and the way
socio-political issues of the nation are handled.
Many scholars believe that revolt in Nigerian drama was enkindled and sustained by the
Nigerian civil war and the oil boom. The war was said to have radicalized the minds of
many Nigerians while the oil boom created and intensified class stratification and intense
capitalism. (Obafemi 120). The new upper class accumulated wealth to the detriment of
161
the working class and other citizens. This deepened the gulf between the rich and the
poor Nigerians. The rich gets richer while the poor gets poorer. The political class is
more interested in self-aggrandizement than in the wellbeing of the electorate. The
government concentrates on self-enrichment instead of on the provision of basic
amenities for the people.
At the intellectual level, a new set of radicals emerged who are very critical of the
government, the political class and the socio-political events and situations in the country.
Among these radicals were a new crop of playwrights whose writing skills were
sharpened by events into instruments to declare the personal and social trauma they
receive from the war (Obafemi 120). Their plays deal with contemporary social
problems in order to raise awareness among the people and advocate revolutionary
alternatives as remedies to the situation.
Nigerian playwrights like Femi Osofisan, Bode Sowande, Esiaba Irobi, Tess Onwueme
and a host of others reject the recourse to gods for solution to societal problems. They
insist that man is the originator of his own problems, so, the solution to these problems
lies within the scope of man.
Through their play, they try to influence the peoples consciousness and social
attitudes (Gbilekaa 2). They insist on a restructuring of the society from a capitalist
structure to a socialist one that is expected to produce an egalitarian society.
However, this seems to be an impossible task since the power elite seems willing to
entrench social justice or relinquish power. In this case, the only option left for the
people, according to these playwrights is to destroy the self, greedy and oppressive
individuals and structures through a collective action. This insistence on revolutionary
alternative has given rise to concepts like radical theatre, protest drama, theatre of
commitment, political theatre, theatre of revolt, and revolutionary aesthetics in Nigerian
dramatic literature and criticism.
162
It is important to specify that a playwright like Wole Soyinka is very radical and critical
of the government whenever it errs, and issues and other abnormalities in the nation. He
is not regarded as a revolt playwright because he does not seem to subscribe to the
dramatization of revolt on stage.
3.2.
Femi Osofisan
Femi Osofisan was born in a little village near Ijebu Ode. He lost his father very early in
life. However, he managed to complete his primary and secondary education with the
help of his relations. He proceeded to the University of Ibadan with a government
scholarship. His first degree is in French. He also studied at the University of Dakar and
Novvelle Sorbonne, Paris and back to the University of Ibadan where he obtained his
Ph.D. He was been a lecturer for the greater part of his life and has taught in many
universities here in Nigeria and abroad.
Osofisans first literary work Kolera Kolej (1975) is a novel but he is principally a
playwright. He has been an editor of many literary journals, was a founding member of
the Editorial Board of Guardian Newspapers. He has also been the General Manager and
Chief Executive of the National Theatre, Lagos. Osofisan who also writes as Okinba
Launko is an outstanding poet, a translator, critic and theorist of literature. He features
as one of the longest-running columnists in Nigerias leading newspapers (he) has written
over fifty plays (Blurb. Women of Owu).
Osofisan is best known in the theatre where he has acquired a solid reputation as an actor,
playwright, director, and songwriter. His plays have been performed in various parts of
the world. Femi Osofisan is regarded as the father of revolt theatre in Nigeria because his
plays are about the first body of literary drama that devotes their themes to the problems
of the peasants and the working class the oppressed class. In his plays he seeks to
arouse his audience into critical awareness of the prevailing social decadence and thus
move them into taking appropriate actionhis plays consistently attack all forms of
corruption, oppression, injustice and tyranny. He is a social crusader with an optimistic
view that through the collective action of the people, a better society could emerge.
163
Osofisan like his predecessors utilizes myth and history but he is not concerned with
mere recreation of myth and history but subverts and reworks them and other forms of
oral tradition to suit his ideological perspective. In his plays he urges the people to take
up arms and undertake a complete overhaul, of the political structures that oppress and
dehumanize them (Gbilekaa 75).
Osofisans posture of revolt in his plays stands out. The plays present a restless search
for fairness in a world of abandoned justice, (Awodiya 13). Social revolt dominates his
themes as his characters revolt against their oppression to reflect the playwrights vision
of a better society. He enacts myth of rebellion in these plays to confront the betrayal of
aspirations, pervasive squandering of human and material resources and widespread
corruption that has accompanied Nigerias independence since 1960. (Awodiya 13).
Osofisan uses his character Leye and Sontri to revolt against the oppressive and
tyrannical leadership of Alafin Abiodun, the King in The Chattering and the Song; in No
More the Wasted Breed Osofisan insists that accepted norms and values can be
challenged, rejected and reformed. This explains why the belief in the infallibility of the
gods is rejected in that play. Similarly, he argues in a Restless Run of Locusts that there
must be a radical rejection of retrogressive and outmoded values for the entrenchment of
a viable social transformation and in Moruntodun, Marshal, Bogunde and Baba lead the
peasant farmers in a revolt against injustice, exploitation and the oppressive system of
taxation. His plays dramatize issues of social concerns in the contemporary Nigerian
society and most of the characters are drawn from the middle class and the peasants.
Another significant aspect of Osofisans dramaturgy is that women assume control roles
in the plays. Osofisan does not seem to subscribe to the dictum that women in the
traditional Nigerian society are supposed to be seen and not heard. The female characters,
lead or join others in revolutionary actions for positive changes in the society.
164
Osofisan advocates a radical alternative to present capitalism in the Nigerian society

which encourages individuals to enrich themselves at the detriment of the suffering
masses, and protects the greedy, selfish, corrupt and vulgar acquisition of material
wealth. He is acclaimed to be the most articulate, and the most ambitious in his use of
the subversive potential of the theatre to shape the audiences perspective of the social
revolution which they find inevitable in the country (Obafemi 174).
Some other plays by Femi Osofisan are Whos Afraid by Solarin?. Once Upon Four
Robbers, Red is the Freedom Road, No More the Wasted Breed, Midnight Hotel,
Farewell to a Cannibal Rage, The Oriki of a Grasshopper, Altines Wrath, Esu and the
Vagabond, Minstrels, Another Raft, Birthdays are Not for Dying, Fires Burn and Die
Hard, The Inspector and the Hero Women of Owu and many other.
3.3.
Bode Sowande
Like Osofisan and other radical playwrights, Bode Sowande is concerned with the use of
theatre as a weapon for mass mobilization of the oppressed poor for a mass revolution
which he finds inevitable in the society. He uses his plays to present the political and
economic contradictions in Nigeria especially through the presentation of the suffering
majority and their exploitation by the privileged minority.
He maintains a socialist stance and believes that capitalism which supports materialism is
the main cause of social ills, marginalisation and depravity in the country. He therefore
uses his plays to attach these ills and insists on a revolutionary alternative as a panacea
for societal conflicts. His most popular play is Farewell to Babylon. In this play, there is
a revolution and as overthrow of the despot, Field Marshal.
His other plays include The Night Before, Sanctus for Woman, Tornadoes Full of
Dreams, Flamingo.
165
3.4.
Tess Onwueme
Osonye, Tess Onwueme came to limelight as a Nigerian female playwright in 1985 with
her award winning play. The Desert Encroaches (ANA Prize for Drama). Her plays show
that both powerful and powerless people, regardless of gender, exist in the society
(Evwierhoma 5).
Tess Onwueme was born in Ilah, a village near Ogwashi Uku in Delta State. After her
primary school she attended the Mary Mount College, Agbo, Delta State and Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile Ife where she obtained a degree in English/Education and a
Ph.D from the University of Benin. She got married at the age of 19 and has five
children.
Tess Onwueme, with about sixteen plays, is considered the most prolific African female
playwright. As a woman, she is expected to use her works to champion mainly the cause
of womens emancipation and empowerment but she goes beyond that. Onwueme
concerns herself with the plight of the oppressed in the society, irrespective of gender.
Revolt resounds in almost all the plays written by Onwueme. Revolt provides the motive
and material for her plays. In some of the plays, the revolts are radical as we see in The
Reign of Wazobia and in others, the revolt takes the form of protest or firm rejections of
authority. In The Broken Calabash, she presents a revolt against parental authority with
its fatalistic consequences. In the play, Ona revolts against her parents insistence that she
marries in the family. She also presents a total revolution, an organized opposition to
constituted authority. In The Desert Encroaches where a group wrests power from
leadership. Then she said it, the poor exploited, oppressed and dehumanized men and
women of the oil rich Delta region of Nigeria revolt against the government, the foreign
oil companies and other government agencies.
Onwuemes dramaturgy is unique in her portrayal of female characters. In her plays, she
presents very strong female characters who champion the cause of the oppressed, and
initiate revolutionary changes for the progress of the society. She presents women as role
166
models but at the same time, presents women who indulge in despicable acts. By this
portraiture, we find prostitutes, lesbians, drug traffickers and other women with ignoble
characters.
In some of her plays, she condemns women who indulge in crimes to make money and
admonishes the younger girls to listen to good counsel from their parents. It also
emphasises the need for the education of the girl-child, if the women in the plays
especially in Shakara, Dance-Hall Queen, were educated they would have fared better in
the society.
In her plays, Tess indeed revolutionalised female creativity. As a woman, many people
expect her to present mainly the positive images of women as they struggle for power,
identity, self-esteem, assertion, emancipation and empowerment with the attendant
conflicts in a patriarchal society. She is expected to present only decent women who
triumph despite obstacles and stumbling blocks set by men and tradition. She presents
instead, progressive women who pursue their hopes and aspirations in honest ways and
overcome their trails in the end. She also presents those women who are overwhelmed by
the society because they are egoistic, greedy and corrupt. She goes further to expose the
intra-gender battles and conflicts that endanger the total emancipation and progress of
African women.
Onwueme encourages the oppressed person to revolt against his/her misuse by any body,
institution or society. Tess Onwueme won the African Literature Associations
prestigious Fonlan-Nicholas award. This award is given annually to an African writer
whose works have demonstrated commitment to democratic ideals, humanistic values
and literary excellence in Africa. In her acceptance speech Tess contends.
Now that you have hired me to follow

The footsteps of Fonlan-Nichols in their
Irrevocable advocacy for the rights of the
Many who have no power, no place, and no
167
voice to claim/assert their dignity and identity

lost, stolen or denied, I accept to serve
this role of solicitor and advocate for the
oppressed.. http://www.uwec.edu/newsreleased/09/ap/042/Onwuemeaward.htm
This award confirms Onwuemes position as a revolt playwright who uses her works to
speak for the voiceless.
4.0
CONCLUSION
This module presents a brief survey of dramatic literature in Nigeria since the 1940s and
1950s. The Onitsha Market dramatists of this period portray the problems of a changing
society as a result of its contact with the Europeans. Their plays reflect the poor
educational background of the writers. After that educated graduates like Soyinka and his
group emerged in the Nigerian dramatic scene. This first generation playwrights in their
plays propose a tragic vision which supports individual heroism. The revolutionary
aesthetic school of the second generation playwrights treated in this unit believes that
social change can only come when people are made aware of their problems and incited
into action. They insist that the oppressed should not accept their lot meekly but to end
their oppression through mass action. Another group of the second generation
playwrights use their plays to lay bare the ills of the society and destroy the system
through their actions but do not propose a revolutionary alternative for the amelioration
of the social ills. Many of them present such problems and allow the audience to take a
decision. In all these, the dramatists try to act as the conscience of the nation.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have presented to you some of the dramatists of the revolutionary
aesthetics school of Nigerian dramatic literature. Only three playwrights are presented
here but there are many more. The unique feature of the revolt plays is that they urge the
oppressed to revolt against their oppressors. The playwrights condemn the injustice,
inequality and the marginalization of some members of the society by the privileged few.
They insist that the problems of the society affect everybody so, all those who are
168
affected by the problem should unite and collectively overthrow the initiators and
perpetrators of such problems.
6.0.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
State clearly why Femi Osofisan is regarded as the father of radical theatre in Nigeria.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Awodiya, Maida (1996). Femi Osofisan: Interpretative Essay I. Lagos: CBAAC
Evwierhoma Mabel (1994) Female Empowerment and Dramatic Creativity in Nigeria.

Ibadan: Caltop.
Ezenwa-Ohaeto (2003) Winging Words: Interviews with Nigerian Writers and Critics.
Lagos: Kraft Books.
Gbilekaa, Saint (1997) Radical Theatre in Nigeria. Ibadan: Caltop.
Kolawole, Mary E. Modupe (1999) Zulu Sofola: Her Life & Her Works. Ibadan: Caltop
Publications.
Vision. Lagos: CBAAC
Osofisan, Femi (2006) Women of Owu. Ibadan: University Press.
169

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NOGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: ENG. 113

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO NIGERIAN LITERATURE I

INTRODUCTION TO NIGERIAN LITERATURE I

COURSE DEVELOPER/WRITER: ONYEKA IWUCHUKWU

PROF. MARY E. MODUPE KOLAWOLE

WORK AND LEARN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA (NOUN)

National Open University of Nigeria

Welcome to ENG 113: INTRODUCTION TO NIGERIAN LITERATURE

ENG 113: Introduction to Nigerian Literature 1 is a 2 credit one semester undergraduate

To expose students to the concept of Nigerian Literature in English

To acquaint the students with the literary writers in Nigeria

To acquaint students with the stages of the development of Nigerian Literature

trace the origin of Nigerian written literature in English

trace the evolution of Nigerian written literature in English from oral

Discuss the major phases in the development of Nigerian literature in English

Recognise the colonial influences in the development of Nigerian Literature

Appreciate the form of Nigerian literature in English

Working through this Course

relevant textbooks including the ones listed under each unit

Module II: Colonialism and the Development of Nigerian literature

Module III: The Development of Nigerian Drama

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMAs)

Final Examination and Grading

Course Marking Scheme

Assignments (Best three Assignments out of Four marked)

Traditional oral Narrative

Myths, Legends, Folktales and Fables

Traditional oral Narrative Forms: Act

Introduction to Traditional Poetry

The Performance Tradition: Festivals,

Rituals, Masquerades, Social/Travel

Oral History as Source of Nigerian

Representation of Africa in Colonialist

Literature: The Writing of Joyce Cary,

Joseph Conrad, Sir Rider Haggard

The Rise of Modern Nigerian Poetry

Early Nigerian Novelists: Oluadah

Tutuola, Cyprain Ekwensi

The Development of Drama: From

European Concert Tradition

Movement: Hubert Ogunde, Duro

Drama 1: Onitsha Market

literature and Ene Henshaw

Nigerian Drama 11: First Generation

Revolutionary Aesthetics in Nigerian

Sowande, and Tess Onwueme

How to get the most from this Course

Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment

Tutors and Tutorials

You have difficulty with the self-tests exercises,

INTRODUCTION TO NIGERIAN LITERATURE I

COURSE DEVELOPER/WRITER: ONYEKA IWUCHUKWU

PROF. MARY E. MODUPE KOLAWOLE

WORK AND LEARN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA (NOUN)

National Open University of Nigeria