Introduction to

Programming using C++

Lecture One: Getting Started

Carl Gwilliam
[email protected]
http://hep.ph.liv.ac.uk/~gwilliam/cppcourse

Course Prerequisites
What you should already know about C++

NOTHING!!
I have assumed:
You have never encountered C++ before.
You have limited to no programming experience in any
language.

By the end of the course

You should:

Have a working knowledge of all of the common C++ syntax.

Know how to avoid common coding pitfalls.
Be able to use and create your own functions and classes.
Recognise the advantages of using pointers and references.
Be able to understand the fundamental ideas of object oriented
(OO) design.

Be aware!
This is not the comprehensive course for C++!
Some advanced topics will not be covered in this course.
Project specific C++ courses are worth attending if you have
time.
You are learning a sophisticated language! It will take some time
and a fair amount of hands-on experience to become familiar with
C++.

Course format
Lecture 1: Getting Started
Statements, variables, types, operators, I/O, conditional
statements

Lecture 2: Further Syntax

For and while loops, increment and logical operators, sorting
algorithms

Lecture 3: Functions
Library and user functions, declarations, arguments, overloading

Lecture 4: Pointers and References

References, pointers, passing by reference, pointers and arrays,
consts

Lecture 5: Introducing Classes

Declarations, member variables and functions, accessors,
overloading

Course Format
Lecture 6: Classes in Practice
Constructors and destructors, constant functions, memory
management

Lecture 7: Designing Classes

Passing by const reference, copy constructors, overloading
operators

Lecture 8: Towards OO Design

Inheritance, virtual functions, multiple inheritance, abstract
classes

Lecture 9: Templates & the STL

Function & Class Templates, Specialisation, String, Vector, Map

Lecture 10: File I/O and Streams

Reading, writing, formatting, strings as streams

Why do you need to learn how to

write code?
"I am not a computer scientist!
Software development skills are usually required in every
element of your project - from extracting data to getting
your results published.

It will be very useful to learn good programming

techniques now so you can save a lot of time later.

Why Learn C++?

"I already know how to program in FORTRAN/C/ASSEMBLER
so why do I have to bother with C++?

In recent times there has been a shift from procedural

languages such as FORTRAN to OO-style languages
such as C++ and Java.

The language of choice, for now, is C++.

C++ is ideally suited for projects where the active

developers are not located in the same place.

Our survey says: almost all of the current HEP Ph.D.

students write and execute C++ code on a daily basis.

C++ is not the answer, it is a reasonable solution..

Hello World!
The first complete C++ program in this course:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}
Every C++ program must contain one (and only one)
main function.
When the program is executed "Hello World" is
displayed on the terminal screen.

Compiling Hello World

Once the code is written is has
to be compiled:
g++ -Wall -o Hello.exe
HelloWorld.cpp

If the code compiles successfully

an object file (HelloWorld.o) is
created.

This object file is then linked with

other object files and libraries
required to create the exe.
The executable can be run at
the command prompt, just like
any other UNIX command.

A simple example
int a; float b; float c;
float d = 10.2;
float result;
// get two numbers
cout << "Enter two numbers" << endl;
cin >> a; cin >> b;
c = 2.1;
result = b * a + c;
result = (result + 2)/d;
// display the answer
cout << "Result of calculation: " << result << endl;

Statements
Statements are used to control the sequence of
execution, evaluate an expression (or even do nothing).
ALL statements are terminated with a semi colon ;

cout << "Enter two numbers" << endl;

result = b * a + c;
One statement can trail over several lines.
Code is easier to read with a sensible use of whitespace.
result=
b* a
+c
;
//is the same as
result = b * a + c;

Comments
Comments are useful for you and other developers!
// get two numbers
// display the answer

A comment begins with // and ends with a line break.

Comments indicate the purpose of the surrounding code.
They can be placed anywhere in the program, except
within the body of a statement:
// this is a valid comment
result = b * a; // this is also valid
result = // this is NOT valid (result
+ 2)/d;
/* You may also use this C style
comment to span multiple lines */

Variables
A variable is a name associated with a location in
computer memory used to store a value.
In order to use a variable in C++, we must first declare it
by specifying which data type we want it to be.

int a;
float d = 10.2;
Variable a has a type integer associated with some
object of type integer.
Variable d has a type float associated with some object
of type float with a value of 10.2

Variable Types
What does it mean to say a variable has a type?
The C++ built-in types are:
int a;

//integer

float b;

//real

double c;

//real

bool d;

//boolean (o or 1)

char e;

//character (ASCII value)

The compiler needs to know how much memory to set

aside for the object associated with the variable.
Each type requires a specific amount of space in
memory.

The Built-in Types

Type

Size (bytes)

Range

bool

true/false

char

256 chars

int

2 or 4

(see below)

short int

32,768

long int

2.1*109

float

3.4*1038

double

1.8*10308

1 byte = 8 bits = 28
possible combos.

Size determined
by the compiler.
Range can be
doubled by using
unsigned int

That is all? How does C++ deal with complex numbers?

C++ has the capacity to create user defined types. This
is a fundamental concept of the language.

Initialisation
When declaring a variable, its value is by default
undetermined.
We can give the variable a value at the same moment it is
declared
There are two ways to do this in C++.
The more used c-like method:

// type identifier = initial_value

int a = 0;
The constructor method:

// type identifier (initial_value)

int a(0);
It is good practice to always initialise a variable to a value

Assignment
A variable can be assigned (or reassigned) to a particular
value with the assignment operator (=).
c = 2.1;
//assignment operator
result = b * a + c;
Do not mistake the above statements for algebra!
Value of the expression to the right of the assignment
operator (rvalue) is assigned to the variable on the left
(the lvalue). Remember assignment is right-to-left:

c = 2.1; //c assigned the value 2.1

2.1 = c; //incorrect!

Arithmetic Operators
There are five primary mathematical operators:
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication

Division
Modulus

+
*
/
%

the modulus is the

remainder from integer
division (e.g. 33%6 is
equal to 3).

Be careful applying the division operator when

assigning a variable with a different type:

int a = 8; int b = 5;
float c = a / b;
// c is 1
c = (float)a / (float)b; // c is 1.6

Casting an integer
to a float (c-style)

Multiple Operators and Precedence

result = b * a + c;
result = (result + 2)/d;

float a = 6 * 4 + 4 * 2;
// answer is 32
float b = 6 * (4+4) * 2;
// answer is 96
// expression is incomprehensible
float c = b+c * 2/d + 3 + b/c + d - b *c/d;
// still unclear!
float d = b + ((c*2)/(d+3)+(b/(c+d))-(b*c/d));

*
/
%
+
-

PRESEDENCE

There are no restrictions on the amount of operators in an

expression.

Do not assume that an expression is evaluated from left

to right by the compiler. In C++, an operator has a
precedence value.

Input and Output

cin reads information from the keyboard and cout prints
information to the terminal (theyre defined in the header
iosteam).
cin >> a;
cout << "Enter two numbers" << endl;

For now, you can use these

statements without fully appreciating
the syntax.
float a = 13.3;
cout << "This is a string" << endl;
cout << "Value of a: " << a << endl;
cout << "a: " << (int) a << endl;
cout << "a =\t" << a << "\n";

New line

\n

Horizontal tab

\t

Backspace

\b

Alert

\a

Backslash

\\

This is a string
Value of a: 13.3
a: 13
a=
13.3

Equality example
float a, b, c = 0;
cout << "Enter two numbers << endl;
cin >> a; cin >> b;
c = a - b;
if (a == b) cout << "Two numbers are equal\n";
if (!c) {
cout << "Two numbers are equal\n"; return 0;
}
if (a > b) {
cout << "The first number is greater\n";
} else {
cout << "The second number is greater\n";
}
return 0;

Conditional Statements
if (expression) statement;

Apply the condition in the expression to determine if the

statement will be executed.
The capability of altering the program flow depending on
a outcome of an expression is a powerful tool in
programming.
The expression is a conditional statement is always
evaluated as false (0) or true (non-0).

Conditional Statements
A statement will be included in the program flow if the
condition is true.
The greater than symbol > and the equivalence symbol
== are relational operators.
if (a > b) statement;
if (a == b) statement;
Remember the difference between the assignment (=)
and equivalence (==) operators!
Condition
is always
true

int x = 4; int y = 3;
if (x = 4) cout << x equals 4\n;
if (y = 4) cout << y equals 4\n;

x equals 4

y equals 4

Relational Operators
Relational operators are used to evaluate if an
expression is true or false.
x<y

Less than

x <= y

Less than or equal to

x>y

Greater than

x >= y

Greater than or equal to

x == y

equal

x != y

Not equal

The negation operator ! inverts the logic of the result.

if (!(x > y)) cout << x less than y;

Boolean Logic
if (!c)

Conditional statements use boolean logic to determine

whether the expression is true or false.
A non-zero value is true, a zero value is false.
int x = 2; int y = 0;
if (x) cout << x equals 2 << endl;
if (!y) cout << y equals 0 << endl;

x equals 2
y equals 0

Boolean logic is used frequently in C++ so be prepared!

Compound Statements
Compound statements (or blocks) act as a single
statement.
They enable multiple statements to be attached to one
condition.
Blocks are started and ended with braces { }
A ; is not placed at the end of a block

{
statement 1;
:
statement n;
}

If-else Statements
A true condition in the if expression
will result in block a being executed
otherwise block b will be executed.

if (expression) {
block a;
} else {
block b;
}

The if statement can be used for

multiple conditions and nested
conditions:
if (a > b) {
if (a > b) {
:
if (a >= c) {
} else if (a < b) {
:
:
} else {
} else {
:
:
}
}
}
Note, else block is only executed if none of above is true