Leadership in Transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)
CHAPTER 5
LEADERSHIP IN TRANSFORMATION
The need for leadership has never been so great. The
stage for Armageddon and the consequent seeking
for people of character has never been better set.
Indeed the axiom behind successful human
endeavour, be it a family, business, political,
sporting, spiritual or national level, can be
summed up in one word
Leadership
Guy Charlton
5.1
INTRODUCTION
In Chapters 1 and 2 the aim of this study was discussed as an analysis of
certain work-related values and its influence on leadership behaviour in a
transformational organisation paradigm. Work-related values and the
importance of culture in shaping organisational behaviour were discussed in
Chapter 3, while Chapter 4 was dedicated to a theoretical overview of the
construct locus of control.
Leadership has recently become a popular subject for research, debate and
discussion with the result of numerous studies being found in business-related
literature. This chapter will only serve as a brief overview of both classical and
recent thoughts on leadership with particular reference to contemporary
demands on todays leaders. The discussion will include the most important
arguments for and against the development of a unique African leadership
model (as opposed to the application of Western leadership theories and
principles).
The SAAF will also be introduced as an organisation finding itself within the
process of structural and cultural transformation. This will include a summary
of changes in leadership approaches that have been implemented over the
past eight years.
5.1.1
BACKGROUND
The powerful impact of quality leadership on any community or enterprise
cannot be denied. For thousands of years leadership has been the subject of
numerous debates and over the last 60 years many theories of leadership
have been developed. The quality of leadership in organisations is regarded
as one of the basic factors influencing the survival of the human race (Bennis,
Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation
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1988). The quality of life on earth has become dependent on the quality of
leaders. Similarly, leadership determines the difference between average and
successful organisations. Many examples can be found in the business world
where the success or downfall of a company could be attributed to the actions
of a specific leader (Smit et al, 1999). Theories have come and gone and,
according to Blunt & Jones (1997), this is not the result of establishing new
scientific substance to a theory; much rather have theories lost favour
because they fell victim to changes in fashion in the broad field of
management thinking. Most theories have only been assessed in terms of
intuitive appeal of their explanations.
In the context of human functioning and behaviour strong leadership can
probably be viewed as one of the most critical elements for ensuring
organisational effectiveness and success. As an example Meyer (2004, 28)
notes that the lack of effective leadership is considered to be the most
common reason for an organisation losing valuable talent. Brough (1999: 6)
indicates that the term leadership has been discussed and explained for many
years but still needs to be explained in fuller detail. With the virtual business
environment becoming a new paradigm it has become even more important to
analyse and define the concept. With the demands of the business
environment changing continuously, what we think or know about leadership
is going to be severely tested in the new millennium.
Walters (1999: 10) highlights two reasons for the above-mentioned
importance of strong leadership. Firstly, in a world becoming more and more
complex someone has to stand up and decide what to do. Secondly, the
majority of people prefer others to make the difficult decisions and would
rather be led than to lead themselves.
5.1.2
LEADERSHIP DEFINED
Many definitions of leadership exist. Charlton (1992) refers to the difference
between management and leadership and concludes that leadership is any
activity that involves facilitating productive behaviour of followers. Where
managers rely on systems, leaders rely on people. Managers respond to
meaning while leaders create meaning themselves. The many facets of
leadership become clear in the description of Bass (1990): Leadership has
been conceived of as the focus of group processes, as a matter of
personality, as a matter of inducing compliance, as the exercise of influence,
as particular behaviours, as a form of persuasion, as a power relation, an
instrument to achieve goals, as an effect of interaction, as a differentiated
role, as initiation of structure and as many combinations of these definitions.
Some people regard good leadership as synonymous with popularity (Kruger:
1995), while others (i.e. Baron & Greenberg, 1990) more specifically describe
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it as those actions and behaviours of leaders which positively influence the

performance of others. In defining leadership Smit et al (1999) refer to all the
people-related activities of managers. In the process of directing the
behaviour of others they pay attention to elements such as motivating people
as individuals and groups, managing conflict and communicating with
followers. In essence leadership is seen as the managerial task of directing
the activities of others so that organisational objectives can be attained.
Leadership could be seen as a set of causal leader behaviour variables
impacting on followers job satisfaction and role ambiguity (see Figure 5.1).
These mediators, according to Dorfman, Howell, Hibino, Lee, Tate & Bautista
(1997) represent the most immediate results of a leaders behaviour. The
model also shows organisational commitment and job performance as
outcome variables. Both job performance and organisational commitment are
affected by job satisfaction and ambiguity. Job performance and ambiguity are
also directly affected by leader behaviours. Furthermore job performance is
directly influenced by organisational commitment. Dorfman et al (1997) note
that the link between satisfaction and performance has not been investigated
systematically in non-Western countries. The causal as well as moderating
role of culture in leader behaviour was found to be consistent with other crosscultural leadership models (Bass, 1990; Smith, Peterson, Bond & Misumi,
1992).
Figure 5.1: Leadership model of causes, mediators and results.
Culture
Satisfaction
with work
Leadership
behaviours
Satisfaction with
supervision
Organisational
commitment
Job
performance
Role
ambiguity
Leadership
(Source: Dorfman et al, 1997: 181)
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The leaders futuristic role within the reality of change and transformation is
emphasised in Veldsmans (2004: 31) description: the act of creating
possible futures and realising a shared, chosen desirable future with, through
and for people. Leadership is about action to bring a new future into being. It
is about making the future present tense. A leader in this sense acts as the
custodian of peoples future and impacts on followers ideals, fears and
aspirations.
Despite all the different attempts to define leadership, a common theme
running through the definitions is that leadership is primarily a process
involving influence the exercise of influence for a specific purpose through
altering the goal-related attitudes and actions of others. Effective leadership
therefore, implies positive feelings between leaders and followers and is not
only the result of influence vested in formal positions of authority. The
importance of this fact will be discussed further in the section on
transformational leadership (see Section 5.7).
5.2
LEADERSHIP VS MANAGEMENT
The new demands on organisations created by the external environment have
forced managers to start shifting their focus and attention towards effectively
influencing the behaviour of those people actually doing the work. Robinson
(1989) sees this as a movement away from a pure management process
towards leadership. A significant part of the rationale for this approach lies in
the changing nature of organisations, both structurally and psychologically
(refer Section 5.5.3.1 for a discussion of the changes in basic assumptions).
Due to the delayering of organisational structures the management span of
control is continuously increasing and managers find that more and more
people are reporting to them. In addition to this, teamwork has become
important with a strong emphasis on collaboration and commitment. The clear
difference between management and leadership is reflected in Table 5.1.
Although leadership and management are seen as related concepts, the
differences are distinct (Smit et al, 1999), and should be clearly distinguished.
Managers are concerned with non-behavioural aspects such as strategy
development, organisational design and the control of activities to achieve
organisational goals. Leaders, in contrast focus on behavioural aspects. They
energise people towards positive change and motivate them to commit and
dedicate themselves to new directions. A suitable way of differentiating
(Kotter, 1990) could therefore be to describe management as promoting
stability and enabling the organisation to run smoothly, while leadership could
be seen as the promotion of useful change. This distinction between
management and leadership is presented in Table 5.1.
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Table 5.1: Differences between management and leadership.

Management
Leadership
Planning and Budgetting

Establishing detailed steps and timetables for achieving needed
results, and then allocating the resources necessary to make
that happen
Establishing Direction
Developing a vision of the future, often the distant future, and
strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve that
vision
Organising and Staffing

Establishing some structure for establishing plan requirements,
staffing that structure with individuals, delegating responsibility
and authority for carrying out the plan, providing policies and
procedures to help guide people, and creating methods or
systems to monitor implementation
Aligning People
Communicating the direction by words and deeds to all those
whose co-operation may be needed so as to influence the
creation of teams and coalitions that understand the vision and
strategies, and accept their validity
Controlling and Problem Solving

Motivating and Inspiring
Monitoring results vs. plan in some detail, identifying deviations, Energising people to overcome major political, bureaucratic and
and then planning and organising to solve these problems
resource barriers to change by satisfying very basic, but
unfulfilled, human needs
Order
Produces a degree of predictability and order, and has the
potential of consistently producing key results expected by
various stakeholders (e.g. for customers, always being on time;
for stockholders, being on budget)
Change
Produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the
potential of producing extremely useful change (e.g. new
products that customers want, new approaches to labour
relations that help make a firm more competitive)
(Source: Kotter, 1990: 6)
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The establishment of strong leadership should not replace the management

process, it should rather supplement it. After a study conducted in twenty-two
different US industries on the relationship between corporate culture and longterm economic performance, Kotter & Heskett (1992) report that strong
leadership supporting the management process formed an essential part of all
major cultural changes observed. While management alone might be
applicable in and suitable for an environment of stability and predictability
(Robinson, 1989), leadership has as its primary function the production of
change (Kotter, 1990). Purposeful change of any magnitude will be almost
impossible without strong visionary leadership (Kotter et al: 1992).
The inseparable nature of management and leadership is illustrated by Smit et
al (1999). In their discussion of the importance of people in the contemporary
organisation they describe leadership as the human dimension of
management. Well-designed tasks and work procedures and systematised
production lines can no longer be considered to be the only factors that
increase an organisations productivity. On the contrary, people form the only
part of the resources available to the manager that could be used to deploy
the other resources towards organisational survival, effectiveness and higher
productivity. Owing to their creativity, it is only people who can ensure that the
organisational system is designed in such a way that it can adequately adjust
and adapt to environmental changes. It is for this reason that factors
concerning the individual (i.e. psychological, sociological and anthropological)
are even more important than physical factors in attaining organisational goals
and objectives. Successful management of an organisation is therefore
dependent on the way people in the organisation are managed (Smit et al,
1999). This management of people is nothing else than leadership and
includes factors such as interpersonal relationships, communication,
motivation and teamwork.
5.3
THE NEED FOR AN AFRICAN APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP

The importance of leadership and specifically for organisations in a
transforming South Africa has been emphasised in Chapter 1. Bass and
Avolio (1997: 20) support this view by stating that " numerous South African
institutions have to change their whole base of operations and philosophy
following the dismantling of apartheid. there are perhaps few other places
in the world where transformational leadership is so much required, and the
benefits are so enormous and visible."
The African business environment poses special management and leadership
challenges. The uniqueness of South African conditions in terms of multicultural diversity and complexity necessitates the search for leadership
solutions beyond the normal quick fix approaches. Most well known theories
of improving organisational effectiveness and performance are based on
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Western management philosophy and, as the management of organisations

in the true African business milieu has been largely neglected in most
literature, no conclusive evidence exists that these theories can simply be
applied in the current South African environment.
Many advocates of the African management movement view Western values
as opposing and even alternative to African values. Mtembu (1996) argues
that colonialism has eroded African values systems, while Boon (1996)
stresses the importance of culture (in building a management model) as the
embracing force around which everything else revolves: woe to the world
if we all pursue a singular, grey and boring sameness. Our differences and
traditions make us interesting and proud. Every good leader knows of the
importance of culture culture is not an independent thing, it is what we are
as people. Mtembu (1996) regards the perceived failure of South African
business to adopt a unique African style as a serious handicap.
As the object of leadership, namely people, is so immensely diverse,
leadership has become a craft, an art of observing others and their
behaviours and adapting ones own behaviour to positively influence those of
others. For leaders to be able to develop their people into a motivated,
inspired and productive workforce they will have to accept the challenge of
understanding the diverse and unique composition of African value systems.
Different individual values and attitudes form important indicators of leaders'
abilities to motivate and inspire followers (see Section 5.7). These differences
strongly affect leadership approaches and styles adopted by leaders. For
example, to expect people to take responsibility and to be decisive in a culture
where followers prefer their leaders to be the decision makers, will be of low
motivational value and will eventually prove to be an ineffective approach. It is
thus clear that a sound knowledge and understanding of the values and
attitudes of followers is critical in ensuring required follower behaviour.
Although it has become fashionable for many researchers to argue that
leadership processes and practices could only be effective when they reflect
the characteristics of the culture in which they are found, some researchers
began providing evidence that universal tendencies in effective leadership
processes also exist (Dorfman & Ronen, 1991). The culture-universal (versus
culture-specific) perspective of leadership constructs being comparable
across cultures is also supported by Bass & Avolio (1993). Findings show
commonalities in effective leadership behaviours across many different
cultures. Similarly, Smith & Peterson (1988) reported that leader behaviours in
terms of task- and relationship orientations were found to be effective not only
in Western cultures, but also in more collectivist cultures. Charltons (1992)
research findings also suggest that there are certain competencies which
effective leaders display (ie. establishing meaning, trust and the management
of self) and that these are universally found, regardless of context. After
comparing effective leadership behaviours in different countries representing
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considerable cultural variation on numerous dimensions such as

individualism/ collectivism, power distance and degree of industrialisation,
Dorfman et al (1997) reported results which support the validity of both the
universal and culture-specific perspectives in the cross-cultural study of
leadership. In their study, three behaviours (leaders supportiveness,
contingent reward and charismatic) proved to have universally positive
impacts in all the countries studied. A leader demonstrating support and
concern for followers was clearly found to be impactful in all the cultures.
It should also be noted that not all authors and researchers support the
approach of building a unique African leadership model purely on African
values. Thomas & Schonken (1998) mention that the argument for African
management tends to be anecdotal and not empirical and that some of the
arguments are simply inferior. Further concerns are that it is not clear
whether the change in values proposed by African management writers is
really possible, or in fact that the values proposed are truly African.
Furthermore, the practicability of traditional African values in the modern
workplace is at question. Referring to the culture-specific versus cultureuniversal leadership debate, Dorfman et al (1997) propose that the similarities
and differences between cultures should be meaningfully integrated within
contemporary theoretical frameworks so that it can simultaneously make
sense for the culture under study.
Despite the positive characteristics of the African culture it is not perfect and
does show (like all other cultures) shortcomings. According to Van der Walt
(1997), there are a number of obstacles towards the development of an
effective African approach to business success:
Everyones responsibility is nobodys responsibility. This comes as a
result of the strong community focus.
Nobody may progress further in the organisation than what his position
by virtue of birth allows him, i.e. a carpenter earning more than his tribal
chief must be brought back to the status that suits him.
A fatalistic approach, which ascribes everything that happens to man to
evil spirits or alarmed ancestors.
Tolerance of what is bad all natural as well as man-made evil i.e.
oppression,
A wrong time conception and utilisation of time. For the African time is
not watch-oriented but man-oriented man does not use time but
makes time to merely hang around useless and do nothing. The fact
that best use should be made of time and that time waits for nobody
still hasnt had a major influence on the people of Africa.
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The search for a suitable leadership model for a transforming South Africa
should therefore not run the risk of only focusing on African-specific cultural
elements and characteristics. The focus should much rather be on finding and
developing leadership approaches that could successfully integrate both
Western and African culture elements. One model that could possibly provide
(some) solutions for the multi-cultural South African scene is the Full Range
model of leadership developed by Bass & Avolio (1994), of which the most
important element is the transformational leadership style. Their research
confirmed the universal notion of leadership effectiveness. When people from
various national cultures are asked at the beginning of leadership
development workshops what their ideal leader would be like, they describe
the characteristics of a transformational leader (Bass, 1994). The model
proposes that the transformational leader has the ability (irrespective of
cultural setting) to shift followers to higher level needs, to transcend their own
self-interest for the good of the group or organisation and to work harder than
they initially expected to (Bass, 1994). A detailed discussion of
transformational leadership will follow later in this chapter.
This study will focus on identifying those (work-related) values and locus of
control orientations having an influence on follower behaviour and the
subsequent behaviour required of leaders to guide them in a common
direction, especially within an unpredictable, ever changing business,
economic and political environment.
5.4
THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN FORMING A CULTURE

The aspect of organisational culture has been philosophised and written about
at length and therefore various perceptions with respect to defining it, exist.
Schein (1990) seems to echo the most popular trend in defining the term as
mutually shared beliefs, attitudes, values and expectations, which develop
within an organisation and which strongly influence the behaviour and actions
of its members. The organisations culture acts as a description of its
character and could be seen as its unique personality (Drennen, 1992). It
serves as a guideline for distinguishing one organisation from another
(Theron, 1992) and therefore conveys a sense of identity for its members.
Organisational culture consists of many interrelated facets and is therefore not
easy to understand. What makes it so difficult to grasp is the fact that it
consists of observable aspects (like language and customs), which are in turn
determined by subjective aspects of culture like values, norms, convictions
and attitudes. In their definition of culture Kroeber and Parsons (1958: 583)
refer to patterns of values, ideas and other symbolic meaningful systems that
serve as factors in the shaping of employee behaviour and the artifacts
produced through this behaviour.
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As it is clear that organisational culture refers to behaviour (i.e. the way things
are done in a specific organisation) it follows naturally that leadership plays a
significant role in establishing and developing such a culture. Strong-minded
dominant leaders play such a powerful role in shaping company culture that
Schein (1983) regards founders as the ultimate source of an organisations
culture. Leadership in a large part forms the vehicle for influencing and
changing the organisation's culture (Bass et al, 1993). Kotter et al (1992) have
made similar observations. They report that in all the companies they have
studied where significant culture changes took place, an absolute essential
ingredient of the change seems to be the leadership of one or two people at
the very top of the organisation. In all of the cases they have studied the
single most visible factor that distinguished major cultural changes that
succeeded from those that failed was competent top leadership. Major
change began only after a leader with a good leadership track record was
appointed to lead the company. Kotter et al (1992) suggest two basic reasons
why a bottom-up approach does not succeed. Firstly, great power (which
normally resides only at the top) is needed to overcome the resistance to
change. The second reason is related to the interdependence inside
organisations. This interdependence makes it difficult to change anything a
great deal without changing everything. It is often found that only those
members at the top are in a position to initiate change of that scope (Kotter et
al (1992).
The issue of how leaders create and transmit a particular culture is to a large
extent a mysterious one. Schein (1992) explains this process (which consists
of both conscious and unconscious elements) as being a result of the leaders
ability to communicate major assumptions and values in a vivid and clear
manner. The process of embedding and transmitting culture is divided into
primary embedding mechanisms and secondary articulation and
reinforcement mechanisms (see Table 5.2). The six primary embedding
mechanisms create the so-called climate of the organisation while the
secondary mechanisms build organisational ideologies and formalise what
was initially learnt.
Table 5.2:
Culture-embedding mechanisms.
Primary Embedding Mechanisms
Secondary Articulation and
Reinforcement Mechanisms
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What leaders pay attention to,

measure and control on a regular
basis.
Organisation design and structure.

Organisational systems and
procedures.
How leaders react to critical

incidents and organisational crises.
Organisational rites and rituals.
Observed criteria by which leaders

allocate scarce resources.
Design of physical space, facades

and buildings.
Deliberate role modelling, teaching,

and coaching.
Stories, legends and myths about

people and events.

allocate rewards and status.
Formal statements of organisational

philosophy, values and creed.

recruit, select, promote, retire and
excommunicate the organisations
members
(Source: Schein, 1992: 231)
One of the most powerful mechanisms that leaders use in communicating

their beliefs is what they systematically pay attention to (including the things
they do not pay attention to or react to). Their behaviours in crises bear
particular importance because employee learning intensity is created through
their heightened emotional involvement (Schein, 1992). Significant learning
also takes place through observing what is rewarded and what is punished in
the organisation.
According to Schein (1992) strong leadership does not only influence
organisational culture, it creates it. Leaders in strong cultures act as role
models who encourage employee commitment to the organisations purpose
and vision. Sarros (2001) reports that this is more the case for
transformational leaders than for transactional leaders1. While
transformational leaders change their cultures by realigning company culture
with a new vision, transactional leaders work within their existing
organisational cultures following rules, procedures and norms. After using the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) on a sample of 1 918 Australian
leaders, Sarros (2001) provided clear evidence that in most cases
organisational culture is significantly influenced by strong leaders and that the
opposite causal relationship is not applicable (only minimal amounts of
leadership were accounted for by organisational culture).
See section 5.7 for a comprehensive discussion of the difference between transactional and
transformational leadership styles.
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5.5
5.5.1
FROM CLASSICAL TO CONTEMPORARY: THE LEADERSHIP THEORIES
INTRODUCTION
Since the turn of the 19th century many studies have been done and theories
developed on leadership and leadership effectiveness. All of these theories
have focused on what it is that makes leaders effective. As leadership in
essence is referred to as the ability of a person to effectively influence the
behaviour (performance) of others, the various models researched and
developed represent efforts to describe how and why some people positively
influence the performance of others. A framework for the classification of
these theories is provided in Figure 5.2. Irrespective what the approach is, the
way a person is leading others, is predominantly influenced by his
assumptions about human behaviour (Kruger: 1995) and the reasons why
people work (Hall, 1994).
The theories that will be discussed below range from the great man or traits
approach, through the behavioural descriptions of leadership to those being
based on the appropriateness of styles within a given situation or context. The
more resent perspectives on leadership resulting from changing
organisational environments will be addressed in Section 5.5.4.
5.5.2
CLASSICAL THEORIES
5.5.2.1
The trait approach
The earliest approach used in the study of leadership is referred to as the

great man theory and was based on the assumption that more effective
leaders could be separated from less effective leaders based on the fact that
those being effective possess certain traits (i.e. height, intelligence, integrity)
that could be related to success. The argument was that once these
characteristics have been identified they could be used to select leaders
(Schermerhorn et al, 1994).
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Framework for the classification of leadership theories.
What leaders are (Traits)
What leaders do (Behaviours)

Michigan studies
Ohio State studies
Leadership grid
Circumstantial factors
Fiedlers contingency theory
Fiedlers cognitive resource theory
Houses path goal theory
Hersey and Blanchards situational theory
Autocratic vs democratic approaches
LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS
(FOLLOWER BEHAVIOUR)
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Figure 5.2:
Leadership substitutes
Transformational Leadership
Page 115
Although popular at a time, the trait approach has almost disappeared as a

result of its inability to explain much about why relationships between some
traits and leadership occurred (Parham: 1983). Individual traits do not predict
who will become a leader and who not. Schein (1980) reports that traits
correlating with success in one situation failed to do so in the next. Similarly,
no consistent pattern could be found by Bennis & Nannus (1985).
5.5.2.2
Behavioural theories
While the traits approach to leadership studies was aimed at what leaders
are, the behavioural theories focus on what leaders do to effectively influence
the behaviour of followers. The hypothesis in these theories was that the
actions of successful leaders differ from those of less successful leaders (Smit
et al, 1999). Unlike traits, the opinion was that behaviours can be learnt or
acquired and that individuals could thus be developed into more effective
leaders. While the search for key characteristics in all effective leaders failed,
it became clear from the studies mentioned below that effective and
ineffective leaders differed with respect to their actions or styles of leadership.
5.5.2.2.1
Michigan studies
In the University of Michigan studies researchers were looking for

leadership behavioural patterns that result in effective performance.
Two basic styles of leadership were identified mainly based on the
amount of control the leader wants to apply towards getting the job
done (Stoner & Freeman, 1992). These two styles may be viewed as
the two ends of a continuum, with any leaders style being found
somewhere between the two ends. The production-oriented leader
mainly focuses his attention to the activities for which he is responsible
through careful supervision and strict control to ensure subordinate
performance. These leaders apply pressure on subordinates to perform
and pay most of their attention to outputs. Subordinates are merely
seen as an extension of the organisational machinery and instruments
to get the job done.
The people-centered leader is less concerned with the application of
control and more with addressing follower needs and development.
They place much emphasis on the welfare of subordinates. The
approach is that output can only be improved by treating people in
accordance with the belief that happy employees are productive
employees.
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5.5.2.2.2
Ohio State studies
Similar studies were conducted at the Ohio State University which

resulted in leadership differences being described along two
dimensions, namely task-oriented (initiating structure) and employeeoriented or consideration (Baron & Greenberg, 1989). Structure
initiating leaders ensure the achievement of results and targets through
closely by closely monitoring and controlling the performance of
subordinates. Typical activities associated with this approach are
setting and clarifying goals, following rules, and organising work.
Leaders with an employee orientation prefer to emphasise trust and
work relations and are sensitive to followers feelings and needs. The
considerate leader believes in the importance of creating pleasant
working conditions where people are happy, satisfied and motivated.
The above study found that a high task orientation leads to lower
productivity due to unhappiness, absenteeism and low levels of job
satisfaction. Although considerate leadership leads to higher levels of
satisfaction, the researchers suggested a dual emphasis where the
leader is high on both dimensions (Schermerhorn et al, 1994). This is
possible because the two dimensions seem to be largely independent
(Weissenberg & Kavanagh, 1972).
5.5.2.2.3
The managerial grid
Following the two previous behaviour models, Blake & Mouton (1978)
developed the managerial grid, a two-dimensional perspective on
leadership. The grid was developed to be used as an instrument for the
identification of suitable styles towards which leaders could be trained
and directed (Smit et al, 1999). On the grid a leader is positioned in
terms of both concern for people and concern for production based on
a score of one to nine on each of the dimensions. The nine possible
positions on each dimension provide for 81 different leadership styles.
The five most important styles are indicated in Figure 5.3. The ideal
style is considered to be the top right position, where a production
focus is optimised by an approach of participative and democratic
management.
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Figure 5.3: The leadership grid.
9.1
9.9
Country-club management
Leads to a pleasant atmosphere and workplace
7
6
5.5
Middle-of-the-road
5
Concern for people
Team management
Workers are motivated and
pursue organisational
objectives
Adequate performance by
combining two dimensions
4
3
1.9
1.1
2
1
Impoverished management
Autocratic management
Minimum effort to get work

done
Performance demanded and

minimum consideration
Concern for production
(Source: Smit et al, (1999)
5.5.2.3
Situational or contingency approaches
Critics of the behaviour theories have indicated that no single style is equally
effective in all situations. One style is only valid under specific circumstances
(Smit et al, 1999). Good leadership is not only the result of certain leadership
traits and behaviours but could also be attributed to other factors such as
span of control, group norms and values, time and organisational culture and
climate. Situational leadership refers to the ability of a leader to adjust his
style to the nature and requirements of the particular situation. In order to
explain the direction in which leadership-related research developed, a few
situational models will be discussed.
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5.5.2.3.1
Fiedlers leadership contingency theory
Fiedlers contingency approach started the situation-based leadership

research in the 1960s (Fiedler & Chemers, 1984). Fiedlers theory
applies the same concepts used in the behaviour theories. The basic
premise is that followers effectiveness is the result of a match between
the style of the leader and three important elements in the situation,
namely:
The leader-subordinate relationship
Task structuring
The leaders power position
The amount of control that the situation allows the leader is also
considered (Schermerhorn et al, 1999). In this regard the term
situational control refers to the extent to which a leader can predict
follower reactions as well as the outcomes of their actions and
decisions.
In Fiedlers theory task or relationship orientation is seen as a trait that
will result in either directive or nondirective behaviour, which in turn, will
depend on whether the leader has high, moderate or low situational
control. Based on this perspective a task-motivated leader will be
nondirective in a high control situation and will be directive in a
moderate and low control situation. In contrast, a relationshipmotivated leader will be directive in a high control situation and
nondirective in a moderate and low control situation.
Recently Fiedlers contingency theory has been further developed
towards a cognitive resource theory (Fiedler & Garcia (1987). In terms
of this theory four specific situational contingencies determine whether
a leader should use directive or nondirective bahaviour. These are:
The abilities/competencies of the leader or subordinates
Level of stress of the leader
Leader experience
Group support for the leader.
The issue of leader and subordinate ability has not been addressed by
any of the previous theories, which makes this theory more useful than
the others.
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5.5.2.3.2
Houses path-goal theory
Houses theory (House & Mitchell, 1977) has its roots in the expectancy
model of motivation (Schermerhorn et al, 1994) and is built on
employee expectations. Path-goal refers to how the leader influences
follower perceptions of work-related and personal goals (and the links
between the two sets of goals). According to the path-goal theory the
role of the leader is to clearly indicate objectives to be achieved and
standards to be maintained in the process and then to clear obstacles
from the path. The basic idea in the theory is that people expect their
leaders to assist them in achieving valued goals through clarifying
actual paths to rewards (Baron et al: 1990). It further suggests that
leaders can adopt the following four basic styles which, are not
mutually exclusive:
Instrumental: The leader provides specific guidance and establish
work schedules and rules.
Supportive: The leader is focused on establishing good relations
with followers and satisfying their needs.
Participative: The leader consults with followers and permits them to
participate in decisions.
Achievement-oriented: In this approach the leader sets challenging
goals and seeks improvements in performance.
Schermerhorn et al (1994) report that the path-goal theory has
attracted notable research and that it presents some specific
implications. Firstly, leadership behaviour could be changed through
training to fit the situational contingencies. It is also possible to teach a
leader to diagnose the situation and then to change the contingencies.
5.5.2.3.3
Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership theory
The well-known situational leadership model (also known as the life

cycle theory) of Hersey & Blanchard (1988) complements the view of
other contingency approaches that there is no single best way of
leading followers. In situational contingencies particular emphasis is
placed on the maturity level or readiness state of the follower. The best
leadership style in a given situation is determined by subordinate
maturity. Maturity or readiness is determined by two dimensions
namely task-related ability and motivation (achievement drive and
willingness to accept responsibility and accomplish tasks) and develop
in four phases. Through the model it is argued that the readiness of
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followers to perform tasks prompt leaders to adjust their orientation in

terms of task behaviours or relationship behaviours.
Different combinations of task and relationship behaviours result in four
leadership styles, each representing a best choice of style for each of
four different readiness states or levels. Table 5.3 indicates the phases
of maturity development and the style appropriate to each follower
readiness level. The situational leadership theory suggests that the
effective leader is flexible and able to accurately diagnose situational
demands and to assess changes in levels of follower readiness
towards maturity. He then adapts his style accordingly.
Table 5.3:
Leadership styles according to follower maturity.
Leadership
Follower
Behavioural focus
Style
readiness
A high task focus ensures the
Telling
Low follower readiness
definition of roles for followers
who are unable and unwilling to
take responsibility.
Selling
Low to moderate readiness
Both task direction and personal

support are high for followers
who are unable but willing to
take up responsibility.
Participating
Moderate to high readiness
Supportive behaviour with a

lower task focus is provided to
followers being able but
unwilling. Through involvement
in decision making processes
the motivation levels of
followers are increased.
Delegating
High readiness
Low levels of both task direction

and personal support are
provided when followers are
able and willing to perform the
task.
(Source: Hersey & Blanchard, 1988)
Hersey et al (1988) argue that a leadership style having been adapted

to follower readiness, will not only lead to increased motivation but will
also promote higher levels of maturity which in turn will require less
leader control and supervision. More participation and freedom to solve
problems independently can then be allowed.
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The biggest inherent disadvantage of the situational theory is that the

leader decides on the readiness level of subordinates, which is not
transformational in nature. It does not allow for the basic assumptions
that most employees strive towards a sense of commitment,
involvement and ownership and that they have a desire to continuously
learn and develop. The theory does not appear to be sensitive for the
Y-belief (McGregor, 1960) that people want to do good work and feel
good about themselves and the work they do and that they need
constant feedback in this regard. A typical result would be that a
follower finding himself in the high readiness area will soon move to
the third quadrant (where he is still able but unwilling) if the leader
proceeds with a delegating style with low (or no) personal support and
encouragement. In contrast with the approach of choosing a style
based on follower behaviour as suggested by Hersey et al (1988), Hall
(1994) notes that competent managers align their leadership style with
the belief that all their subordinates have an inherent willingness and
ability to perform at a high level of productivity. Their style of leadership
is therefore shaped by their basic beliefs about human competence
and not by the readiness state (or maturity) of their followers. This is
referred to as the self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal, 1976)2. Having
what might seem to be abnormally high expectations for followers is, in
fact, the cornerstone of managerial competence.
5.5.2.4
Leadership Substitutes
The substitutes for leadership perspective argues that, because of the

existence of certain individual, job, and organisational variables, hierarchical
leadership may sometimes make no difference (Kerr & Jermier, 1978). These
variables, called substitutes for leadership, often replace the influence of the
leader. Leaders then become mere figureheads with little or no impact on
follower behaviour. Kerr et al (1978) refer to four variables being able to
substitute leader influence:
A high level of subordinate knowledge and experience
Highly structured jobs
High levels of cohesiveness amongst employees
Technology associated with certain jobs
The subtle yet powerful way in which, that what we expect of others so influences how we behave
toward them, that we literally coax out of them those reactions and achievements we anticipate.
Based on what we expect or belief of others, we adapt our own behaviour to such an extent that we
almost ensure that we will get what we expect (Hall: 1993).
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Schermerhorn et al (1994) describe the substitutes for leadership as a more

generalised version of the situational approaches. The distinctive difference
between the two, however, is that the substitutes perspective assumes that in
some cases leadership becomes unnecessary and has no impact because it
is replaced by other variables as mentioned above.
5.5.3
THE CHANGING NATURE OF ORGANISATIONS

In the previous section the initial approaches towards defining and
understanding the leadership concept was briefly discussed. However, the
fast rate of change in all spheres of life has had a fundamental impact on
business organisations and the way they are managed and led today. For
organisations to survive and to remain world class they simply have to stay in
harmony with the demands of ever changing and turbulent environments.
Arguably the most important characteristics of todays organisational
environment are instability and uncertainty, which call for new leadership skills
and competencies. It is within this fast changing and often unpredictable
environment that the role of the leader started taking on a new dimension, one
of shaping a vision which can provide focus and direction and create meaning
in the work of followers (Blunt, 1991). It has become fashionable for leaders to
lead from the front by being visible role models of everything they expect
others to do (Kotter, 1990). In doing so they display desirable attitudes, values
and beliefs. Conger (1991) refers to the importance of these organisational
values and how it has become popular to include values such as fairness,
trust, openness and honesty, commitment, quality and good customer service
in the companys vision and mission statements. A few prominent
characteristics of modern day organisations will be discussed in this section
where after the new leadership demands based on these characteristics will
be analysed in the next section (5.5.4).
5.5.3.1
Changes in basic assumptions
The importance of getting the best out of people has forced leaders to think
differently about the inherent competence of people and to change their
assumptions concerning employees basic work motivation towards the belief
that people have an intrinsic desire to feel good about work accomplishments
(Bennis et al, 1985). For researchers such as Charlton (1992), Kouzes &
Posner (1988) and Peters & Waterman (1982) the root of todays leadership
crisis lies in employees being regarded as the source of problems when low
productivity, commitment and credibility are encountered when followers are
seen as the ones to be changed, not management. In contrast, a productivity
crisis should in the first place be seen in the context of leaders not being able
to instil vision and a sense of meaning in their followers. Leaders should
accept that productivity problems tell them more about themselves than about
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their followers. The challenge, according to Charlton (1992), has become one
of moving followers perceptions from expectations (what the company owes
me) to aspirations (what I can contribute to the company). The organisation
desiring to maintain its best people will have to create quality of work life
through ownership, personal development and autonomy.
The nature of managerial control is quickly undergoing significant changes
away from the traditional rule-bound approach. Instead of creating multileveled hierarchical structures where people can control the behaviour of
those on lower levels, there is stronger acceptance of the fact that employees
carry an intrinsic longing for a meaningful connection between their own lives
and the work they do. When company productivity is at stake, leaders start to
realise the importance of worker participation, co-operation, and healthy
relationships between employer and employee.
5.5.3.2
The learning organisation
In contrast with the industrial era thinking where the value of a firm was
determined by physical and financial assets, Ohmae (1988) asserted that the
fundamental asset of the 21st century organisation is likely to be its knowledge
base and that this will be the key to success. A critical requirement will be to
constantly respond to and take advantage of external changes. This has led
to the formulation of the learning organisation as the ideal organisation form
in the future.
Senge (1990) introduced the concept of the learning organisation and defined
it as organisations where people continually expand their capacity to create
the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are
nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free and where people are
continually learning how to learn together. The concept acknowledges the
fact that organisations have to constantly learn in order to adapt, compete and
survive. It is based on the premise that real learning forms part of a persons
daily work as he deals with various problems, situations and people and does
therefore not support the belief that learning capacity constitutes something
that is limited and that those not having the necessary potential should be
excluded from formal training programmes.
The learning organisation theory is furthermore based on the following
principles (Meyer, 1999):
Talent and capability can be identified, developed and nurtured in
anyone.
All employees have an enormous potential to perform.
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It is a myth that people with average capability necessarily perform

accordingly.
It is a misconception that if employees are not trained formally to
perform certain tasks, they are then incapable of doing those tasks.
Classroom settings are not the only opportunities for effective
learning in the workplace. Learning and development should be an
ongoing on-the-job part of employees work.
After posing the question whether organisations as systems are able to learn
in an ongoing way, Morgan (1997: 90) confirms that this is indeed possible,
provided that these organisations are capable of firstly, scanning and
anticipating change in the wider environment to detect significant variations,
and secondly, developing an ability to question, challenge and change
operating norms and assumptions. The key asset is a mind-set that embraces
environmental change as a norm. Only through displaying the qualities of
intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation (see Section 5.7), will
leaders succeed in creating true learning organisations.
The learning organisation concept wants to get rid of the vicious cycle formed
by the fact that employees who are regarded as lacking the potential to be
trained are seen to be incapable of learning. Instead, opportunities for
learning should be provided to those people needing it the most and this
becomes the task of leaders at all organisational levels. The new challenge is
to regard all people as having the potential to develop to higher levels of
competence and performance.
5.5.3.3
Changes in structure
The changes in assumptions about the workforce as described above, and

specifically those regarding development and learning, require a new analysis
of the way in which organisations are structured. Senge (1990) warns that the
rate at which an organisation learns and the development of individual ability
to learn within the organisation, will soon be its only source of competitive
advantage. This means that any structure inhibiting this ability will eventually
contribute towards self-destruction. Despite this threat high, multi-leveled
hierarchies still dominate the way in which people are organised in the
Western business world. A control orientation underpins these structures,
which does not allow people to find work meaningful, to be creative and to
express responsibility, commitment and ownership. These rigid structures had
only one advantage, namely that the roles of managers and employees within
them were simple, clear and relatively stable (Hirschhorn & Gilmore (1992).
Company boundaries oriented and co-ordinated individual behaviour by
making sure who reported to whom and who had which responsibilities.
Recently (as the environmental characteristics of stability, predictability and
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certainty disappeared), the disadvantages associated with these structures

became more than the benefits. To respond to the demands of fast-changing
markets, global competition and increased uncertainty, companies started
designing more flexible organisational structures where vertical hierarchies
are replaced with horisontal networks (Hirschhorn et al, 1992). In this network
of relationships the roles that people play and the work they do became more
blurred and ambiguous. As functional boundaries disappeared and
organisations became more flexible, the new boundaries that mattered and
that managers have to pay attention to, were psychological in nature and are
created in the minds of both managers and employees. These new
boundaries will be discussed in Section 5.5.4.3.
5.5.3.4
Teamwork
The synergistic value of teamwork as opposed to individual efforts, has led to

organisations focussing increasingly more attention to the forming and
development of strong effective functioning teams. Jobs are less clearly
defined (Aguay, 1997) and people move from project to project as their skills
are required. The continuing emphasis on employee collaboration and
involvement is leading to self-managing teams being formed and leaders have
to assume the roles of mentor coach and developer. Atwater & Bass (1994)
list the following skills and abilities for effective team leaders:
Knowledge of the group process
Ability to think and react decisively
Ability to articulate a position clearly and succinctly
Subject knowledge and competence
Sensitivity to group trends and needs
Self-restraint and respect for others
Ability to vocalise group sentiments
Ability to repeatedly clarify objectives
Persistence in achieving difficult objectives
5.5.4
ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
FUTURE LEADERSHIP
AND
THE
IMPLICATIONS
FOR
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Effective leadership has already been referred to as the ability to positively

influence the productive behaviour of the workforce by creating the conditions
(both physically and psychologically) in which they willingly do what needs to
be done. Therefore, in essence leaders need to be aware of those factors
influencing the motivation of followers in the workplace and can thus not
afford to ignore the changes described above. Some of the important
implications for leadership will be discussed further in this section.
5.5.4.1
Changing organisational structures and the importance of learning
In a business environment of increased interdependence between employees

as well as higher levels of involvement, hierarchical structures will have to be
replaced with flatter horisontal structures. Van der Merwe (1991) argues that
the structures traditionally designed to organise people toward the
achievement of results will not serve us well in future. Charlton (1992) warns
that in the new information age those being in control do not have all the
answers and that the traditional control orientation only produced conditional
responders. They will have no place in a business environment where the
creation of better products and services has become a necessity to stay
competitive.
The changes described in the previous section demand new and innovative
paradigms of looking at people and their work. The successful leader will
therefore have to spend more of his time on developing people competencies.
Charlton (1992) notes that the outdated notion of rational management and a
focus on methods of quantitative analysis and linear thinking have to be
replaced by a better understanding of individual growth and development.
They have to be students of human behaviour (Sarros, 2001). Leaders will
have to learn how to exchange the need to be in control for the responsibility
to give followers the choice to improve productivity through learning, growth
and development. This will only be possible when they realise that
commitment, motivation and competence is the result of developmental,
inspiring leadership. Hall (1990) stresses the basic premise that people are
inherently competent and that they can and want to do what needs to be done
if leaders create the conditions for them to do so. Effective leadership will only
be the result of a paradigm shift in the belief system of leaders regarding the
inherent potential of their followers. For as long as managers see people as
incompetent, a negative self-fulfilling prophecy of responding to this
incompetence will be evoked because people perform as they are expected to
perform.
Arguably the most important requirement for effective leaders of the future is
found in the area of addressing the intrinsic need of people to learn and to
develop their potential. This developmental role asks for a fundamental shift of
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mind on the part of management, a shift in the way that they see the inherent
potential of their followers (Hall, 1990). Hofmeyr (1989) highlights the fact that
an employee learns much more on the job itself than on formal training
programmes and that most of this learning is prompted by the direct superior.
The only way for leaders to meet the needs and expectations of their people
for participation, involvement and personal growth is to take on and accept a
developmental role through which people will be allowed to utilise their own
skills and potential to perform (Human, 1989).
Due to the increasing importance of continuous learning and development of
both individuals and teams and to develop effective learning organisations
leaders should act as learning role models. They do this by admitting own
mistakes, asking questions and encouraging innovation (Meyer, 1999). Not
only should they support learning, they should actively demonstrate their
commitment towards establishing a work environment where everyone is
excited about development and improvement.
To be able to do this, leaders should realise and accept the fact that the daily
work environment provides numerous learning opportunities that could add to
and support the knowledge, skills and competencies already acquired through
formal training. They should also demonstrate the belief that all their followers
have an enormous capacity for continuous learning and improvement. In
South Africa, given the critical skills shortage and training backlog, a
fundamental leadership task is to identify learning needs and then to provide
the appropriate on-the-job practical learning opportunities.
5.5.4.2
The use of power and empowerment
The products of all organisations are the consequence of employee behaviour

(Kemp, 1998) and it is through the use of power and influence that leaders
shape such behaviour from random to required and purposeful activity. Power
could be defined as the ability to get someone to do something you want done
in the way you want it to be done (French & Raver, 1962). It therefore refers
to the control one person has over the behaviour of others and can be closely
linked to the concept of leadership. Power is used to influence a behavioural
outcome. It is derived from two sources, namely positional power (formal
authority) and personal power. Personal power stands independent from
personal position. It is the use of this personal power that has changed as a
result of the changes in basic beliefs and assumptions about peoples
competence and the reasons why they work. Schermerhorn et al (1994)
divide personal power into two bases, namely expertise and reference. Expert
power refers to the ability to control the behaviour of others due to the
possession of certain knowledge, expertise, and judgment that the other
person needs but does not have. Access to information and organisational
decision makers form important elements in this power base. With referent
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power the controlling ability is the result of followers wanting to identify with
the power source. The quality of relationships plays a critical role
subordinates behave positively to maintain (and not interfere with) a pleasing
boss-subordinate relationship. Bass et al (1994) refer to referent power as
idealised influence, one of the so-called four (4) Is of transformational
leadership (see Section 5.7). As the effectiveness of leadership is determined
through, amongst others, follower satisfaction and extra effort future leaders
will have to apply more personal power (both expert and referent) to effect
positive behavioural change with followers.
The increased focus on employee involvement, ownership and learning calls
for power to be shared in order to improve follower performance. This giving
away of power is referred to as empowerment the process of allowing
people or groups to make decisions that affect them or the tasks they do.
Through empowerment leaders help others to acquire and use the power they
need to make those decisions affecting their own work. It therefore refers to
an ability of leaders to make things happen through the involvement and
participation of followers. Paradoxically, leaders do not have to give up
(sacrifice) power so that followers can gain more power. Through the process
of empowerment the total level of power in the group or organisation is
increased. Schermerhorn et al (1994) emphasise the importance of
empowering subordinates by stating that managers in progressive
organisations, more than ever before, will be expected to be good at sharing
power with and transferring it to those individuals with whom they work: The
concept of empowerment is part of the sweeping change being witnessed in
todays industry. Power can no longer be considered to be something
reserved for those in the higher levels of traditional multi-levelled
organisations. Empowerment has become such an integral part of the
successful leaders skills requirements that, according to Stewart (1989),
organisations might find that the age of the hierarchy is over.
Consistent with this line of reasoning Quinn & Spreitzer (1997) add that
traditional command-and-control hierarchies are increasingly less appropriate
and that employees have to be empowered to take initiative, be creative and
accept responsibility for their own actions. These authors distinguish between
two strategies for empowerment, namely the mechanistic (top-down) and
organic (bottom up) approaches.
5.5.4.2.1
The mechanistic strategy

In this strategy it is believed that empowerment is about delegating
decision-making, but within a set of clear boundaries. Leaders have to
start at the top where the organisations mission, vision and values are
clarified after which tasks, roles and rewards for employees are
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specified. Responsibility is delegated and people are being held

accountable for results.
5.5.4.2.2
The organic strategy

The contrast between this strategy and the previous one is built on the
implicit assumption that people can be trusted and that power can be
shared (control can be shifted to where the work gets done). Here it is
believed that empowerment is about risk taking, growth, and change.
People need to be trusted and their imperfections tolerated. It is
assumed that newly empowered employees will make mistakes. These
mistakes form part of the learning process and should therefore not be
punished. The empowerment process starts at the bottom where an
understanding for the needs of employees is created. Empowered
behaviour for employees should be modeled by seniors. Intelligent risk
taking is encouraged and people are trusted to perform. Underlying this
empowerment strategy are the principles of employee competence
(Hall, 1990) as well as the principles of transformational leadership
(Bass & Avolio, 1994). For people to be empowered they must first
experience a sense of involvement, participation and personal impact
on the work and work environment.
For the successful implementation of empowerment, Quinn & Spreitzer (1997)

do not suggest a choice between the mechanistic or organic views. Neither
perspective by itself provides a clear option. Both provide partial and
incomplete pictures. Although risk, trust and initiative are vital in the
empowerment process, it still needs to be done in a disciplined and controlled
manner. Elements of both strategies are essential to sustain effective and
sustainable employee empowerment.
Veldsman, (2004: 32) relates the process of effective empowerment to the
building blocks of leadership culture and climate. These building blocks
(based on different leadership patterns within the organisation) give rise to
either enabling or disabling organisational cultures. These building blocks and
their descriptions are listed in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Leadership styles according to follower maturity.
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Building
Enabling Culture
Block
World view:
How do leaders see Inclusive, open-minded
the world?
Attitude:
What value, positive Optimistic, confident
or negative, must be
placed on things,
persons, events and
outcomes?
Relationship:
In what manner do Warm, personal, close
leaders engage with
others?
Power:
How and to what end Empowering, enabling
is power taken up
and exercised by
leaders?
Action:
What style of action Risk taking, experimenting
must leaders adopt?
Disabling Culture
Exclusive, closed-minded
Pessimistic, anxious
Cold, impersonal, distant
Controlling, restrictive
Risk avoiding, mistake

minimisation
(Source: Adapted from Veldsman, 2004)
The importance of understanding the human dynamics underpinning power

and the power struggle is addressed by Charlton (1992). Power forms part
of all human interactions and ought to be managed to the benefit of
managers, followers and the organisation. Traditional views of power as a
fixed sum (if one has more, the other has less) should be transformed to the
concept of giving power to get power. In such a scenario both leader and
follower are willing to be mutually influenced by one another. When leaders
share power through involvement and participation, their followers are more
strongly attached to them. This leads to higher levels of commitment to the
carrying out of responsibilities (Kouzes et al, 1988).
5.5.4.3
Boundary management
Changes in the nature of boundaries found in organisations require leaders to

focus on relationship boundary management (Hirschhorn et al, 1992).
According to them recognising such boundaries and then creating the right
kind of relationships at the right time is the key to improved productivity,
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innovation and effectiveness. Conflict created by clashes of opinion and

perspectives can be healthy as these differences may signal that group
members are approaching a boundary that needs to be managed (see table
6.5). Organisational flexibility depends on how well the creative tension within
each boundary is maintained and managed. Apart from certain boundaries
existing on an individual level, Kriek (2004) also refers to inter-team
boundaries. These team boundaries are determined through defining the level
at which it will allow outsiders to enter its boundaries. Often these visitors
are allowed to become a part of the social context, but they cant enter the
work-boundary of the team.
The psychological boundaries to be managed are discussed below (each
boundary is typically characterised by necessary tentions and can be
recognised by the feelings it evokes).
5.5.4.3.1
Authority boundary
In any organisation (even the most boundaryless) some people will
always lead and provide direction while others follow and have the
responsibility for execution. In these roles managers and subordinates
meet at the authority boundary. This boundary poses the question:
Who is in charge of what? In more flexible organisations followers
may sometimes find themselves leading a team including the formal
boss. Along authority boundaries two paradoxes are found. Firstly,
being an effective follower means that subordinates have to challenge
superiors. Secondly, being an effective manager sometimes requires
openness and even vulnerability to criticism and feedback from
followers. Subordinates need to challenge in order to follow, superiors
need to listen in order to lead (Hirschhorn et al, 1992). Building trust is
a critical requirement for managing the authority boundary effectively.
Kriek (2004) cites six leadership behaviours expected to build trust
between leader and follower:
Openness:
A willingness to share information, thoughts and feelings.
Reactions should also be consistent with the values of the team.
Sharing:
Providing materials and resources for the team to reach its goals
and objectives.
Empowerment:
Showing confidence through allowing followers to achieve the task
in their own way.
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Respect:
Recognising the contribution of each member and showing a belief
in the ability of followers to cope with the situation at hand.
Co-operation:
Allowing people to take part in problem solving and decisionmaking processes.
Dependability:
Keeping to what was promised.
5.5.4.3.2
Task boundary
Due to the highly specialised division of labour and the resultant
contradiction between this specialisation and the need for a shared
mission and purpose, teams became an important form of work
organisation. Because people with different (but complementary) skills
are brought together to pursue a single common goal, team members
must focus not only on their own work, but also on what other members
do. Leaders have to manage the relationships of those involved at the
task boundary. In flexible organisations individuals have to depend on
others who have skills and resources which they cannot control. This
means that their own performance may depend on what others do and
that they cannot ignore the work of others any more.
5.5.4.3.3
Political boundary
As members of groups with different interests, needs and goals,
especially in large organisations, people meet at the political boundary
by asking the question: What is in it for us? When groups start
defending their own interest the challenge for leaders will be to
distinguish between and manage win-lose and win-win strategies in
such a way that the effectiveness and coherence of the organisation as
a whole is not undermined.
5.5.4.3.4
Identity boundary
Hirschhorn et al (1992) refer to the fact that in the boundaryless
organisation people have a multitude of group identities at work. These
identities may be rooted in particular occupations, membership of a
local work group or their origins may be more personal as a result of
membership of and experience within a particular race, gender or
nationality.
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While at the political boundary differences are based on interests, the

differences at the identity boundary are strongly built on values. At this
boundary members seek out people who seem to be like themselves,
insiders are trusted but members are wary of outsiders. The question
is: Who is and isnt us? The relationships based on identity are
extremely energising and motivating. Leaders need to tap this energy
source and then put it to the most productive use. The tention that
needs to be managed is to create and maintain a high team spirit
without devaluing the contribution of other groups.
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Table 5.5: A leaders guide to important organisational boundaries.

Key questions
Necessary Tentions
AUTHORITY
BOUNDARY
Who is in charge of what?
TASK
BOUNDARY
Who does what?
IDENTITY
BOUNDARY
Who is and isnt us?
How to follow but still challenge superiors.
How to depend on others you dont control.

How to specialise yet understand other peoples jobs.
POLITICAL
BOUNDARY
Whats in it for us?
How to lead but remain open to criticism.
How to defend ones interests without undermining the organisation.

How to differentiate between win-win and win-lose situations.
How to feel pride without devaluing others.

How to remain loyal without undermining outsiders.
Characteristic Feelings
Trustful
Open
Rigid
Rebellious
Passive
Confident
Competent
Proud
Anxious
Incompetent
Ashamed
Empowered
Treated fairly
Powerless
Exploited
Proud
Loyal
Tolerant
Distrusting
Contemptuous
(Source: Hirschhorn & Gilmore, 1992)
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5.5.4.4
Creating psychological climate
Organisations do not only consist of people but are also made up of the
interactions between people. Behaviour of followers is determined by the
nature and quality of relationships. When people interact and communicate a
psychological climate arises (Kemp: 1998). As leader behaviour acts as a
stimulus for (and therefore makes a direct impact on) the behaviour of others,
leaders have to develop the interpersonal skills of establishing a constructive
and productive psychological climate. The interactional skills required to
favourably influence the behaviour of employees are the following:
Awareness of and sensitivity for the nature of their own interaction with
others. Leaders need to realise the impact of their own actions on
followers. Employees behaviour is often a direct result of the way they
are treated. A lack of initiative and commitment can therefore be the
result of a demotivating influence and cannot merely be seen as faults
on the side of workers themselves.
The relationship skills of empathy, acceptance of diversity without
prejudice, genuineness and sincerity.
Communication skills the interpersonal process taking place between
people in which everything said and done affects others, either to their
benefit or their disadvantage.
The ability to empower employees so that they can take risks, show
initiative and make own decisions.
5.5.4.5
Providing vision and direction
In a world of rapid change and instability a crucial part of the contemporary

leaders role has become one of creating meaning in terms of the future and a
clear, well communicated vision. Committed employees need direction.
Nadler, Shaw & Walton (1995: 73) define vision as a broad qualitative
statement of what the organisation will be like in the futurean image of a
future state that is realistic and compelling and better than the present state.
A positive and attractive, clearly understood vision serves as one of the most
important motivators to stir followers into action (Charlton, 1992). It provides
focus and transmits clarity of what is expected from employees. Visionary
competence, according to Charlton (1992), has a two-fold purpose:
It motivates people and enables individuals to find their own
organisational roles, it helps people to engage in a creative and
purposeful venture.
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It helps to get peoples attention and provides a sense of focus as to

the organisational direction.
Senge (1990) describes visionary leadership by referring to the principle of
creative tension. This tension develops from the gap between current reality
and where the organisation (or team) needs or wants to be in future. Leaders
need to hold a picture of the ideal future and communicate it in practical terms
to followers. Charlton (1992) warns that peoples motivation is dependent on
understanding the teams vision and that if there is no vision people will simply
assume that there is no future for the team and will then soon look for
alternatives. Leaders should establish a context for the creation of hope for a
better future, which is a prerequisite for a sense of commitment purpose.
5.5.4.6
From management to leadership
The traditional management style making use of a slow chain-of command

decision-making process typically found in multi-leveled bureaucratic
organisations (Robinson, 1989) is characterised by managers telling
employees what to do and then monitoring their performance through strict
external controlling mechanisms such as policies, rules, regulations and fixed
procedures. This style needs to be replaced by an approach capitalising on
the inherent competence, creativity and need for learning, involvement,
participation and ownership of employees (Charlton: 1992). To be able to do
this, Robinson (1989) suggests the following requirements:
Coaching and developing people
Assist employees to become self-managed
Participate in and encourage teams and teamwork
Encourage innovation and risk taking
Treat people as your number one competitive edge in the marketplace
The areas of difference in the movement away from a managerial focus
towards a style of leading others dictate some requirements for leaders in the
new organisational paradigm and are reflected in Table 5.6.
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Table 5.6: Model for transition from management to leadership.
MANAGING OTHERS
LEADING OTHERS
Directing others
Guiding / Developing
Competing
Collaborating
Using hierarchy
Using network
Consistency/Sameness
Diversity / Flexibility
Slow decision-making
requiring permission
Fast decision-making
using judgment
Risk-averse
Risk taking
Individual contributor
Team player
Being managed
Self-management
People as expense
People as asset
(Source: Robinson, 1989)
5.5.4.7
Change related leadership demands for South Africa
Despite the legacy of apartheid, low productivity and inadequate skill, South
African business organisations have to face the challenges of increased
international competition. Pretorius (2001) is convinced that leadership is the
most critical factor that can make a difference and that will determine future
success. In order to be successful, South African leaders should embrace
change and accept it as an inevitability. To be able to capitalise on change
and to be on the forefront of it, leaders should posses the following
fundamental skills:
Strategic thinking
Not only should the leader be able to formulate a coherent strategy and
vision for the organisation, but he should also be able to effectively
communicate this to his followers.
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Innovative thinking
This refers to the leaders ability to find new opportunities for growth
and development and to instil the same inclination in each member of
the team. Competition should be out-innovated (Pretorius, 2001)
Rational decision making
Leaders must be able to deal with operational problems and decisions
successfully.
Pretorius (2001) contrasts successful leadership with traditional autocratic and
transactional styles and states that effective leadership can be described as
visionary and transformational. For him transformational leadership, difficult
as it may be, is the only way to business success. Leadership should be
principle centred and built on the values of quality service, teamwork,
recognition of performance, participation, involvement and continuous people
development. In order to do this, leaders need to learn how to trust people so
that power can be shared and shifted to those who do the work.
5.6
5.6.1
CURRENT THOUGHTS ON AFRICAN MANAGEMENT/ LEADERSHIP
INTRODUCTION
Since 1994, when political power in South Africa shifted to a first democratic
government, the issue of appropriate management models for business in
Africa has formed the key point of many debates. Although the concepts
driving the systems, structure and effectiveness of all business are universal
and apply anywhere, Drucker (1990) argues that the context in which
business operates (which is not universal) forms a more powerful reality and
that South African leaders need to explore the notion that business success
may be caused by different realities from one context to another.
South African management practices have been strongly influenced by both
colonial heritage and American business thinking. Lessem (1993) points out
that a purposefully differentiated and subsequently integrated approach to
management needs to accompany economic transformation in South Africa
and that our managers have to start recognising the full potential of the
countrys cultural, economic and personal variety.
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5.6.2
INCLUSIVISM VS EXCLUSIVISM
The perceived relationship between an individual and his society became one
of the most important differences between black and white South Africans
(Koopman, 1993). While whites have primarily designed exclusive workplaces
where individual development, ambition, and achievement enjoy primary
importance (an exclusive value orientation), blacks do not see man as
separate and independent from society. The individuals behaviour cannot be
interpreted from a pure individualistic perspective. Each individual is expected
to find his place in societal structure and to subordinate himself to societal
needs. He does not live for himself, but for the community. For them
organisations, in order to serve the needs of its people, are therefore required
to be inclusive. The dilemma created in South Africa (Koopman, 1993) is that
blacks (being regarded as more holistic and inclusive right brain thinkers) are
forced into predominantly left brain workplaces characterised by analytical and
exclusive environments. The result is that the use of exclusivist disciplinary
rules and regulations comes into conflict with the blacks inclusivist view of
adherence or non-adherence to the requirements of societal norms. These
value differences bear substantial significance in the military environment with
its numerous rules, regulations, policies and procedures. As will be discussed
later in this chapter, it should be noted that the SA Air Force has already
started moving away from a traditionally rule bound culture towards one that is
driven by a set of shared core values.
Koopman (1993) provides four basic behavioural differences, which result
from above contrasting value systems:
In an inclusivist world-view recognition and the fear of rejection is more
important than rewards or punishment. It stems from the very roots of
social relationships with other people. The fear of rejection and the
need for belonging is rooted very strongly in social relationships within
black communities. Therefore, to use social rejection as punishment
holds much more corrective potential than any of the other rational
punishments used in the white individualistic exclusive orientation.
In black societies people have to earn the right to control people
(consent of the managed). There is a much stronger emphasis on
leadership than management. Where leadership is concerned with
rewarding communal effort against common vision, management
focuses on rewarding individual merit and position.
Self-interest is seen as being subjective to communal interest.
In an exclusive organisational environment a leader, once receiving
power, becomes directive. For blacks there is a much stronger drive
towards continuing participation.
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In South Africa whites are individualistic exclusivists, while Africans are

communal inclusivists (Koopman, 1993). The role of the community in shaping
the behaviour of its members, even in the workplace, cannot be overemphasised and stand central to African culture. Philosophically, the
community concept is strongly based on the concept of Ubuntu, which is
discussed further on in this chapter. Communal morality forms the basis for
the creation of shared values inside the organisation. For blacks, the
workplace becomes an extension of the social community concept and this
organisational community then should lay down the guidelines for both good
and unacceptable behaviour within various disciplines such as teamwork and
customer service. In the community, which is characterised by an organic
structure, there should be a thick network of informal relationships for the
creation of a collaborative and caring atmosphere. These relationships
empower people to freedom and action and enable people to find meaning
and satisfaction in their work (Mbigi, 1993). Ceremonies, rituals and symbols
are of importance. Other characteristics of an inclusivist community-based
value-system are respect for the elderly, supportiveness, c-operation,
solidarity and a preference to focus on morals rather than roles and functions.
There is a free flow of information and everyone has the right to be informed.
In organisations, rules and regulations should be used for the facilitation of
interpersonal relations and the promotion of the communitys values and
objectives, not for preserving the ascendancy of one group over another
(Khoza, 1994). The differences between blacks and whites in terms of
exclusivism and inclusivism are listed in Table 5.7. From these points as well
as those mentioned above it becomes clear that if a misunderstanding and
denial of these differences are allowed in the workplace, an environment for
increased polarisation (and therefore low productivity and bad performance)
will be created.
Koopman (1993) is convinced that, for South African companies to be
compatible with a non-racial democracy and to develop effective and
appropriate organisational governance, leaders have to take account of these
value differences and to adopt a more inclusivist value system within their
organisations. However, this should still be integrated with the Western values
of efficiency and enterprise (Mbigi, 1993). Leaders will need to continuously
create an understanding for South Africas dual heritage. Visionary
management is seen as the most appropriate in meeting the challenge of
synthesising polarities and integrating ancient wisdom of the past with modern
science. According to Mbigi (1993) organisational forms with an organic
structural design (rather than mechanistic bureaucratic designs) may serve as
a starting point for the design of relevant management theories for the South
African firm. The extent to which the application of the principles of
transformational leadership might satisfy this requirement will be referred to
further on in this chapter (see Section 5.7)
Page 141
Table 5.7:
Exclusivism vs Inclusivism: Differences between whites and

Africans.
Whites
Africans
Win/lose tactics within clearly Within a framework of morals, the
defined structures and procedures immediate family, supervisors and
are applied when managing conflict. elders are involved in managing
conflict.
Members enter into negotiations in Members enter into a dialogue
towards an outcome.
order to control the outcome.
The outcome is in terms of right- The outcome is in terms of fairness
and unfairness towards other
ness and wrongness.
members of society.
Inherent in this system is violence Inherent in this system is a search for
and disharmony according to sets of reconciliation and harmony so that
acceptance amongst fellow human
rules and standards.
beings can be regained.
(Source: Adapted from Koopman, 1993: 48)
5.6.3
Ubuntu
Events only have meaning in a specific context (Nzelibe, 1986). This is also
applicable to the study of effective leadership in Africa. A meaningful analysis
and description of leadership thought in the African business world can
therefore only be done with reference to certain basic, traditional values and
principles (Lessem, 1993). Implicitly, a direct conflict could be found between
the fundamental assumptions of Western and African management thought.
Whereas eurocentricism, individualism and modernity are emphasised in
Western thinking, the characteristic elements of African management thought
are traditionalism, communalism, ethnocentrism and teamwork. Many of these
traits are rooted in the uniquely African concept of African Humanism or
ubuntu as it is known. It has become a social construct so strongly part of
African communities that the study of organisational behaviour in African
business cannot ignore its influence on long-term business success and
survival. For Mbigi (1993) the key to successfully get ones workforce on ones
side lies in the African-grown concept of ubuntu.
A deep sence of interdependence lies at the heart of Africanism. For the
African ones very sense of personhood is dependent upon how one is seen
and regarded by others (Van der Merwe, 1993). Nobody in an African context
lives for himself. Each one lives for the community. This belief has given rise
to the truly African unique concept of ubuntu as captured by the Tswana
saying Motho ke motho ka batho (Van der Walt, 1997) or the Xhosa
idiomatic expression Umuntu Ngumintu Ngabantu which could literally be
Page 142
translated as: A person is a person only through other people (Khoza, 1993).
The concept is often referred to by using phrases such as I am because you
are, you are because we are. While Western thinking moves from several
individuals to a community, traditional African thinking is exactly the opposite:
the community is the point of departure (Van der Walt, 1997). Ubuntu is often
regarded to form the foundation of sound human relations in African societies
and strongly forms the core of an African world-view to such an extent that it
could be conceptualised as the collective unconscious of intra-human
relations (Khoza, 1994).
Ubuntu is collectivistic in nature and opposes the assumptions of Western
individualistic theory that a person, being self-reliant, is the best judge of his
own interests and that the development of the individual is the most effective
incentive to productive behaviour. According to Khoza (1994) the assumptions
of the individualistic theory are inadequate to the understanding of the fact
that man is a social being and that his most effective behaviour is as a
member of a group or organisation. In contrast with the individualistic worldview which accords value to progress and supports the right of the individual
to compete with others and to get ahead of them, collectivism sees the
individual as being subordinate to a social collectivity such as a nation, an
organisation or a social class, the individual finds his true being and
freedom only in submission to the general will of the community (Khoza,
1994). Man is not regarded as the sufficient and adequate reason of his own
existence. In the ubuntu ontology3 working for the common good of all
members are emphasised as both desirable and essential. Man is defined in
relational terms - he can only be identified in relation to other human beings.
Ubuntu as a value orientation also has a religious component. For the African,
the human community extends even beyond death. The link between the
living members and the living dead members is regarded to be unbreakable.
The African regards his relationship with God as a communal relationship
even when accepting the Christian religion (Van der Walt, 1997). For him
religion cannot be an individual choice.
Ubuntu is seen as an asset through which to create community. The ubuntu
philosophy, together with the community concept, has significant implications
for organisational life. The community in a village creates alignment through
social pressures imposed on individuals who are seen to be out of line with
the communitys norms. It is believed that organisations could also use these
processes as a means of creating pressures for alignment (Van der Merwe,
1993). Apart from this, other vital considerations of ubuntu for the workplace
are the following (Khoza, 1994):
Understanding of the truth.
Page 143
A networking style of management where people can learn from

one another horizontally should replace a strictly top-down
authoritarian management style. Each Individual should get support
from many different levels and directions.
Management should be approachable without being over-familiar. A
prerequisite will be to understand the world views of those who are
managed.
The organisation should have a free flow of information. A
community spirit cannot be built and cultivated by withholding
information or by manipulating facts.
Although ubuntu, as a concept belonging to the social philosophy or social
psychology, embraces values such as sharing, seeking consensus and
interdependent helpfulness, it is not a business technique like an employee
participation programme. Van der Wal (2001) warns that ubuntu should not be
carelessly compared with and substituted for the technique of normal
participative management. However, it does provide a sound basis for team
learning and the development of a greater sense of oneness (Khoza, 1993).
The already well developed sense of sharing and common endeavour
available in the African workforce should be realised through the application of
democratic leadership techniques. ubuntu manifests in protest and withdrawal
under authoritarian leadership conditions.
5.6.4
ACHIEVEMENT AND WEALTH

Blunt et al (1997) argue that the two assumptions, namely that people
respond in ways designed to optimise economic rewards and that there are
high merits in individualism and competition, are potentially problematic as
they do not correspond with the values held by people in more than 80 per
cent of the countries of the world. In most non-Western countries individual
and group competition are not highly valued; the group is more important than
the individual, individual achievements less important than interpersonal
relations.
The wealth of the extended family enjoys first priority (Blunt et al, 1997) after
which ethnic and tribal wealth follow. For Africans, the value of economic
transactions lies more in the ritual surrounding them and in their capacity to
reinforce group ties, than in the value for the individual and the other parties
involved. According to Dia (1994) wealth can even be acquired legitimately at
the expense of the organisation.
Page 144
5.6.5
ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS
In comparison to the increased focus on task performance, productivity and
organisational effectiveness by thrusting and demanding leaders, African
culture shows a much higher acceptance of human frailty. Leaders who are
kind, considerate and understanding is preferred to one that is too dynamic,
productive and demanding (Blunt et al, 1997). Africans are more concerned
about their relationships with others than individual or organisational
effectiveness. Interpersonal issues are more important than issues associated
with organisational performance and its clients. Followers expect leaders to
use authority only sparingly and in a considerate way. The good manager is
considered to be people-oriented (instead of task-oriented), one that consults
subordinates, treat them with consideration and provide clear direction. Most
importantly he is expected to offer assurance and security. In this regard
Montgomery (1987) points to the preoccupation of African leaders with
stability and order. The Western philosophy of the survival of the fittest
where underperformers are considered to be deadwood to be rooted out is
not easily accepted in African management models (Blunt et al, 1997). A
comparison of the elements of typical ideal Western leadership with African
paradigms is provided in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8:
Element
A comparison of Western and African leadership paradigms.

Western leadership
African leadership
Influences on
leadership
practices
Organisational performance is
most important
Drive for efficiency and
competitiveness
Urgency
Participative (because of being
follower dependent)
Centralised power structures

High degree of uncertainty
Control mechanisms more
important than organisational performance
Bureaucratic resistance to change
Importance of extended family
Managing
authority
Relative equality of authority

and status between manager
and subordinates
Delegation/decentralisation
Teamwork
Empowerment
Authoritarian/ pater-nalistic
leadership patterns
Centralisation
Bureaucratic controls
Reluctance to judge performance
Managing
uncertainty
High degree of tolerance of

ambiguity
Uncertainty accepted as normal
Continuous change viewed as
natural desirable
Sense of urgency
High degrees of conser-vatism

Change-resistant hierarchies
Page 145
Table 5.8:
Element
Managing
relationships
(Continued)
Western leadership
High levels of trust and
openness valued
Open confrontation of
differences
Support of followers essential
Focus on commitment and high
morale
African leadership
Social networks crucial for
individual security
(Source: Blunt & Jones, 1997: 19)
5.6.6
EMERGENT STRATEGY VERSUS STRATEGY FORMULATION

In terms of sophisticated Western management tradition strategy is
formulated where after the implementation thereof is controlled by rational
management systems such as job descriptions, job evaluations, disciplinary
codes and grievance procedures. In non-Western environments this approach
is often met with resistance, hostility and mistrust. Africans on the other hand,
are known for recognising emerging reality patterns after strategy formulation
this is referred to as emergent strategy (Mbigi, 1993). The crafting and
moulding of strategy is regarded to be more important than formulating
strategy. The task of the manager is to conceptualise and synthesise
emerging strategic reality patterns with planned strategy. This view is
supported by the research of Jones, Blunt & Sharma (1995) providing
evidence that the role of vision and strategy as it is described in Western
terms, are out of place in many African organisations. The Western notion of
leaders having to formulate long-term strategies, to communicate corporate
vision and to inspire people to work towards the organisations mission, is
found to be largely absent in these organisations.
5.7
5.7.1
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
THE FULL-RANGE MODEL OF LEADERSHIP
Dissatisfaction with the appropriateness and relevance of some of the earlier
theories of leadership led to the emergence of new approaches to the
description and understanding of effective leadership (Bass, 1985; Bennis et
al, 1985; Kouzes & Posner, 1988; Senge, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1993). These
new theories focus on what leaders do in order to be effective. Building on the
leadership notions of Burns (1978), Bass (1985) developed a model of a full
range of leadership styles ranging from non-transactional to transactional and
transformational. This theory was first developed with executives from South
Africa in the early 1980s. He used subordinates perceptions and reactions to
determine whether a leader was transformational or transactional.
Page 146
A common characteristic of all the styles in this full-range model is that the
more active the style (i.e. the leader) is, the more effective the style will be
(Bass & Avolio, 1994). All the styles could therefore be plotted on the two
dimensions passive-active and ineffective-effective. A fundamental
characteristic of full-range leadership training and development is that every
leader possesses and displays a certain degree of each of the styles. This
leads to the model also showing a third dimension, namely the frequency of
displaying each one of the styles. The optimal profile (figure 5.4) indicates the
relative frequency of styles displayed by most effective leaders.
In essence Basss (1985) theory focuses on the differences on transactional
and transformational leadership approaches and how these styles influence
follower behaviour and organisational effectiveness. Transformational leaders
use individual attention and visioning and inspirational skills to develop strong
emotional bonds with their followers. Transformational leadership is a more
complex but more potent leadership style (Negin, 2000) and causes both
leaders and followers to commit themselves to excellence. In addition to
satisfying only the lower order needs of followers, these leaders also appeal to
the higher level growth needs (esteem and self-actualisation). The style
serves to address (and change) the stutus quo by appealing to followers
sense of higher purpose. It could ultimately be seen as a moral exercise that
aims at raising the standard of human conduct. These leaders have a
compelling vision of the organisations future and what it could be like. (Bass,
1985). Transformational leadership is often (wrongly) confused with charisma.
Although charisma forms an important part of transformational leadership
characteristics, many charismatic leaders are not transformational in their
approach. Charisma alone is not sufficient for transformation. When
charismatic leaders convey a vision and form strong emotional bonds but do
so in order to get their own needs met, they are not transformational (Negin,
2000). Transformational leaders show more identifiable behaviours that result
in followers going beyond previously expected levels of performance.
Transactional leaders do not possess these characteristics and are therefore
not able to inspire followers or to develop emotional bonds. Their means of
motivating people are to set goals and then to promise rewards for achieving
the desired outcomes.
Bass (1990) notes that transformational leadership should be seen as a
compliment to the transactional style and not a replacement of it. Leaders
understanding and using both styles were found to be the most effective.
Page 147
Figure 5.4: Optimal leadership profile.
EFFEC TIV E
44I I ss
CCRR
M
E-A
MB
BE
A
P A SSIV E
A C TIV E
M
BEE-P
MB
-P
LL FF
IN EFFEC TIV E
(Source: Bass & Avolio, 1994)
Page 148
After comparing organisational cultures in terms of transactional versus

transformational leadership approaches, Bass et al (1993: 112) suggests that
organisations should move in the direction of more transformational qualities
in their cultures, yet not move away completely from transactional qualities. A
transactional leadership style refers to exchanges of performances for
rewards between leaders and followers. In achieving daily routine
performance the leader and follower agree upon incentives or rewards in
exchange for achieving specific work objectives. Rewards and compensation
can only be expected upon successful completion of the defined task. After
setting clear standards for performance, the transactional leader is focussing
on deviations and mistakes and only pays attention to correcting these.
In contrast with the transactional style, the transformational leader motivates
and encourages followers to do more than what is expected and often even
more than they thought possible (Bass et al, 1994).
5.7.2
NON-TRANSACTIONAL, TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL STYLES

A brief description of each of the styles making up the full-range model of
leadership will subsequently be provided:
5.7.2.1
The laissez-faire (LF) style
Although characterised as one of the leadership styles of the full-range model

the laissez-faire style refers to the absence or avoidance of leadership, where
the leader neglects his responsibility of involvement in the work of his
followers. In terms of the full-range model of leadership (see Figure 5.4) this
style is the most inactive as well as the most ineffective. This fact is supported
by almost all research on the style (Bass et al, 1994). These leaders fail to
make decisions, are absent when needed, and fail to follow up on follower
requests.
5.7.2.2
Transactional leadership
Leadership is transactional in nature when follower behaviour is rewarded or

disciplined based on the adequacy of the behaviour or performance. Some
type of exchange relationship exists. Transactional leadership depends on
contingent reinforcement, (Bass et al, 1994) either through positive contingent
reward (CR) or negative forms of management-by-exception (MBE), which
could take on a passive or active approach. The focus is more on what needs
to be done than on the person doing the work. The approach more often than
Page 149
not results in followers only delivering what is expected or contracted and

shows no intent or motivation for doing more through exerting extra effort.
Transactional leadership can merely serve as a base for effective leadership
(Bass et al, 1990). There are numerous disadvantages and many elements of
effective leadership are missing from the approach. Pure transactional leaders
are unconcerned with the development of followers and only focus on the
requirements of the transaction or the exchange between themselves and the
followers. In a transactional approach the motivation of employees through
promising rewards or the avoidance of penalties will depend on whether the
leader has control of the rewards or penalties. Whether the follower wants the
rewards or fear the penalties, further influence the level of motivation.
In the full-range model, transactional leaders are characterised by behaviours
associated with constructive and corrective transactions. The constructive
style is labelled contingent reward and the corrective style is labelled
management-by-exception. These two styles will be briefly discussed next.
5.7.2.2.1
Contingent reward
In its positive form, the transactional leadership style is referred to as

contingent reward or constructive transaction. It takes on the form of
an exchange process owing to the fact that followers needs are met
when they meet the leaders expectations. These leaders employ goal
setting to help clarify what is expected of their subordinates and what
the subordinates will receive for accomplishing the goals and objectives
(Bass et al, 2003: 14). This form of leadership is highly dependent on
the ability of the leader to reward subordinates for their successful
completion of the contract or agreement. In essence, the approach is a
proactive facilitation of what subordinates do, how hard they try and
what they receive for their accomplishments. The style could be
regarded as reasonably effective only in the sense that, when
implemented properly, it results in follower performance that meets
expectations. There are no leader actions in this style that inspire
followers to do or achieve more than what was expected, both by the
leader and themselves.
Negin (2000) refers to two negative aspects of transactional leadership.
It is described as transitory (i.e. there may be no ongoing purpose or
reason to hold the leader and followers together once a transaction has
been made). This type of relationship will therefore only last for as long
as the transaction is mutually beneficial. Secondly, for as long as the
rewards are provided and agreements are kept to, it could be very
effective. However, it does not lead to organisational change (as
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opposed to transformational leadership). It could even legitimise the

status quo.
5.7.2.2.2
Management-by-exception
The negative form of transactional leadership is referred to as

management-by-exception or MBE (Bass et al, 1990) and literally
means that leaders pay attention to the deviations, errors and mistakes
in follower performance. In its active form (MBE-A), leaders look for
mistakes and take corrective action when mistakes occur. They
constantly monitor their subordinates performance and call for
corrections when problems are observed. Bass et al (2003: 14) clearly
point out the risks involved in using this style. If a leader only uses the
MBE-A style, he is likely to create a work force of risk avoiders and
individuals who work to standards only using traditional methods.
Followers avoid innovative actions due to a fear of making mistakes,
which may result in their leaders disapproval.
The MBE-Passive style refers to those MBE leaders who are not
actively searching for deviations, mistakes and errors in followers
assignments. These leaders wait to take action only when something
goes wrong. Matters have to be brought to their attention for them to
make corrections. They tend to leave things alone as long as it doesnt
give them too much trouble. Followers of MBE leaders (both active and
passive) usually do not perform at high levels.
5.7.2.3
Transformational leadership
The development of followers to their full potential is a primary concern for the
transformational leader. Superior leadership performance occurs when
leaders elevate employee interests and generate awareness and acceptance
of group mission and purposes (Bass, 1990). These leaders firstly elevate the
desires of followers for achievement and self-development (through increasing
follower self-confidence) firstly, but also promote group and organisational
development (Bass et al, 1990). They gradually move followers away from
concerns for existence to concerns for development and achievement.
The transformational leader is much more future oriented and fosters an
organisational culture of creative change and growth. Continuous awareness
and acceptance of the group's purpose is viewed as critical and followers are
encouraged to focus away from self-interest towards the good of the group or
team. These leaders tend to give direction, they inspire, gain commitment,
and serve as respected examples in order to develop people to their full
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potential in their efforts to solve problems and perform better. Negin (2000)
cites three important criteria for leaders to be transformational:
They should manifest modal values4 and advance the standards of
good conduct.
They work to achieve end values5
They have a positive impact on the people whose lives they touch.
Avolio, Waldman & Yammarino (1991: 10) characterise transformational
leaders by four separate components or characteristics denoted as the four
(4) I's of transformational leadership:
5.7.2.3.1
Individualised consideration.
The development of each follower is important and his/her worth as a

person is constantly reinforced through personal attention. Each
follower is individually coached and advised. All individuals are
considered as having different needs, abilities and aspirations.
5.7.2.3.2
Intellectual stimulation.
Intelligent, creative problem solving is promoted through the continuous

questioning, challenging and re-examining of assumptions. Followers
are encouraged to challenge old rules, procedures and status quo's
where they do not fit the purpose any more. These leaders get others
to look at problems from different angles. They encourage nontraditional thinking to deal with problems.
5.7.2.3.3
Inspirational Motivation.
The importance of each individual's task is expressed in terms of a

bigger picture. Accomplishments of the team are emphasised and
members' attention are constantly focussed on the future. Inspirational
motivating leaders talk optimistically and enthusiastically about the
future and what needs to be accomplished. They express confidence
that goals will be achieved and provide an exciting image of what is
essential to consider.
4
Those values surrounding the exchange process, i.e. honesty, fairness and fulfilling commitment
(Negin, 2000).
5
The ideals by which a society or organisation should strive to live and could include justice, liberty,
freedom, equality and brotherhood.
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5.7.2.3.4
Idealised Influence.
Through acting as positive examples and role models, these leaders

ensure follower respect and trust. They display a sense of power and
confidence, they instil pride in others for being associated with them
and will go beyond self-interest for the good of the group.
In the Full Range Leadership (FRL) model it is indicated that both
transactional and transformational styles should be used depending on the
given situation, but that research results have proven that followers perform
significantly better under conditions where a more transformational leadership
approach is being followed. It also follows that where leader behaviours are
more transactional, the result is a transactional culture, and visa versa. Such
a transactional culture is characterised by rigidity in terms of rules, regulations
and jobs being managed and controlled in an attempt to get performance. In a
transformational culture on the other hand, people are led through example
and given direction but are also allowed initiative. Creativity is encouraged,
mistakes are considered as part of learning and development, and open
communication generally prevail. Behaviour is guided through vision and
shared values and people are encouraged to develop beyond their present
jobs and abilities.
Bass (1994: 12-13) cites the following reasons why transformational
leadership is particularly needed in South Africa:
Socio-political changes since 1991 impacted on employee/ manager
relations in organisations. Organisational cultures, which are in line
with the new democratic socio-political environment, are required.
The challenges faced by white and black South African leaders are
different to those of the 1980s.
For many years South African managers have been too internally
focussed causing them to be out of touch with international
requirements for competing in world markets.
In a diverse South African environment, leaders being able to deal
with different cultures, different political viewpoints, complex
prejudices and various literacy levels will be required.
Managers need to put the potential of racial conflict and white fears
into perspective to ensure social harmony. For this, basic
assumptions need to be challenged and questioned to ensure
fundamental change.
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Strong transformational leadership will be needed for the fundamental

changes in South Africas education system.
5.8
ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE IN THE SAAF

NOTE:
The discussion in this section is based on information contained

in the following internal defence documents as well as
discussions and interviews with various senior Air Force officers:
Consolidated as-is findings and input into the desired
culture change of the DOD.
Proposed integrated philosophy on leadership, command
and management, and organisational culture.
DOD Leadership Doctrine
5.8.1
CHANGE IMPERATIVES FOR A MORE TRANSFORMATIONAL

APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP IN THE SAAF
5.8.1.1
Constitutional and transformational imperatives and guidelines

for Department of Defence leadership (White Papers)
Like many other organisations, both locally and abroad, the DOD is also faced
with the demands of a rapidly changing environment characterised by
uncertainty, turbulence, complexity and unpredictability. Environmental
changes for the DOD include a shift in its role due to the absence of a military
threat to the country, increasingly tight budgetary constraints and the typical
demands that a liberal democracy places on its military forces. This has
resulted in the SANDF being increasingly confronted with and subjected to
civilian values and expectations. The challenge for the DOD has clearly
become one of doing more with less. Effective transformational leadership,
which could unleash the inherent competence and potential of the DODs
workforce has remained as the only workable solution to these demands.
Diminishing resources, especially in respect of defence budget cuts, have led
to the demand, by both government and the general public, that allocated
resources are efficiently and effectively utilised in the pursuance of the DODs
mission, goals and objectives. As a result the government has adopted a total
quality approach to management, of which important guidelines have been set
out in various government publications. Most requirements associated with
the new approach are primarily reflected in the White Paper on the
Transformation of the Public Service (1995) and the White Paper on Defence
Page 154
(1996). These documents contain both constitutional and transformational

imperatives and guidelines for DOD leadership. The most important guidelines
impacting on the desired DOD organisational culture are the following:
The devolution and decentralisation of managerial responsibility and
accountability to ensure that effective, timeous and responsible
decisions-making takes place at all levels.
The introduction of new, flexible and more participative organisational
structures which will concentrate less on the application of rules and
more on the creative use of consultation and team work.
The development of new organisational cultures way from a rule-bound
culture to one which is focussed more on the achievement of tasks and
the meeting of needs.
Effective mobilisation, development and utilisation of human resources.
Increasingly becoming a learning organisation by fully exploiting
opportunities for growth, development and change, constantly reappraising existing work practices and behaviour.
Managing change and diversity, increasingly becoming rainbow
workplaces, representative of the cultures and peoples of South Africa.
5.8.1.2
DOD structural and cultural changes
After the election in 1994, the DOD was one of the first state departments to
initiate change by integrating the former SA Defence Force (SADF),
Transkei/Bophutatswana/Venda/Ciskei (TBVC), Azanian Peoples Liberation
Army (APLA) and Umkontho we Sizwe (MK) forces into one force, the South
African National Defence Force (SANDF). This integration process brought
together diverse entities with diverse value systems into one organisational
entity, which necessitated the development of an appropriate and acceptable
organisational culture in view of and in anticipation of comprehensive and
continuous societal, political and organisational change. Moreover,
international imperatives for change in public services in general, as well as a
decline in budget spending on defence globally, with an increasing emphasis
on peace-keeping operations, have all added to the impetus for internal
change.
Since the integration of the different forces into the SANDF, little effort has
been made during the first few years to identify and integrate similar values,
and to focus on the development of a new organisational culture based on
these values. The existing DOD organisational culture was characterised by
Page 155
the following ineffective practices: insufficient communication, bureaucracy,

and leader ambivalence (leaders managed rather than led and did not
empower their subordinates sufficiently). Human dignity was not adequately
recognised and high levels of uncertainty were reflected in morale and
organisational climate. The need for a culture change process was
furthermore supported by the following:
A poor public image of the SANDF/DOD.
A rapid decrease in standards and discipline.
Inconsistency in leadership conduct (pockets of transformational
leadership combined with large areas of autocratic and transactional
leadership).
The DOD was not in line with the governments guidelines on institution
building and management.
The DOD recognised the fact that a strong organisational culture is one of the
most important avenues through which transformational change could be
implemented and that leadership forms the vehicle for behavioural change in
this process. It has become necessary to identify a set of core values that is
shared by all members and that provides common understanding and
cohesion in the DOD. A new organisational culture not only had to be
reflective of shared values, but also had to facilitate a transformation from a
rigid, rule-bound organisation to a much more participative, value driven
approach. The desired DOD culture should be driven by the following
overarching principles:
Primacy of output. It refers to the fact that the end aim, mission or
result takes preference over everything else in the process. Instead of
defining activities and tasks into the smallest detail, the end goal must
be clearly stated and tested for comprehension. Control mechanisms
need to be reduced and leadership should allow for freedom of
movement and creativity in achieving the end aim in the most
economical manner.
Initiative and empowerment. It ties in with the previous principle the
limiting of control mechanisms and levels of authority , allowing for
more creative delivery of stated goals. Responsibility and accountability
are, however, not negated; there should therefore be a strong focus on
the development of human potential.
Jointness and networking. It refers to the ability to work across
departmental or functional boundaries in order to avoid duplication and
Page 156
to achieve results in the most economic manner. It relies on collective

conduct and discourages the building of empires.
Value-based conduct. This implies that the behaviour of DOD
personnel should be driven by agreed upon, shared and consistent
values, rather than by strictly laid-down rules and regulations.
Continuous improvement. The organisation should readily adapt to
changing circumstances, and an ongoing examination of all processes
should ensure necessary change, not for the sake of change, but for
the sake of improvement in organisational performance.
Based on the above-mentioned principles, DOD leaders will have to display
much more transformational characteristics and will therefore be expected to
(1) create a climate that puts people first; be caring and supportive and
provide opportunities for individual growth; (2) provide a future vision and
direction in which the organisation is moving; (3) lead by example, be valuedriven and provide motivation and inspiration; (4) communicate openly,
honestly and regularly; (5) trust and empower their subordinates and delegate
responsibilities to the lower levels, and (6) provide guidance and allow
subordinates to learn from their mistakes. These behaviour patterns are
synonymous with those identified with transformational leaders (Bass et al,
1994). In terms of the desired leadership culture and the concept of the
learning organisation (see Section 5.5.3.2) DOD leaders will also be
responsible for creating an environment in which the development and sharing
of knowledge, skills, experience and lessons learnt is enhanced. As part of
building strong, effective teams, they have to serve as role models of the
principles of continuous learning as well as the core values of the DOD. These
values are listed in Table 5.9.
5.8.2
THE SAAF CULTURE CHANGE PROCESS

Central to the South African Air Forces view of the future is its mandate as
the provider of air power to the nation. The provision of combat ready air
power is the fundamental consideration in its strategic planning process. In an
effort to harmonise the SAAFs strategies and objectives with those of the
DOD, the SAAF committed itself to a demanding transformation process. In
reaction to, and in support of the DOD transformation process, the SAAF
developed a long term outlook, referred to as SAAF Vision 2012, with a focus
on establishing a centre for air power excellence. This desired future state is
also characterised by a new organisation culture of excellence and
competence, including a set of new corporate values (see Table 5.10).
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Table 5.9: DOD core values.

Value
Description
Some behavioural examples
Integrity
Regarded as a moral virtue. The cornerstone for building trust. It implies Honesty
a oneness between words and action.
Credibility
Trustworthiness
Transparency
Patriotism
The love and devotion to ones country. It implies that allegiance to the Pride
country comes first.
Honour
Sacrifice
Loyalty
To be faithful to ones oath, mission and organisation.
Trust
Faithfulness
Comradeship
Human Dignity
Treating others the way you would expect to be treated.
Respect
Tolerance
Fairness
Military
To exemplify those qualities, virtues and behaviour that govern the
Professionalism conduct of all members . It forms the heart of a military culture and
implies a strive towards excellence.
Accountability
To be responsible for ones actions and decisions and the resulting
consequences thereof.
Discipline
Ethical conduct
Reliability
Legality
(Source: Department of Defence Leadership Doctrine)
Page 158
It is accepted that the SAAF will always have a unique subculture of its own.
The creation of a culture of air power excellence is a crucial building block in
the SAAFs endeavours to meet the objectives of Vision 2012. The intention is
to move away from inhibiting, rule bound practices and approaches towards a
value driven culture, one being characterised by participating practices,
innovation, continuous improvement and the acknowledgement of the inherent
competence and creative potential of all employees (Beukman, 2003).
In order to be able to effectively assess the existing culture of the SAAF, the
Organisation Culture Analysis (Hall, 1987) was used for data collection. This
instrument, in addition to providing actual culture data, also gave the added
benefit of a clear picture of the future desired SAAF culture as seen by all
members participating in the survey. The Organisation Culture Analysis (OCA)
feedback is given in terms of those conditions that need to be in place for
people to be competent it analyses these conditions (collaboration,
commitment and creativity) in terms of actual and desired situations. The OCA
is based on the theory of competence (Hall, 1993), which has as its basic
premise (or point of departure) the fact that people can and want to do what
needs to be done provided that the correct conditions exist within the
organisation. The results of the OCA are given as an indication of the extent
to which the nine so-called supporting conditions for competence are evident
and exist in the organisation. The Air Forces senior leadership acknowledges
the fact that the establishment of an organisation of Air Power Excellence (the
SAAF future vision) will only be possible through people, and is therefore
dependent on the extent to which these conditions under which people can
excel, are created in the work place. To be able to do this, it was necessary to
create a clear picture of the existing conditions as well as an indication of how
people throughout the SAAF would like to see them as part of the desired
future organisation culture. A 10% sample of the organisation was drawn,
after which the actual survey was done, including all bases/units as well as
the Air Command and the Air Force Office. Just more than a 1 000 members
eventually participated in the survey. This sample was representative in terms
of rank, ethnic group and gender.
Although an OCA report was prepared for each base on its own, the overall
SAAF results clearly show that the predominant culture of the organisation is
still characterised by non-flexibility, tight procedural and regulatory control, a
high resistance to change and people practices that do not encourage
collaboration, commitment and creativity. Results furthermore show that there
is a significant gap between the actual and desired scores. It is only through
closing this gap that the organisation will move to a culture of strong
enthusiasm and commitment, one that is thriving on the inherent talent,
creativity and competence of its people, thus allowing the SAAF to adapt to
the changes as described above, quickly and smoothly.
Page 159
After studying the OCA results thoroughly and through following the proven
principles of a full-scale culture change intervention, a unique change process
was developed for the SAAF. The process, consisting of a series of six steps
(see Figure 5.5), should not be seen as a short-term intervention, but rather
as a continuous guideline for changing/aligning all the SAAFs practices,
policies and procedures to eventually reflect the characteristics of the desired
culture. It has far-reaching implications for leaders in all areas of business and
the eventual success will predominantly be determined by Officers
Commanding, Directors and their leadership teams taking full ownership and
responsibility for implementing the new principles.
No value system is cast in concrete and can ever be seen as suitable and
applicable forever. Values are always coupled to the organisations vision of
what it wants to achieve. As a first step in the culture change process of the
SAAF, clarity on its set of core values became important. To provide a clear
picture of the desired SAAF culture, a number of descriptive culture attributes
were developed. These culture attributes reflect the principles on which SAAF
leadership development is built (see Section 5.8.3) and are as follows:
We believe that future excellence lies in the hands of all our people, our
most precious asset.
We value
leadership.
competent,
credible
and
effective
(transformational)
We value the inherent competence of all our Air Force people.

We value continuous learning and improvement.
We value our SAAF uniqueness.
The new set of (four) values for the Air Force (underpinning the abovementioned attributes) indicates what is regarded as important for employee
conduct. The new SAAF values are listed in Table 5.10.
Page 160
Figure 5.5: SAAF culture change process.
SAAF CULTU RE CH ANG E

(T H E P R O C E S S )
STEP 5
STEP 6
V IS IO N 2 0 1 2
S U S T A IN IN G A IR
P O W E R E X C E LLE N C E
(P R E F E R R E D )
STEP 4
STEP 3
STEP 2
STEP 1
IN C O M P A T IB IL IT Y
T O W A R D S A IR
PO W ER EXCELLENCE
(E X IS T IN G )
CASE FO R CH AN GE
1 . D e v e lo p in g th e d e sire d
cu ltu re (co re v a lu e s)
2 . Id e n tify a n d d e ve lo p
cu ltu ra l d riv e rs
3 . E sta b lish cu ltu re ch a n g e
a g e n ts
4 . L e a rn an d te a ch n e w
b e h a vio u r
5 . In stitu sio n a lise n e w
a p p ro a ch e s
6 . M e a su re th e ch a n g e
p ro ce ss
(Source: Minutes of Presentation to the SA Air Force Board, 2003)
Page 161
Table 5.10: SA Air Force core values.

Value
Description
Human dignity
Respecting the infinite dignity and worth of all

individuals. Treating others the way you
would expect to be treated
Excellence in all we do
A sustained passion to continuously improve

individual and organisational performance
Integrity
To be honourable and to follow ethical
Service before self
principles. To be faithful to convictions. To

practice what you preach. It forms the
cornerstone for building trust
Professional SAAF duties take preference
over personal desires
Associated concepts
Respect
Tolerance
Fairness
Consideration
Team excellence
Leadership excellence
Service excellence
Military professionalism
Honesty
Credibility
Trustworthiness
Transparency
Loyalty
Commitment
Sacrifice
Devotion
Faithfulness
Pride
Courage
Military discipline
(Source:) Minutes of Presentation to the SA Air Force Board, 2003)
Page 162
5.8.3
BASIC PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE NEW LEADERSHIP CULTURE

OF THE SAAF IS BUILT
Leadership, and this is especially true for the military (Popper, Landau &
Gluskinos, 1992: 3), is commonly recognised as the one factor which has the
most profound influence on human behaviour. Therefore, it is essential that
the SAAFs transformational endeavour should focus on leadership as the
strongest integrating and binding force, and the main source for the
development and maintenance of the new desired culture. The description of
the SAAFs new organisational culture and more specifically its core values
and the associated behaviours is based on a number of fundamental
principles regarding human behaviour in the workplace. These principles are
reflected in basic belief systems and are universal in nature. The SAAF
expects the actions of all its leaders to be driven by these principles. To a
large extent they underpin and summarise the underlying principles of
transformational leadership (Bass et al, 1994) and the competence process
(Hall, 1993). They are briefly the following:
People want to feel good about themselves and the work they do. This
means that they have a need for finding meaning in their work through
deriving a sense of personal identity from doing what they do and doing
it well.
People want to be successful. They do their best when they have the
experience of making a valuable contribution to the organisation. They
want to enjoy a sense of control over their work. This is gained through
the incorporation of their ideas and feelings into the design and
procedures governing the work they do and when they feel responsible
for accomplishing the organisations objectives.
People do their best when they are allowed to collaborate. They are
willing to show extra effort when their own needs and objectives are
met by achieving those of the organisation and when it is done through
problem-solving processes where all contribute to and participate in
generating solutions.
People do not want to make mistakes. Mistakes should always be
regarded as part of the learning process.
People can and want to do what needs to be done IF their leaders
create the organisational conditions for them to do so. Subordinates
inherently have both the willingness and potential to be empowered to
do their work with competence and pride.
Page 163
All people have the inherent potential to be creative. The leaders role
in improving performance is to eliminate the unnecessary interferences
so that followers potential can be optimally unleashed.
The above principles have one central theme in common: for leaders to
influence followers to higher levels of performance, a keen sense of concern
for people, their well-being and their growth and development is essential.
Their leadership efforts should all be focussed on creating a culture of
collaboration and commitment.
5.8.4
FULL RANGE LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN THE SAAF

Towards the end of the bush war in Angola in the 1980s the SAAF had to go
through a process of redefining its role in defence and to reposition itself for
the future. This was particularly important for the ongoing motivation of
employees, now suddenly finding themselves in an organisation with a new
and different role definition. It was clear that in this process of transformation
and renewal, leadership at all levels would have to play a critical role. At the
same time The Air Force Board under the leadership of the Chief of the Air
Force (CAF) realised that the Air Force as an organisation could not be
excluded from the new approaches towards people development and
organisational effectiveness resulting from the changes in basic assumptions
as discussed earlier.
As a result of the above and the change imperatives described earlier, it was
decided to launch a leadership development intervention at a macro level to
develop leaders for their new role of creating the required organisational
conditions where all employees could understand the new direction and where
they could display a new sense of commitment, involvement and ownership.
The full-range leadership development programme used, is based on the
evidence of Bass et al (1990) that transformational leadership can be learned
by managers at all hierarchical levels. The overriding goal of the programme
is to take leaders from a beginning stage of awareness regarding own
strengths and weaknesses as a leader, to a final stage of adapting and
implementing new and more effective orientations towards leading others. The
programme consists of 14 modules in which the first eight form a basic threeday workshop and the last six an advanced three-day workshop. It has been
adapted to the constraints and opportunities of the unique SAAF
organisational setting. More than 1 500 SAAF leaders have done either the
basic or both workshops. This study will also report on the impact and
effectiveness of this transformational leadership development in the SAAF
over the past eight years.
Page 164
5.9
A MOTIVATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON LEADERSHIP

Transformational leaders need to inspire and motivate ordinary followers to
extraordinary levels of performance. An awareness of people's value-related
preferences is a prerequisite for being able to motivate them. Individual needs
determine which rewards will be valuable for an employee (Human &
Hofmeyr, 1985). Value will therefore be assigned to those outcomes or
rewards that will allow him to satisfy his most important needs. Schermerhorn
et al (1994: 170) stress the role that basic cultural values play in motivating
followers. They also warn managers (p83) not to be ethnocentric by assuming
that all people will be motivated by the same things and in the same ways.
They need to be careful in applying motivational theories developed in one
culture to a different one. As such, for example in a high uncertainty
avoidance culture, people will be strongly motivated by security where the
satisfaction of social needs is more important in a society emphasising
Hofstede's femininity and collectivist values.
Research attempting to find motivational differences between blacks and
whites report blacks in South Africa to have a significantly lower level of need
for achievement than whites (Nasser, Motsepe & Lenamile, 1979). These
differences are assigned to a collectivistic mind and the extended family
system, which kept dormant the need for achievement. Steers (1975)
indicates some of the motivational implications of the relatively low
achievement need amongst blacks. While employees with a high need for
achievement strongly relate performance to satisfaction, employees with a low
achievement need do see some satisfaction resulting from good performance,
but rather from things such as affiliation and meeting with others. This
dilemma is summarised by Human et al (1985): a high group dependence and
relationship orientation are found amongst workers with a high need for
affiliation, while companies often require greater initiative and individuality
(which are seen as characteristics of the achievement need). Many blacks
will not attach the same value as whites to those outcomes leading to
increased independence, decision-making and authority. According to Human
et al (1985) some traditional rewards may even result in a conflict for the black
employee. Promotion, for example might mean that an employee is separated
from his colleagues and that he might even be expected to exercise control
over them.
Despite above-mentioned differences in motivational patterns, the needs of
black workers start to match those of white workers as they become more
industrialised and integrated into the urban environment (Human et al, 1985).
This is particularly true for blacks starting to move up the organisational
hierarchy. The strong positive relationship between need levels, education
and degree of urbanisation is confirmed by Nattrass (1981). For those black
workers with higher levels of education and sophistication management has to
Page 165
attend to the same needs as for their white counterparts when providing
motivational opportunities.
A large portion of the black population of the SAAF is still finding themselves
at the lower levels of education and industrialisation. The need to examine the
nature of work-related values in the SA Air Force is therefore further
reinforced by the fact that, when developing and implementing reward
systems, the organisation should recognise that what proves to be motivating
people in one cultural setting may not necessarily work in another.
5.10
MEASUREMENT OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

By definition (Bass et al, 1994) the test for effective leadership is whether the
leader can get followers to unleash their potential and extend performance to
a level above what is expected. Followers experience of the leaders
behaviour is more important than the intention of the leader (Charlton, 1992:
105). Leaders can only lead if they have followers that follow. Leadership
effectiveness therefore, is determined by the performance of followers.
The Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), as it is used in this
research, reports on behaviours and attributes in terms of several leadership
styles ranging from transactional to transformational and is based on the Full
Range Leadership Model (Bass et al, 1994). Where prior leadership research
and training concentrated on a limited range of transactional behaviours (Bass
et al, 1997: 2), the MLQ was developed to expand the dimensions of
leadership to include key factors such as inspirational motivation, that is
typically ascribed to successful leaders. It also includes three outcomes, viz
Extra Effort, Effectiveness and Satisfaction, in terms of which leadership
effectiveness is reflected.
A comprehensive discussion of the MLQ will follow in Chapter 7.
5.11
SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

Leadership can probably be viewed as one of the most critical elements for
ensuring organisational effectiveness. With a history of low productivity and
low workforce morale, the development of South Africa into an entity of
economic prosperity, political stability and social unity calls for extraordinary
leadership. For long-term economic survival, transformational leaders with the
abilities to go beyond the reactive quick fix, immediate gratification and
traditional approaches are required. Only these leaders, with a firm
commitment to enable, empower and liberate employees in South African
organisations, will ensure the countrys competitive advantage for the future.
Page 166
This chapter provided a brief overview of both classical and recent thoughts
on leadership with particular reference to contemporary demands on todays
leaders. The discussion included the most important arguments for and
against the development of a unique African leadership model (as opposed to
the application of Western leadership theories and principles). An introduction
to the SAAF as an organisation finding itself within the process of structural
and cultural transformation was also provided.
The chapter reviewed the changing nature of organisations, both structurally
and psychologically, as the driving force behind new leadership thinking,
especially in the African context. The uniqueness of South African conditions
in terms of multi-cultural diversity and complexity necessitates the search for
leadership solutions beyond those having been developed in purely Western
settings. No evidence could be found that these theories can merely be
applied in the current South African business environment, with values,
customs and beliefs being substantially different to those of Western cultures.
Leaders will have to play a critical role in responding to and addressing the
strong expectations of inclusion and involvement following the many years of
apartheid during which a large component of the potential workforce has been
alienated and excluded from the business world. Despite the unique
leadership requirements for Africa, the chapter also included the arguments
for the inclusion of tested and proven Western business principles and
philosophies when developing a workable South African approach.
After a brief reference to the classical leadership theories, the chapter also
described the organisational changes leading to new thinking patterns with
regard to effective leadership. A few prominent characteristics of modern day
organisations were discussed where after the new leadership demands,
based on these characteristics were analysed. Organisational changes and
environmental demands led to new and innovative paradigms of looking at
people and the work they do. Leaders are forced to think differently about the
inherent competence of people. They are also required to change their basic
assumptions concerning employees work motivation, and to realise the
increasing importance of worker participation, co-operation and healthy
relationships between employer and employee.
The chapter concluded with a detailed discussion of transformational
leadership as part of a Full-Range Model. All the evidence point towards
transformational leadership being a more effective approach than the other
transactional styles. Reasons for the implementation of a more
transformational approach for South Africa have also been included. Finally,
organisational changes and the basic principles underlying leadership
development in the SA Air Force were presented.
Page 167

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University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

it as those actions and behaviours of leaders which positively influence the

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

Table 5.1: Differences between management and leadership.

Planning and Budgetting

Organising and Staffing

Controlling and Problem Solving

(Source: Kotter, 1990: 6)

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

The establishment of strong leadership should not replace the management

THE NEED FOR AN AFRICAN APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

Western management philosophy and, as the management of organisations

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

considerable cultural variation on numerous dimensions such as

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN FORMING A CULTURE

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

What leaders pay attention to,

Organisation design and structure.

How leaders react to critical

Organisational rites and rituals.

Observed criteria by which leaders

Design of physical space, facades

Deliberate role modelling, teaching,

Stories, legends and myths about

Observed criteria by which leaders

Formal statements of organisational

Observed criteria by which leaders

One of the most powerful mechanisms that leaders use in communicating

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

FROM CLASSICAL TO CONTEMPORARY: THE LEADERSHIP THEORIES

The trait approach

The earliest approach used in the study of leadership is referred to as the

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

Framework for the classification of leadership theories.

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation

What leaders are (Traits)

What leaders do (Behaviours)

ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

University of Pretoria etd Beukman, T L (2005)

Although popular at a time, the trait approach has almost disappeared as a

In the University of Michigan studies researchers were looking for

Chapter 5: Leadership in transformation