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Dynamic random-access memory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Dynamic random-access memory

(DRAM) is a type of random-access
memory that stores each bit of data in a
separate capacitor within an integrated
circuit. The capacitor can be either charged
or discharged; these two states are taken to
represent the two values of a bit,
conventionally called 0 and 1. Since even
"nonconducting" transistors always leak a
small amount, the capacitors will slowly
discharge, and the information eventually
fades unless the capacitor charge is
refreshed periodically. Because of this
refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory
as opposed to static random access memory
(SRAM) and other static types of memory.

Die of the MT4C1024 one-mebibit dynamic random-access memory

(DRAM) integrated circuit, made by Micron Technology.

The main memory (the "RAM") in personal computers is dynamic RAM (DRAM). It is the RAM in desktops,
laptops and workstation computers as well as some of the RAM of video game consoles.
The advantage of DRAM is its structural simplicity: only one transistor and a capacitor are required per bit,
compared to four or six transistors in SRAM. This allows DRAM to reach very high densities. Unlike flash
memory, DRAM is volatile memory (vs. non-volatile memory), since it loses its data quickly when power is
removed. The transistors and capacitors used are extremely small; billions can fit on a single memory chip.
Due to the nature of its memory cells, DRAM consumes relatively large amounts of power, with different ways
for managing the power consumption.[1]

Contents
1 History
2 Operation principle
2.1 Operations to read a data bit from a DRAM storage cell
2.2 To write to memory
2.3 Refresh rate
2.4 Memory timing
2.4.1 Timing abbreviations
3 Error detection and correction
4 Packaging
4.1 General DRAM formats
4.2 Common DRAM modules
4.3 Memory size of a DRAM module
5 Versions

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5.1 Asynchronous DRAM

5.1.1 RAS Only Refresh (ROR)
5.1.2 CAS before RAS refresh (CBR)
5.1.3 Hidden refresh
5.2 Video DRAM (VRAM)
5.3 Window DRAM (WRAM)
5.4 Fast page mode DRAM (FPM DRAM)
5.5 Extended data out DRAM (EDO DRAM)
5.6 Burst EDO DRAM (BEDO DRAM)
5.7 Multibank DRAM (MDRAM)
5.8 Synchronous graphics RAM (SGRAM)
5.9 Synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM)
5.9.1 Single data rate (SDR)
5.9.2 Double data rate (DDR)
5.10 Direct Rambus DRAM (DRDRAM)
5.11 Pseudostatic RAM (PSRAM)
5.12 Reduced Latency DRAM (RLDRAM)
5.13 1T DRAM
6 Security
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

History
The cryptanalytic machine code-named "Aquarius" used at Bletchley
Park during World War II incorporated a hard-wired dynamic memory.
Paper tape was read and the characters on it "were remembered in a
dynamic store. ... The store used a large bank of capacitors, which were
either charged or not, a charged capacitor representing cross (1) and an
uncharged capacitor dot (0). Since the charge gradually leaked away, a
periodic pulse was applied to top up those still charged (hence the term
'dynamic')".[2]
In 1964, Arnold Farber and Eugene Schlig, working for IBM, created a
A schematic drawing of original
hard-wired memory cell, using a transistor gate and tunnel diode latch.
DRAM designs, patented in 1968
They replaced the latch with two transistors and two resistors, a
configuration that became known as the Farber-Schlig cell. In 1965,
Benjamin Agusta and his team at IBM created a 16-bit silicon memory chip based on the Farber-Schlig cell,
with 80 transistors, 64 resistors, and four diodes. In 1966, DRAM was invented by Dr. Robert Dennard at the
IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center. He was granted U.S. patent number 3,387,286 (http://patft1.uspto.gov
/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3387286) in 1968. Capacitors had been used for earlier memory schemes
such as the drum of the AtanasoffBerry Computer, the Williams tube and the Selectron tube.
The Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 electronic calculator, which was introduced in November 1966,[3] used a form
of dynamic RAM built from discrete components.[4]

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In 1969 Honeywell asked Intel to make a DRAM using a 3-transistor

cell that they had developed. This became the Intel 1102 (512x1)[5] in
early 1970. However, the 1102 had many problems, prompting Intel to
begin work on their own improved design, in secrecy to avoid conflict
with Honeywell. This became the first commercially available DRAM,
the Intel 1103 (1024x1), in October 1970, despite initial problems with
low yield until the fifth revision of the masks. The 1103 was designed by
Joel Karp and laid out by Pat Earhart. The masks were cut by Barbara
Maness and Judy Garcia.[6]
The first DRAM with multiplexed row and column address lines was the
Mostek MK4096 (4096x1) designed by Robert Proebsting and
introduced in 1973. This addressing scheme uses the same address pins
to receive the low half and the high half of the address of the memory
cell being referenced, switching between the two halves on alternating
bus cycles. This was a radical advance, effectively halving the number
of address lines required, which enabled it to fit into packages with
fewer pins, a cost advantage that grew with every jump in memory size.
DRAM capacity timeline, from 1966
The MK4096 proved to be a very robust design for customer
to 2030 (forecasted)
applications. At the 16K density, the cost advantage increased; the
Mostek MK4116 16K DRAM, introduced in 1976, achieved greater than
75% worldwide DRAM market share. However, as density increased to 64K in the early 80s, Mostek was
overtaken by Japanese DRAM manufacturers selling higher quality DRAMs using the same multiplexing
scheme at below-cost prices. See JapanUnited States relations#Trade frictions

Operation principle
DRAM is usually arranged in a rectangular array of charge storage cells consisting of one capacitor and
transistor per data bit. The figure to the right shows a simple example with a four-by-four cell matrix. Some
DRAM matrices are many thousands of cells in height and width.[7][8]
The long horizontal lines connecting each row are known as word-lines. Each column of cells is composed of
two bit-lines, each connected to every other storage cell in the column (the illustration to the right does not
include this important detail). They are generally known as the "+" and "" bit lines.

Operations to read a data bit from a DRAM storage cell

1. The sense amplifiers are disconnected.
2. The bit-lines are precharged to exactly equal voltages that are in between high and low logic levels (e.g.,
0.5 V if the two levels are 0 and 1 V). The bit-lines are physically symmetrical to keep the capacitance
equal, and therefore at this time their voltages are equal.
3. The precharge circuit is switched off. Because the bit-lines are relatively long, they have enough
capacitance to maintain the precharged voltage for a brief time. This is an example of dynamic logic.
4. The desired row's word-line is then driven high to connect a cell's storage capacitor to its bit-line. This
causes the transistor to conduct, transferring charge from the storage cell to the connected bit-line (if the
stored value is 1) or from the connected bit-line to the storage cell (if the stored value is 0). Since the
capacitance of the bit-line is typically much higher than the capacitance of the storage cell, the voltage on
the bit-line increases very slightly if the storage cell's capacitor is discharged and decreases very slightly

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if the storage cell is charged (e.g., 0.54 and 0.45 V in the two
cases). As the other bit-line holds 0.50 V there is a small
voltage difference between the two twisted bit-lines.
5. The sense amplifiers are now connected to the bit-lines pairs.
Positive feedback then occurs from the cross-connected
inverters, thereby amplifying the small voltage difference
between the odd and even row bit-lines of a particular column
until one bit line is fully at the lowest voltage and the other is
at the maximum high voltage. Once this has happened, the
row is "open" (the desired cell data is available).
6. All storage cells in the open row are sensed simultaneously,
and the sense amplifier outputs latched. A column address
then selects which latch bit to connect to the external data
bus. Reads of different columns in the same row can be
performed without a row opening delay because, for the open
row, all data has already been sensed and latched.
7. While reading of columns in an open row is occurring,
current is flowing back up the bit-lines from the output of the
sense amplifiers and recharging the storage cells. This
reinforces (i.e. "refreshes") the charge in the storage cell by
Principle of operation of DRAM read, for
increasing the voltage in the storage capacitor if it was
simple 4 by 4 array.
charged to begin with, or by keeping it discharged if it was
empty. Note that due to the length of the bit-lines there is a
fairly long propagation delay for the charge to be transferred back to the cell's capacitor. This takes
significant time past the end of sense amplification, and thus overlaps with one or more column reads.
8. When done with reading all the columns in the current open row, the word-line is switched off to
disconnect the storage cell capacitors (the row is "closed") from the bit-lines. The sense amplifier is
switched off, and the bit-lines are precharged again.

To write to memory
To store data, a row is opened and a given column's sense amplifier is temporarily forced to the desired high or
low voltage state, thus causing the bit-line to charge or discharge the cell storage capacitor to the desired value.
Due to the sense amplifier's positive feedback configuration, it will hold a bit-line at stable voltage even after
the forcing voltage is removed. During a write to a particular cell, all the columns in a row are sensed
simultaneously just as during reading, so although only a single column's storage-cell capacitor charge is
changed, the entire row is refreshed (written back in), as illustrated in the figure to the right.

Refresh rate
Typically, manufacturers specify that each row must have its storage cell capacitors refreshed every 64 ms or
less, as defined by the JEDEC (Foundation for developing Semiconductor Standards) standard. Refresh logic is
provided in a DRAM controller which automates the periodic refresh, stated differently, no software or other
hardware has to perform it. This makes the controller's logic circuit more complicated, but this drawback is
outweighed by the fact that DRAM is much cheaper per storage cell and because each storage cell is very
simple, DRAM has much greater capacity per unit of surface than SRAM.
Some systems refresh every row in a burst of activity involving all rows every 64 ms. Other systems refresh one

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row at a time staggered throughout the 64 ms interval. For example,

a system with 213 = 8192 rows would require a staggered refresh
rate of one row every 7.8 s which is 64 ms divided by 8192 rows.
A few real-time systems refresh a portion of memory at a time
determined by an external timer function that governs the operation
of the rest of a system, such as the vertical blanking interval that
occurs every 1020 ms in video equipment. All methods require
some sort of counter to keep track of which row is the next to be
refreshed. Most DRAM chips include that counter. Older types
require external refresh logic to hold the counter.
Under some conditions, most of the data in DRAM can be
recovered even if the DRAM has not been refreshed for several
minutes.[9]

Memory timing
Many parameters are required to fully describe the timing of
DRAM operation. Here are some examples for two timing grades of
asynchronous DRAM, from a data sheet published in 1998:[10]
"50 ns" "60 ns"

Write

Description

tRC

84 ns

104 ns

Random read or write cycle time (from

one full /RAS cycle to another)

tRAC

50 ns

60 ns

Access time: /RAS low to valid data out

tRCD

11 ns

14 ns

/RAS low to /CAS low time

tRAS

50 ns

60 ns

/RAS pulse width (minimum /RAS low

time)

tRP

30 ns

40 ns

/RAS precharge time (minimum /RAS

high time)

tPC

20 ns

25 ns

Page-mode read or write cycle time

(/CAS to /CAS)

tAA

25 ns

30 ns

Access time: Column address valid to

valid data out (includes address setup
time before /CAS low)

tCAC

13 ns

15 ns

Access time: /CAS low to valid data out

tCAS

8 ns

10 ns

/CAS low pulse width minimum

Thus, the generally quoted number is the /RAS access time. This is the time to read a random bit from a
precharged DRAM array. The time to read additional bits from an open page is much less.
When such a RAM is accessed by clocked logic, the times are generally rounded up to the nearest clock cycle.
For example, when accessed by a 100 MHz state machine (i.e. a 10 ns clock), the 50 ns DRAM can perform the
first read in five clock cycles, and additional reads within the same page every two clock cycles. This was
generally described as "5-2-2-2" timing, as bursts of four reads within a page were common.
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When describing synchronous memory, timing is described by clock cycle counts separated by hyphens. These
numbers represent tCL-tRCD-tRP-tRAS in multiples of the DRAM clock cycle time. Note that this is half of the
data transfer rate when double data rate signaling is used. JEDEC standard PC3200 timing is 3-4-4-8[11] with a
200 MHz clock, while premium-priced high performance PC3200 DDR DRAM DIMM might be operated at
2-2-2-5 timing.[12]
PC-3200 (DDR-400)
Typical

Fast

PC2-6400 (DDR2-800)
Typical

PC3-12800 (DDR3-1600)

Fast

Typical

cycles time cycles time cycles time cycles time cycles

time

Fast

Description

cycles time

tCL

15 ns

10 ns

12.5 ns

10 ns

11.25 ns

/CAS low to
valid data out
10 ns
(equivalent to
tCAC)

tRCD

20 ns

10 ns

12.5 ns

10 ns

11.25 ns

10 ns

/RAS precharge
time (minimum
10 ns
precharge to
active time)

24

Row active time

(minimum
30 ns
active to
precharge time)

tRP

tRAS

20 ns

40 ns

10 ns

25 ns

12.5 ns

16

40 ns

12

10 ns

30 ns

27

11.25 ns

33.75 ns

/RAS low to
/CAS low time

...Minimum random access time has improved from tRAC = 50 ns to tRCD + tCL = 22.5 ns, and even the
premium 20 ns variety is only 2.5 times better compared to the typical case (~2.22 times better). CAS latency
has improved even less, from tCAC = 13 ns to 10 ns. However, the DDR3 memory does achieve 32 times higher
bandwidth; due to internal pipelining and wide data paths, it can output two words every 1.25 ns
(1 600 Mword/s), while the EDO DRAM can output one word per tPC = 20 ns (50 Mword/s).
Timing abbreviations

tCL CAS latency

tCR Command rate
tPTP precharge to precharge delay
tRAS RAS active time
tRCD RAS to CAS delay
tREF Refresh period
tRFC Row refresh cycle time
tRP RAS precharge

tRRD RAS to RAS delay

tRTP Read to precharge delay
tRTR Read to read delay
tRTW Read to write delay
tWR Write recovery time
tWTP Write to precharge delay
tWTR Write to read delay
tWTW Write to write delay

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Error detection and correction

Electrical or magnetic interference inside a computer system can cause a single bit of DRAM to spontaneously
flip to the opposite state. The majority of one-off ("soft") errors in DRAM chips occur as a result of background
radiation, chiefly neutrons from cosmic ray secondaries, which may change the contents of one or more
memory cells or interfere with the circuitry used to read/write them. Recent studies give widely varying error
rates for single event upsets with over seven orders of magnitude difference, ranging from roughly one bit error,
per hour, per gigabyte of memory to one bit error, per century, per gigabyte of memory.[13][14][15]
The problem can be mitigated by using redundant memory bits and additional circuitry that use these bits to
detect and correct soft errors. In most cases, the detection and correction logic is performed by the memory
controller, which can be a separate circuit or integrated into a CPU; sometimes, the required logic is
transparently implemented within DRAM chips or modules, enabling the ECC memory functionality for
otherwise ECC-incapable systems.[16] The extra memory bits are used to record parity and to enable missing
data to be reconstructed by error-correcting code (ECC). Parity allows the detection of all single-bit errors
(actually, any odd number of wrong bits). The most common error-correcting code, a SECDED Hamming code,
allows a single-bit error to be corrected and, in the usual configuration, with an extra parity bit, double-bit errors
to be detected.
An ECC-capable memory controller as used in many modern PCs can typically detect and correct errors of a
single bit per 64-bit "word" (the unit of bus transfer), and detect (but not correct) errors of two bits per 64-bit
word. Some systems also "scrub" the errors, by writing the corrected version back to memory. The ECC-aware
firmware of some computers and ECC-aware operating systems, such as Linux, allow counting of detected and
corrected memory errors, making it possible to identify and replace failing memory modules. [17]
Recent studies give widely varying error rates with over seven orders of magnitude difference, ranging from
10101017 error/bith, roughly one bit error, per hour, per gigabyte of memory to one bit error, per century,
per gigabyte of memory.[13][14][15] The Schroeder et al. 2009 study reported a 32% chance that a given
computer in their study would suffer from at least one correctable error per year, and provided evidence that
most such errors are intermittent hard rather than soft errors. A 2010 study at the University of Rochester also
gave evidence that a substantial fraction of memory errors are intermittent hard errors.[18] Large scale studies on
non-ECC RAM in PCs and laptops suggest that undetected memory errors account for a substantial number of
system failures: the study reported a one-in-1700 chance per 1.5% of memory tested (extrapolating to an
approximately 26% chance for total memory) that a computer would have a memory error per 8 months.[19]

Packaging
For economic reasons, the large (main) memories found in personal computers, workstations, and non-handheld
game-consoles (such as PlayStation and Xbox) normally consist of dynamic RAM (DRAM). Other parts of the
computer, such as cache memories and data buffers in hard disks, normally use static RAM (SRAM).
Physically, most DRAM is packaged in black epoxy resin.

General DRAM formats

Dynamic random access memory is produced as integrated circuits (ICs) bonded and mounted into plastic
packages with metal pins for connection to control signals and buses. In early use individual DRAM ICs were
usually either installed directly to the motherboard or on ISA expansion cards; later they were assembled into

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multi-chip plug-in modules (DIMMs, SIMMs, etc.). Some standard

module types are:
DRAM chip (Integrated Circuit or IC)
Dual in-line Package (DIP)
DRAM (memory) modules
Single In-line Pin Package (SIPP)
Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM)
Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM)
Rambus In-line Memory Module (RIMM), technically
DIMMs but called RIMMs due to their proprietary slot.
Small outline DIMM (SO-DIMM), about half the size of
regular DIMMs, are mostly used in notebooks, small
footprint PCs (such as Mini-ITX motherboards), upgradable
office printers and networking hardware like routers.
Small outline RIMM (SO-RIMM). Smaller version of the
RIMM, used in laptops. Technically SO-DIMMs but called
SO-RIMMs due to their proprietary slot.
Stacked vs. non-stacked RAM modules
Stacked RAM modules contain two or more RAM chips
stacked on top of each other. This allows large modules to
be manufactured using cheaper low density wafers. Stacked
chip modules draw more power, and tend to run hotter than
non-stacked modules. Stacked modules can be packaged
using the older TSOP or the newer BGA style IC chips.
Silicon dies connected with older wire bonding or newer
TSV.
Several proposed stacked RAM approaches exist, with TSV
and much wider interfaces, including Wide I/O, Wide I/O 2,
Hybrid Memory Cube and High Bandwidth Memory.

Common DRAM modules

Common DRAM packages as illustrated to the right, from top to bottom
(last three types are not present in the group picture, and the last type is
available in a separate picture):
DIP 16-pin (DRAM chip, usually pre-fast page mode DRAM
(FPRAM))
SIPP 30-pin (usually FPRAM)
SIMM 30-pin (usually FPRAM)
SIMM 72-pin (often extended data out DRAM (EDO DRAM) but
FPRAM is not uncommon)
DIMM 168-pin (most SDRAM but were some extended data out
DRAM (EDO DRAM))
DIMM 184-pin (DDR SDRAM)
RIMM 184-pin (RDRAM)
DIMM 240-pin (DDR2 SDRAM and DDR3 SDRAM)

A 256 k x 4 bit 20-pin DIP DRAM on

an early PC memory card (k = 1024),
usually Industry Standard
Architecture

Common DRAM packages. From top

to bottom: DIP, SIPP, SIMM (30-pin),
SIMM (72-pin), DIMM (168-pin),
DDR DIMM (184-pin).

Two 8 GB DDR4-2133 288-pin ECC

1.2 V RDIMMs

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DIMM 288-pin (DDR4 SDRAM)

Common SO-DIMM DRAM modules:
72-pin (32-bit)
144-pin (64-bit) used for SO-DIMM SDRAM
200-pin (72-bit) used for SO-DIMM DDR SDRAM and SO-DIMM DDR2 SDRAM
204-pin (64-bit) used for SO-DIMM DDR3 SDRAM
260-pin used for SO-DIMM DDR4 SDRAM

Memory size of a DRAM module

The exact number of bytes in a DRAM module is always an integral power of two. A 512 MB (as marked on a
module) SDRAM DIMM, actually contains 512 MiB (mebibytes) = 512 220 bytes = 229 bytes = 536,870,912
bytes exactly, and might be made of 8 or 9 SDRAM chips, each containing exactly 512 Mib (mebibits) of
storage, and each one contributing 8 bits to the DIMM's 64- or 72-bit width. For comparison, a 2 GB SDRAM
module contains 2 GiB (gibibytes) = 2 230 bytes = 231 bytes = 2,147,483,648 bytes of memory, exactly. The
module usually has 8 SDRAM chips of 256 MiB each.

Versions
While the fundamental DRAM cell and array has maintained the same basic structure (and performance) for
many years, there have been many different interfaces for communicating with DRAM chips. When one speaks
about "DRAM types", one is generally referring to the interface that is used.

Asynchronous DRAM
An asynchronous DRAM chip has power connections, some number of address inputs (typically 12), and a few
(typically one or four) bidirectional data lines. There are four active-low control signals:
/RAS, the Row Address Strobe. The address inputs are captured on the falling edge of /RAS, and select a
row to open. The row is held open as long as /RAS is low.
/CAS, the Column Address Strobe. The address inputs are captured on the falling edge of /CAS, and
select a column from the currently open row to read or write.
/WE, Write Enable. This signal determines whether a given falling edge of /CAS is a read (if high) or
write (if low). If low, the data inputs are also captured on the falling edge of /CAS.
/OE, Output Enable. This is an additional signal that controls output to the data I/O pins. The data pins
are driven by the DRAM chip if /RAS and /CAS are low, /WE is high, and /OE is low. In many
applications, /OE can be permanently connected low (output always enabled), but it can be useful when
connecting multiple memory chips in parallel.
This interface provides direct control of internal timing. When /RAS is driven low, a /CAS cycle must not be
attempted until the sense amplifiers have sensed the memory state, and /RAS must not be returned high until the
storage cells have been refreshed. When /RAS is driven high, it must be held high long enough for precharging
to complete.
Although the RAM is asynchronous, the signals are typically generated by a clocked memory controller, which
limits their timing to multiples of the controller's clock cycle.

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RAS Only Refresh (ROR)

Classic asynchronous DRAM is refreshed by opening each row in turn.
The refresh cycles are distributed across the entire refresh interval in such a way that all rows are refreshed
within the required interval. To refresh one row of the memory array using /RAS Only Refresh, the following
steps must occur:
1. The row address of the row to be refreshed must be applied at the address input pins.
2. /RAS must switch from high to low. /CAS must remain high.
3. At the end of the required amount of time, /RAS must return high.
This can be done by supplying a row address and pulsing /RAS low; it is not necessary to perform any /CAS
cycles. An external counter is needed to iterate over the row addresses in turn.[20]
CAS before RAS refresh (CBR)
For convenience, the counter was quickly incorporated into RAM chips themselves. If the /CAS line is driven
low before /RAS (normally an illegal operation), then the DRAM ignores the address inputs and uses an internal
counter to select the row to open. This is known as /CAS-before-/RAS (CBR) refresh.
This became the standard form of refresh for asynchronous DRAM, and is the only form generally used with
SDRAM.
Hidden refresh
Given support of CAS-before-RAS refresh, it is possible to deassert /RAS while holding /CAS low to maintain
data output. If /RAS is then asserted again, this performs a CBR refresh cycle while the DRAM outputs remain
valid. Because data output is not interrupted, this is known as "hidden refresh".[21]

Video DRAM (VRAM)

VRAM is a dual-ported variant of DRAM that was once commonly used to store the frame-buffer in some
graphics adaptors.

Window DRAM (WRAM)

WRAM is a variant of VRAM that was once used in graphics adaptors such as the Matrox Millenium and ATI
3D Rage Pro. WRAM was designed to perform better and cost less than VRAM. WRAM offered up to 25%
greater bandwidth than VRAM and accelerated commonly used graphical operations such as text drawing and
block fills.[22]

Fast page mode DRAM (FPM DRAM)

Fast page mode DRAM is also called FPM DRAM, FPRAM, Page mode DRAM, Fast page mode memory, or
Page mode memory.
In page mode, a row of the DRAM can be kept "open" by holding /RAS low while performing multiple reads or
writes with separate pulses of /CAS so that successive reads or writes within the row do not suffer the delay of
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precharge and accessing the row. This increases the performance of the system when reading or writing bursts
of data.
Static column is a variant of page mode in which the column address does not need to be stored in, but rather,
the address inputs may be changed with /CAS held low, and the data output will be updated accordingly a few
nanoseconds later.
Nibble mode is another variant in which four sequential locations within the row can be accessed with four
consecutive pulses of /CAS. The difference from normal page mode is that the address inputs are not used for
the second through fourth /CAS edges; they are generated internally starting with the address supplied for the
first /CAS edge.

Extended data out DRAM (EDO DRAM)

EDO DRAM, sometimes referred to as Hyper Page Mode enabled
DRAM, is similar to Fast Page Mode DRAM with the additional feature
that a new access cycle can be started while keeping the data output of
the previous cycle active. This allows a certain amount of overlap in
operation (pipelining), allowing somewhat improved performance. It
was 5% faster than FPM DRAM, which it began to replace in 1995,
when Intel introduced the 430FX chipset that supported EDO DRAM.
To be precise, EDO DRAM begins data output on the falling edge of
/CAS, but does not stop the output when /CAS rises again. It holds the
output valid (thus extending the data output time) until either /RAS is
deasserted, or a new /CAS falling edge selects a different column
address.

A pair of 32 MB EDO DRAM

modules.

Single-cycle EDO has the ability to carry out a complete memory

transaction in one clock cycle. Otherwise, each sequential RAM access
within the same page takes two clock cycles instead of three, once the page has been selected. EDO's
performance and capabilities allowed it to somewhat replace the then-slow L2 caches of PCs. It created an
opportunity to reduce the immense performance loss associated with a lack of L2 cache, while making systems
cheaper to build. This was also good for notebooks due to difficulties with their limited form factor, and battery
life limitations. An EDO system with L2 cache was tangibly faster than the older FPM/L2 combination.
Single-cycle EDO DRAM became very popular on video cards towards the end of the 1990s. It was very low
cost, yet nearly as efficient for performance as the far more costly VRAM.
Much equipment taking 72-pin SIMMs could use either FPM or EDO. Problems were possible, particularly
when mixing FPM and EDO. Early Hewlett-Packard printers had FPM RAM built in; some, but not all, models
worked if additional EDO SIMMs were added.[23]

Burst EDO DRAM (BEDO DRAM)

An evolution of EDO DRAM, Burst EDO DRAM, could process four memory addresses in one burst, for a
maximum of 5-1-1-1, saving an additional three clocks over optimally designed EDO memory. It was done by
adding an address counter on the chip to keep track of the next address. BEDO also added a pipelined stage
allowing page-access cycle to be divided into two components. During a memory-read operation, the first
component accessed the data from the memory array to the output stage (second latch). The second component

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drove the data bus from this latch at the appropriate logic level. Since the data is already in the output buffer,
quicker access time is achieved (up to 50% for large blocks of data) than with traditional EDO.
Although BEDO DRAM showed additional optimization over EDO, by the time it was available the market had
made a significant investment towards synchronous DRAM, or SDRAM [2] (http://www.tomshardware.com
/1998/10/24/ram_guide/page7.html). Even though BEDO RAM was superior to SDRAM in some ways, the
latter technology quickly displaced BEDO.

Multibank DRAM (MDRAM)

Multibank DRAM applies the interleaving technique for main memory to second-level cache memory to
provide a cheaper and faster alternative to SRAM. The chip splits its memory capacity into small blocks of
256 kB and allows operations to two different banks in a single clock cycle.
This memory was primarily used in graphic cards with Tseng Labs ET6x00 chipsets, and was made by MoSys.
Boards based upon this chipset often used the unusual RAM size configuration of 2.25 MB, owing to
MDRAM's ability to be implemented in various sizes more easily. This size of 2.25 MB allowed 24-bit color at
a resolution of 1024768, a very popular display setting in the card's time.

Synchronous graphics RAM (SGRAM)

SGRAM is a specialized form of SDRAM for graphics adaptors. It adds
functions such as bit masking (writing to a specified bit plane without
affecting the others) and block write (filling a block of memory with a
single colour). Unlike VRAM and WRAM, SGRAM is single-ported.
However, it can open two memory pages at once, which simulates the
dual-port nature of other video RAM technologies.
GDDR, or Graphics Double Data Rate Memory, refers to memory
specifically designed for use on graphics cards. GDDR is distinct from
the more widely known DDR SDRAM types such as DDR3, although
MoSys SGRAM
they share some technologies, including double data rate design.
Currently, the following generations of GDDR exist, with the higher
number indicating the more recent specifications: GDDR2 GDDR3 GDDR4 GDDR5.
GDDR5, or Graphics Double Data Rate version 5, SGRAM is a type of memory designed for use in graphics
cards and other computer applications requiring high bandwidth. Like its predecessor, GDDR4, GDDR5 is
based on DDR3 SDRAM which has double the data lines compared to DDR2 SDRAM, but GDDR5 also has
8-bit wide prefetch buffers similar to GDDR4. GDDR5 SGRAM conforms to the standards which were set out
in the GDDR5 specification by the JEDEC. It uses an 8n-prefetch architecture and DDR interface to achieve
high performance operation and can be configured to operate in 32 mode or 16 (clamshell) mode which is
detected during device initialization. The GDDR5 interface transfers two 32-bit wide data words per write clock
(WCK) cycle to/from the I/O pins. Corresponding to the 8n-prefetch, a single write or read access consists of a
256-bit wide two CK clock cycle data transfer at the internal memory core and eight corresponding 32-bit wide
one-half WCK clock cycle data transfers at the I/O pins. GDDR5 operates with two different clock types. A
differential command clock (CK) as a reference for address and command inputs, and a forwarded differential
write clock (WCK) as a reference for data reads and writes, that runs at twice the CK frequency. Being more
precise, the GDDR5 SGRAM uses a total of three clocks: two write clocks associated with two bytes (WCK01
and WCK23) and a single command clock (CK). Taking a GDDR5 with 5 Gbit/s data rate per pin as an
example, the CK clock runs with 1.25 GHz and both WCK clocks at 2.5 GHz. The CK and WCKs are phase

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aligned during the initialization and training sequence. This alignment allows read and write access with
minimum latency. A single 32-bit GDDR5 chip has about 67 signal pins and the rest are power and grounds in
the 170 BGA package.

Synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM)

SDRAM significantly revises the asynchronous memory interface, adding a clock (and a clock enable) line. All
other signals are received on the rising edge of the clock.
The /RAS and /CAS inputs no longer act as strobes, but are instead, along with /WE, part of a 3-bit command:
SDRAM Command summary
/CS /RAS /CAS /WE Address

Command

Command inhibit (No operation)

No operation

Burst Terminate: stop a read or write burst in progress

column Read from currently active row

column Write to currently active row

row

Precharge (deactivate) the current row

Auto refresh: Refresh one row of each bank, using an internal counter

mode

Activate a row for read and write

Load mode register: Address bus specifies DRAM operation mode.

The /OE line's function is extended to a per-byte "DQM" signal, which controls data input (writes) in addition
to data output (reads). This allows DRAM chips to be wider than 8 bits while still supporting byte-granularity
writes.
Many timing parameters remain under the control of the DRAM controller. For example, a minimum time must
elapse between a row being activated and a read or write command. One important parameter must be
programmed into the SDRAM chip itself, namely the CAS latency. This is the number of clock cycles allowed
for internal operations between a read command and the first data word appearing on the data bus. The "Load
mode register" command is used to transfer this value to the SDRAM chip. Other configurable parameters
include the length of read and write bursts, i.e. the number of words transferred per read or write command.
The most significant change, and the primary reason that SDRAM has supplanted asynchronous RAM, is the
support for multiple internal banks inside the DRAM chip. Using a few bits of "bank address" which
accompany each command, a second bank can be activated and begin reading data while a read from the first
bank is in progress. By alternating banks, an SDRAM device can keep the data bus continuously busy, in a way
that asynchronous DRAM cannot.
Single data rate (SDR)
Single data rate SDRAM (sometimes known as SDR) is a synchronous form of DRAM.
Double data rate (DDR)

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Double data rate SDRAM (DDR) was a later development of SDRAM, used in PC memory beginning in
2000. Subsequent versions are numbered sequentially (DDR2, DDR3, etc.). DDR SDRAM internally performs
double-width accesses at the clock rate, and uses a double data rate interface to transfer one half on each clock
edge. DDR2 and DDR3 increased this factor to 4 and 8, respectively, delivering 4-word and 8-word bursts
over 2 and 4 clock cycles, respectively. The internal access rate is mostly unchanged (200 million per second for
DDR-400, DDR2-800 and DDR3-1600 memory), but each access transfers more data.

Direct Rambus DRAM (DRDRAM)

Direct RAMBUS DRAM (DRDRAM) was developed by Rambus.

Pseudostatic RAM (PSRAM)

PSRAM or PSDRAM is dynamic RAM with built-in refresh and address-control circuitry to make it behave
similarly to static RAM (SRAM). It combines the high density of DRAM with the ease of use of true SRAM.
PSRAM (made by Numonyx) is used in the Apple iPhone and other embedded systems such as XFlar
Platform.[24]
Some DRAM components have a "self-refresh mode". While this involves much of the same logic that is
needed for pseudo-static operation, this mode is often equivalent to a standby mode. It is provided primarily to
allow a system to suspend operation of its DRAM controller to save power without losing data stored in
DRAM, rather not to allow operation without a separate DRAM controller as is the case with PSRAM.
An embedded variant of PSRAM is sold by MoSys under the name 1T-SRAM. It is technically DRAM, but
behaves much like SRAM. It is used in Nintendo Gamecube and Wii consoles.

Reduced Latency DRAM (RLDRAM)

Reduced Latency DRAM is a high performance double data rate (DDR) SDRAM that combines fast, random
access with high bandwidth, mainly intended for networking and caching applications.

1T DRAM
Unlike all of the other variants described in this section of this article, 1T DRAM is a different way of
constructing the basic DRAM bit cell. 1T DRAM is a "capacitorless" bit cell design that stores data in the
parasitic body capacitor that is an inherent part of silicon on insulator (SOI) transistors. Considered a nuisance
in logic design, this floating body effect can be used for data storage. Although refresh is still required, reads are
non-destructive; the stored charge causes a detectable shift in the threshold voltage of the transistor.[25]
There are several types of 1T DRAMs: the commercialized Z-RAM from Innovative Silicon, the TTRAM from
Renesas and the A-RAM from the UGR/CNRS consortium.
The classic one-transistor/one-capacitor (1T/1C) DRAM cell is also sometimes referred to as "1T DRAM",
particularly in comparison to 3T and 4T DRAM which it replaced in the 1970s.

Security
Although dynamic memory is only specified and guaranteed to retain its contents when supplied with power
and refreshed every short period of time (often 64 ms), the memory cell capacitors often retain their values for
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significantly longer, particularly at low temperatures.[26] Under some conditions most of the data in DRAM can
be recovered even if it has not been refreshed for several minutes.[27]
This property can be used to circumvent security and recover data stored in memory and assumed to be
destroyed at power-down by quickly rebooting the computer and dumping the contents of the RAM, or by
cooling the chips and transferring them to a different computer. Such an attack was demonstrated to circumvent
popular disk encryption systems, such as the open source TrueCrypt, Microsoft's BitLocker Drive Encryption,
and Apple's FileVault.[26] This type of attack against a computer is often called a cold boot attack.

See also
DRAM price fixing
Flash memory
List of device bandwidths
Memory bank
Memory geometry
Regenerative capacitor memory
Row hammer

References
1. S. Mittal, "A Survey of Architectural Techniques For DRAM Power Management (https://www.academia.edu
/2475806/A_survey_of_architectural_techniques_for_DRAM_power_management)", IJHPSA, 4(2), 110-119, 2012.
2. Copeland B. Jack, and others (2006) Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers Oxford:
Oxford University Press, p301.
3. Spec Sheet for Toshiba "TOSCAL" BC-1411 (http://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/s-toshbc1411.html)
4. Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 Desktop Calculator (http://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/toshbc1411.html) (The
introduction date is listed here as November 1965, but this is a year too early and appears to be a typographical error.)
5. http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa100898.htm
6. http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/still-image/PENDING/X3665.2007/Semi_SIG
/Notes%20from%20interview%20with%20John%20Reed.pdf
7. "Lecture 12: DRAM Basics" (http://www.eng.utah.edu/~cs7810/pres/11-7810-12.pdf) (PDF). utah.edu. 2011-02-17.
Retrieved 2015-03-10.
8. David August (2004-11-23). "Lecture 20: Memory Technology" (https://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall04
/cos471/lectures/20-Memory.pdf) (PDF). cs.princeton.edu. pp. 35. Retrieved 2015-03-10.
9. Lest We Remember: Cold Boot Attacks on Encryption Keys (https://www.usenix.org/legacy/event/sec08
/tech/full_papers/halderman/halderman_html/), Halderman et al, USENIX Security 2008.
10. Micron 4 Meg x 4 EDO DRAM data sheet (http://download.micron.com/pdf/datasheets/dram/d47b.pdf)
11. cmx1024-3200.ai (http://www.corsairmemory.com/corsair/products/specs/cmx1024-3200.pdf)
12. http://www.corsairmemory.com/corsair/products/specs/twinx1024-3200xl.pdf
13. Borucki, "Comparison of Accelerated DRAM Soft Error Rates Measured at Component and System Level", 46th
Annual International Reliability Physics Symposium, Phoenix, 2008, pp. 482487
14. http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~bianca/papers/sigmetrics09.pdf
15. http://www.ece.rochester.edu/~xinli/usenix07/
16. "ECC DRAM Intelligent Memory" (http://www.intelligentmemory.com/ECC-DRAM/). intelligentmemory.com.
Retrieved 2015-01-16.
17. Doug Thompson; Mauro Carvalho Chehab (2014-12-01). "EDAC Error Detection And Correction
(Documentation/edac.txt, part of the Linux kernel documentation)" (https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation
/edac.txt). kernel.org. Retrieved 2015-01-16.

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18. Li, Huang, Shen, Chu (2010). " "A Realistic Evaluation of Memory Hardware Errors and Software System
Susceptibility". Usenix Annual Tech Conference 2010" (http://www.cs.rochester.edu/~kshen/papers/usenix2010li.pdf) (PDF).
19. "Cycles, cells and platters: an empirical analysis of hardware failures on a million consumer PCs. Proceedings of the
sixth conference on Computer systems (EuroSys '11). pp 343-356" (http://research.microsoft.com/pubs/144888
/eurosys84-nightingale.pdf) (PDF). 2011.
20. [1] (http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~ece548/localcpy/dramop.pdf)
21. Various Methods of DRAM Refresh (http://www.downloads.reactivemicro.com/Public/Electronics
/DRAM/DRAM%20Refresh.pdf) Micron Technical Note TN-04-30
22. The PC Guide (http://www.pcguide.com/ref/video/techWRAM-c.html), definition of WRAM.
23. Page on memory upgrades for HP printers (http://www.hpprintermemory.com/index.html#y)
24. EE Times teardown of iPhone 3G (http://www.eetimes.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=209000014)
25. Sallese, Jean-Michel (2002-06-20). "Principles of the 1T Dynamic Access Memory Concept on SOI"
(http://legwww.epfl.ch/ekv/mos-ak/wroclaw/MOS-AK_JMS.pdf) (PDF). MOS Modeling and Parameter Extraction
Group Meeting. Wroclaw, Poland. Retrieved 2007-10-07.
26. "Center for Information Technology Policy Lest We Remember: Cold Boot Attacks on Encryption Keys"
(http://web.archive.org/web/20110722182409/http://citp.princeton.edu/memory/). 080222 citp.princeton.edu
27. Scheick, Leif Z.; Guertin, Steven M.; Swift, Gary M. (December 2000). "Analysis of radiation effects on individual
DRAM cells" (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=903804). IEEE Trans. on Nuclear Science
47 (6): 25342538. doi:10.1109/23.903804 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2F23.903804). ISSN 0018-9499
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9499). Retrieved 2013-08-08.

External links
Modern DRAM Memory Systems:Performance analysis and a high performance, power-constrained
DRAM scheduling algorithm (http://www.ece.umd.edu/~blj/papers/thesis-PhD-wang--DRAM.pdf) PhD
dissertation by David Tawei Wang, has very well written and detailed discussion on how DRAM works.
DRAM density and speed trends (http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~culler/courses/cs252-s05/lectures
/cs252s05-lec01-intro.ppt#359,15,Memory%20Capacity%20%20(Single%20Chip%20DRAM)) has some
interesting historical trend charts of DRAM density and speed from 1980.
Back to BasicsMemory, part 3 (http://www.computerwriter.com/archives/1998/cw052198.htm)
Benefits of Chipkill-Correct ECC for PC Server Main Memory (http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/eserver
/pseries/campaigns/chipkill.pdf) A 1997 discussion of SDRAM reliabilitysome interesting
information on "soft errors" from cosmic rays, especially with respect to Error-correcting code schemes
a Tezzaron Semiconductor Soft Error White Paper (http://www.tezzaron.com/about/papers
/soft_errors_1_1_secure.pdf) 1994 literature review of memory error rate measurements.
Soft errors' impact on system reliability (http://www.edn.com/article/CA454636.html) Ritesh
Mastipuram and Edwin C Wee, Cypress Semiconductor, 2004
Scaling and Technology Issues for Soft Error Rates (http://www.nepp.nasa.gov/DocUploads/40D7D6C9D5AA-40FC-829DC2F6A71B02E9/Scal-00.pdf) A Johnston4th Annual Research Conference on
Reliability Stanford University, October 2000
Challenges and future directions for the scaling of dynamic random-access memory (DRAM)
(http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/462/mandelman.html) J. A. Mandelman, R. H. Dennard, G.
B. Bronner, J. K. DeBrosse, R. Divakaruni, Y. Li, and C. J. Radens, IBM 2002
Ars Technica: RAM Guide (http://arstechnica.com/paedia/r/ram_guide/ram_guide.part1-2.html)
Versatile DRAM interface for the 6502 CPU (http://www.howell1964.freeserve.co.uk/projects
/DRAM_6502.htm)
David Tawei Wang (2005). "Modern DRAM Memory Systems: Performance Analysis and a High
Performance, Power-Constrained DRAM-Scheduling Algorithm" (http://www.ece.umd.edu/~blj/papers

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/thesis-PhD-wang--DRAM.pdf) (PDF). PhD thesis, University of Maryland, College Park. Retrieved

2007-03-10. A detailed description of current DRAM technology.
The Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 Desktop Calculator (http://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com
/toshbc1411.html) An early electronic calculator that uses a form of dynamic RAM built from discrete
components.
Mitsubishi's 3D-RAM And Cache DRAM (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_1998_July_21
/ai_50179297) incorporate high performance, on-board SRAM cache
Multi-port Cache DRAM MP-RAM (http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~pattrsn/294)
How to install DRAM installation guide (http://www.memorydepot.com/guide_install.asp) for desktop
and laptop computers.
[3] (http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~bianca/papers/sigmetrics09.pdf) DRAM Errors in the Wild: A
Large-Scale Field Study.
What every programmer should know about memory (https://lwn.net/Articles/250967/) by Ulrich
Drepper, continued with: CPU Caches (http://lwn.net/Articles/252125/), Virtual memory (http://lwn.net
/Articles/253361/), NUMA systems (http://lwn.net/Articles/254445/), What programmers can do - cache
optimization (http://lwn.net/Articles/255364/), What programmers can do - multi-threaded optimizations
(http://lwn.net/Articles/256433/), Memory performance tools (http://lwn.net/Articles/257209/), Future
technologies (https://lwn.net/Articles/258154/)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynamic_random-access_memory&
oldid=660571059"
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