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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

a) Historical perspectives
India

The Indian subcontinent is the site of a civilization as ancient as any in the world. City states
arose in North India, along the Indus River, at about the same time as the early civilizations of
the Tigris-Euphrates at Sumer and other locations. Over the centuries, India was invaded by
many different peoples, all of whom left their imprint.
Hinduism developed out of a multiplicity of local gods, goddesses, and heroes. Gradually this
multiplicity was given a coherent framework, in which the individual deities were seen as
manifestations of a greater unity. Nonetheless, multiplicity remained a major feature of
Hinduism, as it is of Indian culture in general.

Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

Local deities were identified with cyclical forces of nature, as is common in an agricultural
society-- birth, death, planting; and with the fertility of land, herds, and human beings.
Gradually the belief arose that all these gods were manifestation of the One- Brahma. The
physical world in all its variety was seen as a dream of Brahma; it comes into existence, ends,
and is reborn in great cycles, as are human souls in the shorter cycles of human lifetimes. This
cyclical idea, which reflects the cycles of seasons and fertility, repeats endlessly. The human
soul, which is eternal, is reborn, orreincarnated. The actions of the individual in this life
accumulate as karma, which affects the status one will achieve in the next life. The ultimate goal
is maksha, or the achievement of spiritual perfection which will enable the soul to achieve
release from the wheel of life, and attain oneness with Brahma.
The idea of caste is closely associated with Hindu beliefs about spiritual progress through the
accumulation of karma and reincarnation. Caste is the division of society into rigid classes,
which define one's status, occupation, and relationships. Historians believe that the caste system
was introduced into India at the time of the Aryan invasions, c. 1500 B.C. as a means of
separating the conquerors from the conquered. In due course, this stratification of society was
sanctioned by Hinduism, in which caste came to be associated with the level of spiritual
attainment.
Thus in India we find a multiplicity of ethnic groups-- hundreds of separate languages are
spoken-- a multiplicity of castes within each community-- and the worship of a multiplicity of
gods that vary according to locality, caste, and personal preference.
In this context, there are many paths to salvation, but one goal: to achieve release from the wheel
of rebirth, to leave this world which is believed to be an illusion. The essential duty of the good
Hindu can be summarized as follows:
1. Live life according to your place, as you were born to it.
2. Various forms of religious observance and practice are possible, depending on the
individual's nature-- physical, ceremonial, or ascetic disciplines may be followed.

Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

3. The essence of all religious practice is mastery-- control over body, cravings, emotions.
Therefore extremes of physical discipline are practiced by some to achieve such mastery.
The varieties of physical discipline vary greatly, however. The fundamental idea is to
remember that the world is an illusion; one must master the worldly flesh to escape it and
reach spiritual enlightenment.
Although there are many local deities, there are certain deities that are believed to be preeminent,
and are widely recognized. Four in particular are of major importance:
Brahma-- the creator
Vishnu-- the preserver
Shiva-- the destroyer
Kali/Durga/Parvati-- the goddess in three incarnations: death and destruction, maiden, and
mother.
The sacred writings of Hinduism - the Baghvad Gita, the Ramayana, and others, are a mixture of
mystical writings and allegorical interpretations of history. Many of the figures and events are
believed to reflect actual events and individuals in ancient Indian history.
Both Buddhism and Islam were also important in the culture of the Indian subcontinent.
Buddhism first arose in India in the sixth century B.C, but became more important outside of
India than within it. Islam came to Northern India (now Pakistan) beginning in the eighth century
AD. Since these religions were also of importance in other regions, they will be discussed
elsewhere.

Indian Visual Arts

Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

The sacred quality of all aspects of life is reflected in Indian art, as is the multiplicity of spiritual
and cultural experience. Since the sacred is incarnate in all living things, animal or part-animal
images are commonly used to represent gods; plant forms as well become important religious
symbols. The cyclical basis of Indian cosmology reflects the cycles that rule in an agricultural
culture, as well as the fertility cycles of human and animal reproduction, and this is often
symbolized through the use of wheels and circles used to organize or emphasize compositions.
This link will take you to a further commentary and examples of Hindu religious art

As in most traditional cultures, visual symbols are a powerful means of relaying religious and
social ideals, as well as history. Since much of the population was illiterate, visual images
developed to serve as an aid to memory for orally transmitted literature and history. This use of
visual aids to memory and the transmission of culture is common to all traditional, preliterate
cultures. Among the most impressive examples are the intricate carvings that cover the surfaces
of Hindu temples. Temple architecture in India tends to be filled with carvings of gods, heroes,
and the tales of their lives, all well known to those who are immersed in the cultural traditions.
The effect is again one of multiplicity unified by a visual style that reflects and expresses the life
and history of India itself.

Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

Malaysia
Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country located on strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade
and foreign culture. Hinduism and Buddhism from India dominated early regional history,
reaching their peak during the reign of the Sumatra-based Srivijaya civilisation, whose influence
extended through Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula and much of Borneo from the 7th to the
14th centuries. Kalinga putras of ancient India were earliest traders who set up colonies and
spread Buddhism and Hinduism here.
Although Muslims had passed through the Malay Peninsula as early as the 10th century, it was
not until the 14th and 15th centuries that Islam first firmly established itself. The adoption of
Islam by the 15th century saw the rise of number sultanates, the most prominent of which was
the Malacca. Islam has had a profound influence on the Malay people, but has also been
influenced by them. The Portuguese were the first European colonial powers to establish
themselves on the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by
the Dutch in 1641. However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases
atJesselton, Kuching, Penang and Singapore, ultimately secured their hegemony across the
territory that is now Malaysia. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries
between British Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies (which became Indonesia). A fourth
phase of foreign influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of
the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.[1]
Japanese invasion during World War II ended British domination in Malaysia. The subsequent
occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak from 1942 to 1945 unleashed nationalism. In
the Peninsula, the Malayan Communist Party took up arms against the British. A tough military
response was needed to end the insurgency and bring about the establishment of an
independent, multi-racial Federation of Malaya in 1957. On 31 August 1963, the British
territories in North Borneo and Singapore were granted independence and formed Malaysia with
the Peninsular states on 16 September 1963. Approximately two years later, the Malaysian
parliament passed a bill to separate Singapore from the Federation.[2] A confrontation with
Indonesia occurred in the early-1960s.Race riots in 1969 led to the imposition of emergency rule,

Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

and a curtailment of political life and civil liberties which has never been fully reversed. Since
1970 the "National Frontcoalition" headed by United Malays National Organisation (UMNO)
has governed Malaysia. Economic growth dramatically increased living standards by the 1990s.
This growing prosperity helped minimize political discontent.

(b) Social practices customs and culture

Customs and culture of India

India is regarded by many historians as the oldest living civilization of Earth. Indian traditions
date back to 8,000 BCE, and have a continuous history since the time of the Vedas, believed
variously to be 3,000 to over 5,500 years old.
Indian traditions and culture are perhaps the worlds richest as it unveils an amazing plethora of
mythical stories that astounds the imagination. Ancient concepts like karma, dharma, atman (rebirth) and yoga still govern daily lives of Indians, hence an explanation is due.
Generally, temples are strategically located in a place where earths magnetic waves pass through
i.e. where the positive energy is abundantly available from the magnetic wave distribution of
north/ south pole thrust. Because of its location, where high magnetic values are available, the
Main Idol is placed in the center, and also because they place a copper plate written with some
Vedic scripts, which is buried, beneath the Main Idols placement known as Garbhagriha or
Moolasthan, the copper absorbs the earths magnetic waves and radiates to the surroundings.

Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

Thus a person who regularly visits a temple and makes clockwise pradakshina of the Main
Idols placement, automatically receives the beamed magnetic waves which get absorbed by his
body. This is very slow and a regular visit will make him absorb more energy, known as positive
energy. In addition, the Sanctum Sanctorum is completely enclosed on three sides. The effect of
all energies is very high in here.
The lamp that is lit radiates the heat and light energy. The fragrance from the flowers, the
burning of camphor gives out chemical energy. The ringing of the bells and the chanting of
prayers gives sound energy. The effect of all these energies is activated by the positive energy
that comes out of the idol. This is in addition to the north/ south pole magnetic energy that is
absorbed by the copper plate and utensils that are kept in the Moolasthan.
The water used for the Pooja is mixed with Cardamom, Benzoine, Holy Basil (Tulsi), Clove, etc
is the Theertham. This water becomes more energized because it receives the positive-ness of
all these energies combined. When persons go to the temple for Deep-aaraadhana, and when the
doors open up, the positive energy gushes out onto the persons who are there. The water that is
sprinkled onto the people passes on the energy to all. That is the reason why, men are not allowed
to wear shirts to the temple and ladies have to wear more ornaments because it is through these
jewels (metal) that positive energy is absorbed in ladies. It is proved that Theertham is a very
good blood purifier, as it is highly energized.
In addition, temples offer holy water (about three spoons). This water is mainly a source of
magneto therapy as they place the copper water vessel at the Garbhagriha. It also contains
cardamom, clove, saffron, etc to add taste and Tulsi (holy Basil) leaves are put into the water to
increase its medicinal value! The clove essence protects one from tooth decay, the saffron &
Tulsi leave essence protects one from common cold and cough, cardamom and benzoine known
as Pachha Karpuram, acts as a mouth refreshing agents. This way, ones health too is protected,
by regularly visiting Temples!

Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

The tilak or a bindi is applied on the spot between the brows which is considered the seat of
latent wisdom and mental concentration, and is very important for worship. This is the spot on
which yogis meditate to become one with Lord Brahma. It also indicates the point at which the
spiritual eye opens. All thoughts and actions are said to be governed by this spot. Putting of the
coloured mark symbolizes the quest for the opening of the third eye. All rites and ceremonies of
the Hindus begin with a tilak topped with a few grains of rice placed on this spot with the index
finger or the thumb. The same custom is followed while welcoming or bidding farewell to guests
or relations.
A bindi, applied on the forehead on the third eye, signifies pleasantly the subsistence of her
beloved husband. Is it used as a charm to ward off evil by un-married girls? Could be, because it
could compel other unknown men to focus on the bindi rather than on her body.
The same logic may apply to the mangalsutra (auspicious thread) worn around the neck, as it
consists of black beads along with a gold pendant. The black beads are believed to act as
protection against evil. Gold helps increase energy levels in the body and is symbol of prosperity.
Married women wear this to protect their marriage and the life of their husband. In southern
India, the mangalsutra is called tali.

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

Customs and culture of Malaysia

Meeting and Greeting

Greetings in a social context will depend upon the ethnicity of the person you are
meeting. In general, most Malays are aware of Western ways so the handshake is normal.
There may be slight differences though and a few things to bear in mind include:

Malay women may not shake hands with men. Women can of course shake hands with
women. Men may also not shake hands with women and may bow instead while placing
their hand on their heart.

The Chinese handshake is light and may be rather prolonged. Men and women may shake
hands, although the woman must extend her hand first. Many older Chinese lower their
eyes during the greeting as a sign of respect.

Indians shake hands with members of the same sex. When being introduced to someone
of the opposite sex, nodding the head and smiling is usually sufficient.
Among all cultures, there is a general tendency to introduce:

the most important person to the lower ranking person.

the older person to the younger person. women to men.
Malaysia is a multi-cultural society. The main ethnic groups are the native Malays as well as
large populations of Chinese, and Indians. When visiting the country it is clear that the ethnicities
retain their religions, customs and way of life. The most important festivals of each group are
public holidays.
Although growing up, children are educated in the same schools and will eventually work in the
same offices, few marry outside their own ethnicity. Families tend to socialize within their own

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ethnic

Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

group

all

part

of

retaining

their

individual

traditions

and

lifestyles.

Despite the ethnic differences there are commonalities culturally speaking.

(c) Gender roles-past and present

India
This survey was designed to get an idea of how young, Indian women feel about their culture and
its attitude in regards to their gender. Hindu beliefs and practices have often been regarded as a
traditional, with strict attitudes towards women. As time progresses a persons outlook with
respect to culture and lifestyle should modernize. Through this survey I want to provide
sufficient information to the idea that Hinduism is still in certain ways holding women in
traditional roles and could benefit from some reconstruction.
This survey did in some ways support my hypothesis. Although Hinduism has modernized in
certain ways, women are still being forced to assume traditional roles. Even though this appears
to be the case, some women are satisfied with this decision. Some females are choosing to take a
stand against traditional values while others are accepting them. Given the fact that overall
Indian women appear to be receiving more equality, there is always room for change. Traditional
values should be maintained, but not at the expense of an individuals own happiness.

Malaysia
Malaysia, where women make up between 50 and 60 percent of the computer industrys
employees and many hold mid- and upper-level management positions. The countrys
burgeoning technology industry has brought about dramatic changes to womens roles in society,
changing traditional perceptions of class, ethnicity and gender.

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

(d) Political aspirations

India
Indias democracy, the worlds most populous, is a marvel of the modern age: 1.2 billion people
who speak more than 700 languages uniting under one roof. Its immensity also slows the
decision-making needed to keep up with its peoples aspirations. Feeble public services, high
inflation, crippling corruption and crumbling infrastructure are ever-present grievances of an
increasingly fed-up population, most of whom live on less than $2 per day. Indians yearn for
better education, more jobs and faster development as a path to prosperity. Prime
Minister Narendra Modi was swept to power in May 2014 offering a change of course. His plan
to reinvigorate the economy offers a test of Indias maturing democracy, one that may alter its
strong secular and socialist traditions.

Why has the political class of India failed to meet the aspirations of the youth?

Regardless of good intentions, politicians succumb to the temptation to do whatever it

takes to stay in office in order to keep receiving the rewards.

The system has to change in order to reward only those actions that benefit all citizens.
And ethical restrictions, on politicians' behavior, have to be strengthened and enforced.

Womens political participation in India

The term 'political participation' has a very wide meaning. It is not only related to 'Right to Vote',
but simultaneously relates to participation in: decision making process, political activism,
political consciousness, etc. Women in India participate in voting, run for public offices and
political parties at lower levels more than men. Political activism and voting are the strongest
areas of women's political participation. To combat gender inequality in politics, the Indian
Government has instituted reservations for seats in local governments.
Women turnout during India's 2014 parliamentary general elections was 65.63%, compared to
67.09% turnout for men. India ranks 20th from the bottom in terms of representation of women

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

in Parliament. Women have held the posts of president and prime minister in India, as well as
chief ministers of various states. Indian voters have elected women to numerous state legislative
assemblies and national parliament for many decades

Malaysia
Malaysia, he stressed that Malaysia's strength comes from diversity - just as it does in the case of
the U.S. "Over the years multi-ethnic Malaysia has flourished in many ways. Chinese and
Indian citizens are actively involved in Malaysian politics and leadership at all levels of society.
Our economy has developed a multi-ethnic middle class and we have grown in relative peace. If
one uses the incidence of ethnic violence as an index, Malaysia is undoubtedly one of the more
successful multi-ethnic societies in the world." Prime Minister Najib admitted that national unity
remains a work in progress and it requires a change in mindsets among both political leaders and
the people.
Women in government in the modern era are under-represented in most countries worldwide, in
contrast to men. However, women are increasingly being politically elected to be heads of state
and government. More than 20 countries currently have a woman holding office as the head of a
national government, and the global participation rate of women in national-level parliaments is
nearly 20%. A number of countries are exploring measures that may increase women's
participation in government at all levels, from the local to the national.
The United Nations has identified six avenues by which female participation in politics and
government may be strengthened. These avenues are: equalization of educational opportunities,
quotas for female participation in governing bodies, legislative reform to increase focus on issues
concerning women and children, financing gender-responsive budgets to equally take into
account the needs of men and women, increasing the presence of sex-disaggregated statistics in
national

research/data,

and

furthering

womens empowerment movements.

the

presence

and

agency

of

grassroots

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

(e)Education system
India
Pre Education in India
The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education, also referred to as elementary
education, to children aged 6 to 14 years old. The Indian government has also banned child labor
in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions. However, both free
education and the ban on child labor are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social
conditions.80% of all recognized schools at the elementary stage are government run or
supported, making it the largest provider of education in the country.

School children, Mumbai

However, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from
massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of
teacher training. Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that there were
5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India. As of March 2012 there were 2,127,000
secondary school teachers in India. Education has also been made free for children for 6 to 14
years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act 2009.

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District
Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize
primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education
system. 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent
was funded by the states. The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000
alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million
children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes.
This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 9395% for the
last three years in some states. Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has
also been made as a part of this scheme. The current scheme for universalization of Education
for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the
world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.

Education in India
Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and
funding coming from three levels: central, state, and local. Under various articles of the Indian
Constitution, free and compulsory education is provided as a fundamental right to children
between the ages of 6 and 14.
India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary education attendance rate and
expanding literacy to approximately three-quarters of the population in the 7-10 age group, by
2011. India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to
its economic development. Much of the progress, especially in higher education and scientific
research, has been credited to various public institutions.
At the primary and secondary level, India has a large private school system complementing the
government run schools, with 29% of students receiving private education in the 6 to 14 age
group. Certain post-secondary technical schools are also private. The private education market in
India had a revenue of US$450 million in 2008, but is projected to be a US$40 billion market.

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

As per the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children between
the ages of 6-14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to report enrollment
above 96%. Another report from 2013 stated that there were 229 million students enrolled in
different accredited urban and rural schools of India, from Class I to XII, representing an
increase of 2.3 million students over 2002 total enrollment, and a 19% increase in girl's
enrollment. While quantitatively India is inching closer to universal education, the quality of its
education has been questioned particularly in its government run school system. Some of the
reasons for the poor quality include absence of around 25 percent of teachers everyday. States of
India have introduced tests and education assessment system to identify and improve such
schools.
It is important to clarify that while there are private schools in India, they are highly regulated in
terms of what they can teach, in what form they can operate (must be a non-profit to run any
accredited educational institution) and all other aspects of operation. Hence, the differentiation of
government schools and private schools can be misguiding.
In India's education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative
action policies

for

the

historically

disadvantaged Scheduled

Castes

and

Scheduled

Tribes and Other Backward Classes. In universities, colleges, and similar institutions affiliated to
the federal government, there is a minimum 50% of reservations applicable to these
disadvantaged groups, at the state level it can vary. Maharashtra had 73% reservation in 2014,
which is the highest percentage of reservations in India.

Malaysia
Pre Education in Malaysia
There are no fixed rules on when a child needs to start preschool education but majority would
start when the child turns 1 years old. Schooling can begin earlier, from 36, in kindergarten.
Preschool education usually lasts for 2 years, before they proceed to primary school at age 7.
There is no formal preschool curriculum except a formal mandatory training and certification for

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

principals and teachers before they may operate a preschool. The training covers lessons on child
psychology, teaching methodologies, and other related curricula on childcare and development.
Preschool education is mainly provided by private for-profit preschools, though some are run by
the government or religious groups. Some primary schools have attached preschool sections.
Attendance in a preschool programme is not universal; while people living in urban areas are
generally able to send their children to private kindergartens, few do in rural areas. Registered
preschools are subjected to zoning regulations and must comply to other regulations such as
health screening and fire hazard assessment. Many preschools are located in high density
residential areas, where normal residential units compliant to regulations are converted into the
schools.
Primary education in Malaysia begins at age seven and lasts for six years, referred to as Year
(Tahun) 1 to 6 (also known as Standard (Darjah) 1 to 6). Year 1 to Year 3 are classified as Level
One (Tahap Satu) while Year 4 to Year 6 are considered as Level Two (Tahap Dua). Students are
promoted to the next year regardless of their academic performance.
From 1996 until 2000, the Penilaian Tahap Satu (PTS) or the Level One Evaluation was
administered to Year 3 students. Excellence in this test allowed students to skip Year 4 and attend
Year 5 instead. However, the test was removed from 2001 onwards due to concerns that parents
and teachers were unduly pressuring students to pass the exam.
Before progressing to secondary education, Year 6 pupils sit for the Primary School Achievement
Test (Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah, UPSR). The subjects tested are Malay comprehension,
written Malay, English, Science and Mathematics. In addition to the five subjects, Chinese
comprehension and written Chinese are compulsory in Chinese schools, while Tamil
comprehension and written Tamil are compulsory in Tamil schools.

Gender Ratio
In 2004 the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) representative Dr. Richard Leete
stated that Malaysia's ranking in the UNDP gender index was not "as high as it should be".

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

Former Higher Education Minister Datuk Dr Shafie Salleh replied that it was not unique to
Malaysia. His quoted statistics revealed that there was a 2:1 ratio of boys to girls in polytechnics
and at public higher learning institutions. In virtually all developed countries females and males
enter university in approximately equal ratios. Thus, the 2:1 ratio in Malaysia is seen as rather
peculiar when placed in a global context.
Malaysian polytechnics and community colleges are not degree-producing institutions and none
have post-graduate programmes. Most are vocational or technical institutions. This imbalance is
corrected once the respective genders leave the education system.

Education in Malaysia
Education in Malaysia is overseen by the Ministry of Education (Kementerian Pendidikan).
Although education is the responsibility of the federal government, each state and federal
territory has an Education Department to co-ordinate educational matters in its territory. The
main legislation governing education is the Education Act of 1996.
The education system is divided into preschool education, primary education, secondary
education, post-secondary education and tertiary education. Education may be obtained from the
multilingual public school system, which provide free education for all Malaysians, or private
schools, or through homeschooling. By law, primary education is compulsory. As in many AsiaPacific countries such as the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Japan, standardized tests are a
common feature. Currently, there are 37 private universities, 20 private university colleges, seven
foreign university branch campuses and 414 private colleges in Malaysia.

(f) Legislations Contemporary roles

India
India offers astounding variety in virtually every aspect of social life. Diversities of ethnic,
linguistic, regional, economic, religious, class, and caste groups crosscut Indian society, which is
also permeated with immense urban-rural differences and gender distinctions. Differences

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Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

between north India and south India are particularly significant, especially in systems of kinship
and marriage. Indian society is multifaceted to an extent perhaps unknown in any other of the
worlds great civilizationsit is more like an area as varied as Europe than any other single
nation-state. Adding further variety to contemporary Indian culture are rapidly occurring changes
affecting various regions and socioeconomic groups in disparate ways. Yet, amid the
complexities of Indian life, widely accepted cultural themes enhance social harmony and order.

India is a hierarchical society. Whether in north India or south India, Hindu or Muslim, urban or
village, virtually all things, people, and social groups are ranked according to various essential
qualities. Although India is a political democracy, notions of complete equality are seldom
evident in daily life.

Malaysia
Malaysian legal history has been determined by events spanning a period of some six hundred
years. Of these, three major periods were largely responsible for shaping the current Malaysian
system. The first was the founding of the Melaka Sultanate at the beginning of the 15th century;
second was the spread of Islam in the indigenous culture; and finally, and perhaps the most
significant in modern Malaysia, was British colonial rule which brought with it constitutional
government and the common law system.