Television Engg PDF

Government Girls Polytechnic, Bilaspur
Name of the Lab: Communication Lab

Practical: Television Engineering Lab
Class : 6th Semester ( ET&T )
Teachers Assessment: 10
End Semester Examination: 40
Experiment no - 1
Objective:-Familiarization with consumer and technician control & safety precautions
Theory:Control Measures
Control measures are implemented to eliminate or reduce the possibility of eye or skin
exposure to hazardous levels of laser radiation and to other ancillary hazards associated
with the use of laser systems. The potential for injury from a laser is determined by its
classification and therefore the control measures are also determined by the laser
classification. Consideration of the environment where the laser will be used and application
of the laser are also factors to consider when determining appropriate control measures to
be applied. The control measures reviewed in this section are adapted from ANSI Z136.11993 (Safe Use of Lasers) and can be found in section 4 of this standard.
Laser safety control measures include administrative controls such as (procedures, training,
warning signs, personal protection), and engineering controls which may include (protective
housing, interlocks, beam stops, barriers and curtains). The combined use of both
engineering and administrative control methods is effective in controlling the hazards of
laser radiation.
1. Protective Housing, Interlocks
A protective housing is a physical barrier sufficient to contain the beam and laser radiation
from exiting the laser system so that the maximum permissible exposure MPE is not
exceeded on the outside surface. Protective housings must be interlocked so that the laser
cannot operate when the housing is opened or removed. When the requirements of a
protective housing are fulfilled then the laser system is considered a Class 1 laser and no
further control measures are required.
Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)
2. Laser Use in TV without Protective Housing

In the research environment lasers are often used without a protective housing in place.
Typically the use of optical tables and optical devices are employed in order to manipulate
the laser beam. In this environment the Radiation Protection Office (617 495-2060) will
evaluate the hazards and see that controls measures are in place to ensure safe operation.
These control measures may include but are not limited to:
Access Restriction
Area Controls
Barriers, Curtains, Bearn Stops
Eye Protection
Procedural Controls
Training
3. Access Restriction
For Class 3b and 4 laser laboratories, access controls are required to prevent unauthorized
personnel from entering the area when the laser is in use. Doors need to be kept closed
when the laser is in operation and locked when the laser is left unattended. A door
interlocked with the laser shutter may be required.
4. Area Controls
For Class 3b and 4 lasers area control measures are used to minimize laser radiation
hazards. The area must be posted with the appropriate signage and include a lighted sign
at the doorways indicating the "on" status of a laser system. Only authorized personnel who
have been appropriately trained will be allowed to operate the laser. For open beam
installations a nominal hazard zone (NHZ) analysis will be performed.
5. Barriers, Beam Stops, Enclosures
Beam barriers, stops and enclosures are used to prevent beam propagation outside of the
controlled access area in excess of the MPE. It is always desirable to enclose as much of
the beam path as possible. As with a protective housing, the proper enclosure of the entire
beam path may change the laser system to a Class 1 laser. When the beam needs to be
directed to another area such as between optical tables, enclosure of the beam is
recommended. Physical barriers are used to prevent laser radiation from exiting the
controlled area. Laser curtains and partitions are routinely used as laser containment
systems. Rail curtains can be used to completely enclose an optical table or part of the
laser system. Due to the power density of Class 4 lasers, consideration of barrier material
regarding combustion must be given. Use beam stops to prevent the beam from leaving the
optical table and to terminate the beam path. Beam stops are use behind optical devices in
the event that the beam becomes misalign.
Administrative Controls
Administrative controls are methods and instructions that promote tv safety in the
laboratory.
1. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP's)
A written SOP must be established for normal, maintenance, and alignment operations. The
SOP's will be maintained with the tv equipment for reference by operators or service
personnel and can be used for instructional material to train new laser users in the facility.
All SOP's will be updated to reflect any changes in laboratory protocol and equipment
usage.
2. Warning Signs and Labels
All signs and labels must comply with ANSI Z 136.1 (1993) and the FDA/CDRH standards.
For all entranceways into laboratories, equal to or less than the MPE, will be posted with
signs indicating "Caution". For class 3a lasers exceeding the MPE for irradiance must be
posted with "Danger" signs. In accordance with ANSI Z 136.1, the signs will include the
laser class, wavelength, and laser output. Lasers are marked with the manufacturers' label
according to FDA/CDRH regulations. For laser systems developed in house call the
Radiation Protection Office to evaluate the laser for proper labeling.
3. Eye Protection
Eye protection is required for tv when engineering and administrative controls are
inadequate to eliminate potential exposure in excess of the applicable MPE. The use of
laser protective eyewear is especially important during alignment procedures since most
laser accidents occur during this process. Protective eyewear must be labeled with the
absorption wavelength and optical density (OD) rating at that wavelength. In addition to
selecting the appropriate OD for safe viewing, one should considered the percent of visible
light transmitted to the eye while wearing eye protection so that the beam can be
adequately seen without the need to remove the protective eyewear. Comfort and fit are
important factors when selecting protective eyewear.
Result- consumer are Familiarize with tv safely control it.
Experiment no 2
Objective- Identify different components and section in TV receiver (B/W & Color)
Material required- Picture tube, loudspeaker Video detector, Camera, Tuner, Color T.V. Trainer
Kit, Digital Voltmeter, Cathode Ray oscilloscope
TheoryA simplified block diagram of a black and white TV receiver is shown in Fig. 1.5. The receiving
Antenna intercepts radiated RF signals and the tuner selects desired channels frequency band
and
Converts it to the common IF band of frequencies. The receiver employs two or three stages of
Intermediate frequency (IF) amplifiers. The output from the last IF stage is demodulated to
recover the video signal. This signal that carries picture information is amplified and coupled to
the picture tube which converts the electrical signal back into picture elements of the same
degree of black and white. The picture tube shown in Fig. 1.6 is very similar to the cathode-ray
tube used in an oscilloscope. The glass envelope contains an electron-gun structure that
produces a beam of electrons aimed at the fluorescent screen. When the electron beam strikes
the screen, light is emitted. The beam is deflected by a pair of deflecting coils mounted on the
neck of picture tube in the same way as the beam of camera tube scans the target plate. The
amplitudes of currents in the horizontal and vertical deflecting coils are so adjusted that the entire
screen, called raster, gets illuminated because of the fast rate of scanning.
The video signal is fed to the grid or cathode of picture tube. When the varying signal voltage
Makes the control grid less negative, the beam current is increased, making the spot of light on
the screen brighter. More negative grid voltage reduces brightness. If the grid voltage is negative
enough to cut-off the electron beam current at the picture tube, there will be no light. This state
corresponds to black. Thus the video signal illuminates the fluorescent screen from white to black
through various shades of grey depending on its amplitude at any instant. This corresponds to
brightness changes encountered by the electron beam of the camera tube while scanning picture
details element by element. The rate at which the spot of light moves is so fast that the eye is
unable to follow it and so a complete picture is seen because of storage capability of the human
eye.
Sound Reception
The path of sound signal is common with the picture signal from antenna to video detector
section of the receiver. Here the two signals are separated and fed to their respective channels.
The frequency modulated audio signal is demodulated after at least one stage of amplification.
The audio output from the FM detector is given due amplification before feeding it to the
loudspeaker
As shown in Fig. 1.7, the color picture tube has three guns corresponding to the three pick-ups
Tubes in the color camera. The screen of this tube has red, green and blue phosphors arranged
in alternate stripes. Each gun produces an electron beam to illuminate corresponding color
phosphor separately on the fluorescent screen. The eye then integrates the red, green and blue
color information sand their luminance to perceive actual color and brightness of the picture being
televised. The sound signal is decoded in the same way as in a monochrome receiver.
SYNCHRONIZATION
It is essential that the same co-ordinates be scanned at any instant both at the camera tube
target plate and at the raster of picture tube; otherwise, the picture details would split and get
distorted. To ensure perfect synchronization between the scenes being televised and the picture
produced on the raster, synchronizing pulses are transmitted during the retrace, i.e., fly-back
intervals of horizontal and vertical motions of the camera scanning beam. Thus, in addition to
carrying picture details, the radiated signal at the transmitter also contains synchronizing pulses.
These pulses which are distinct for horizontal and vertical motion control are processed at the
receiver and fed to the picture tube sweep circuitry thus ensuring that the receiver picture tube
beam is in step with the transmitter camera tube beam.
As stated earlier, in a color TV system additional sync pulses called color burst are transmitted
Along with horizontal sync pulses. These are separated at the input of chroma section and used
to synchronize the color demodulator carrier generator. This ensures correct reproduction of
colors in the otherwise black and white picture.
RECEIVER CONTROLS
Most black and white receivers have on their front panel (i) channel selector, (ii) fine tuning,
(iii) brightness, (iv) contrast, (v) horizontal hold and (vi) volume controls besides an ON-OFF
switch.
Some receivers also provide a tone control. The channel selector switch is used for selecting the
desired channel. The fine tuning control is provided for obtaining best picture details in the
selected channel.The hold control is used to get a steady picture in case it rolls up or down. The
brightness control varies beam intensity of the picture tube and is set for optimum average
brightness of the picture. The contrast control is actually gain control of the video amplifier. This
can be varied to obtain desired contrast between white and black contents of the reproduced
picture. The volume and tone controls form part of the audio amplifier in sound section, and are
used for setting volume and tonal quality of the sound output from the loudspeaker.
In colour receivers there is an additional control called colour or saturation control. It is used to
vary intensity or amount of colours in the reproduced picture. In modern colour receivers that
employ integrated circuits in most sections of the receiver, the hold control is not necessary and
hence usually not provided.
different components and section in TV receiver
Antenna :
The main function of an antenna is to accept the electro magnetic waves coming from the T.V.
transmitter. Antenna receives these waves and converts them into RF signals. Which are given to
the T.V. Transmitter. For better reception of RF signal, Yaagi Uda antenna is most commonly
used to in all T.V. receivers in VHF/UHF range for its simple construction and low air resistance.
Balun :
It is used for matching the impedance balanced 300W to unbalanced 75W tuner input impedance.
R.F. signal from antenna is given to the RF tuner through the balun transformer.
RF Tuner :
It is used for better picture and sound reception. The main functions of tuner are
1. Selection of desired channel frequencies and rejects others.
2. It matches antenna with T.V. receiver, because of the ghost image can be removed.
3. It converts the R.F. signal into IF signal by heterodyne with local oscillator frequency.
4. It isolates the local oscillator signals from the antenna for preventing radiation of it through the
antenna.
5. It rejects the image frequency which causes the ghost image along with the picture. The RF
tuner selects RF signals of desired channel amplifiers then is to IF signals. The tuner consists of
an RF amplifier, an oscillator and a mixer stage. Local oscillator generates a constant frequency
for desired channel, RF amplifier amplifies the
RF signal achieved from antenna and mixer stage converts them into IF signal by heterodyne RF
signal from the local oscillator frequency. The IF carrier frequency present in IF signals for picture
and sound are 38.9 MHz 33.4 MHz respectively. Thus IF signal achieved from the tuner is fed to
the IF amplifier.
IF Pre-Amplifier :
It amplifies the IF signal. This stage of amplification is necessary because by the used of saw
filter the gain of the receiver becomes less.24
SAW - FILTER :
The saw filter used in place of wave trap circuits. It passes only required frequencies and grounds
unwanted adjacent channel frequencies.
VIDEO IF STAGE :
By using an IC this stage is desired. This stage consists of video amplifier, AFC and AGC circuits
etc.,
VIDEO IF AMPLIFIER :
This stage amplifies IF signal and provides sufficient gain. AGC voltage is applied to all the
separate IF amplifier except the last IF amplifier. From video amplifier the signal is applied to the
video detector.
VIDEO DETECTOR :
Signal obtained from video IF amplifier is injected to the vedio detector. In video detector the
signal is demodulated giving back the Y-signal and the colour side band along with various
synchronizing pulses and the colour burst signal. AFC signal is also given to tuner section for
automatic frequency control. The video detector is to mix both VIF, SIF to produce a new IF
sound IF signal at 5.5 MHz and fed to the sound section.
5.5 MHz tank (LC) circuit is also used with video detector to remove the 5.5 MHz inter carrier
sound signal from the vedio signal. From video detector video signal is obtained given to video
amplifier input. This stage is coupled to video preamplifier and AGC sections.
Sound Section :
SOUDN IF AMPLIFIER :
The 5.5 MHz inter carrier signal from video detector stage is fed to the sound IF amplifier for
amplification.
FM Detector :
5.5 MHz sound signal is amplified by SIF stage given to detector stage. The original sound signal
is detected from the carrier.
Audio Amplifier :
In this stage voltage amplification is given to the audio signal and finally fed to the speaker. T.V.
Servicing Lab - II 25
Video Pre-Amplifier :
The output of Video amplifier the video signal is given to video pre amplifier. This signal consists
of the 1) Luminance / Y Signal 2) The colour sub carrier containing red, blue colour difference
signals 3) The horizontal and vertical sync pulses 4) The colour burst signal. The video pre
amplifier amplifies the signal strength from 2V to 6V, so that it is able to drive video output stages.
In this stage the division of chrominance and luminance takes place. From video pre amplifier
video signal coupled to chroma band pass amplifiers through chroma filter circuit, sync separation
and delay time circuit.
Delay time :
From video pre amplifier, Y signal passes through a delay time to amplifier stage. The delay line
delays the Y signal by 0.8 milliseconds. The delay speed of the signal through the delay time is a
special coil with very high value of inductance and distributed capacitance so that the delay
speed of the signal through the delay line is greatly reduced.
Chroma section :
The output of video pre amplifier the composite colour video signal is coupled to the chroma band
pass filter at 4.43 MHz and two stages of chroma amplifier.
The chroma filter separates the modulated chroma sub carrier signal and the colour burst from
incoming composite video signals. The separated chroma signals are amplified by the first
chroma amplifier which is gain controlled by the voltage developed by the automatic colour
control amplifier.
Colour Burst Circuit :
The colour burst circuit consists of the burst pre amplifier, pre amplifier pulse shaper and the
gated burst amplifier.
Burst pre amplifier :
The chroma input signal from the chroma amplifier gets amplified in this stage.
Gated Burst Amplifier :
In this stage the gated horizontal flyback pulses are applied to this stage through a pulse shaping
circuit.
Pulse Shaper :
The pulse shaper receives a positive pulse from horizontal output section. The conduction of
gated burst amplifier depends on the gating pulses derived from pulse shapes. Burst signals are
applied to Automatic Chroma Colour control circuit and phase discriminator.
Reference Oscillator:
The U and V signals are separately produced at the transmitting and by double balanced
suppressed carrier modulator. Automatic Colour Control (ACC) Circuit: In this stage colour is
controlled automatically.
Burst Phase Discriminator :
This stage works by comparing the phase of wave from produced by the reference oscillator with
the burst pulses obtained from the burst amplifier.
Colour Killer Circuit :
In this stage the colour killer is to be cut off the second chroma band pass amplifier when black
and white program is obtained by a colour T.V. Circuit.
Sync Separator :
From the emitter of video pre amplifier, composite colour video signal is fed to the sync separator,
horizontal, vertical sync signals are separated by the use of suitable low, high pass filter circuits.
This stage also amplifies the signals. Automatic Frequency Control/AFC Circuit : In this stage
horizontal flyback pulses and horizontal sync signals are separated.
Horizontal Oscillator :
This stage generates 15, 625Hz saw tooth horizontal line frequency for horizontal deflection of
electron beam inside the picture tube.
Horizontal Driver :
The signal coming from horizontal oscillator is amplified.
Horizontal Driver Transformer :

In this provides impedance matching. T.V. Servicing Lab - II 27
Horizontal Output Stage :
This stage consists of a Transistor and an EHT Transformer amplification is provided in this
stage.
Vertical Stage :
This is an IC version consists of vertical oscillator, vertical driver, vertical output.
Vertical oscillator :
Vertical line frequency 50Hz coming from low pass filter and deflected electron beem
vertically in the picture tube.
Vertical Driver :
It provides voltage amplification to vertical signal.Vertical output :
The vertical output is given to vertical deflection coil.
Power Supply :
A SMPS power supply is used to get 110V,20V dc power
Observation table-
Typical Voltages
Result -ICs, transistors observed at various stages, voltages are observed at various points.
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Experiment no 3
Objective- Signal injection and signal tracing in black & white & Color TV
Apparatus required- T.V. Trainer Kit, Digital Voltmeter, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Theory - The Black-and-White TV Signal
In a black-and-white TV, the screen is coated with white phosphor and the
electron beam "paints" an image onto the screen by moving the electron beam across the
phosphor a line at a time. To "paint" the entire screen, electronic circuits inside the TV use the
magnetic coils to move the electron beam in a "raster scan" pattern across and down the screen.
The beam paints one line across the screen from left to right. It then quickly flies back to the left
side, moves down slightly and paints another horizontal line, and so on down the screen, like this:
In this figure, the blue lines represent lines that the electron beam is "painting" on the screen from
left to right, while the red dashed lines represent the beam flying back to the left. When the beam
reaches the right side of the bottom line, it has to move back to the upper left corner of the
screen, as represented by the green line in the figure. When the beam is "painting," it is on, and
when it is flying back, it is off so that it does not leave a trail on the screen. The term horizontal
retrace is used to refer to the beam moving back to the left at the end of each line, while the
term vertical retrace refers to its movement from bottom to top.
As the beam paints each line from left to right, the intensity of the beam is changed to create
different shades of black, gray and white across the screen. Because the lines are spaced very
closely together, your brain integrates them into a single image. A TV screen normally has about
480 lines visible from top to bottom. In the next section, you'll find out how the TV "paints" these
lines on the screen.
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Displaying an image
A CRT television displays an image by scanning a beam of electrons across the screen in a
pattern of horizontal lines known as a raster. At the end of each line the beam returns to the start
of the next line; at the end of the last line it returns to the top of the screen. As it passes each
point the intensity of the beam is varied, varying the luminance of that point. A color
television system is identical except that an additional signal known as chrominance controls the
color of the spot.
Raster scanning is shown in a slightly simplified form below.
When analog television was developed, no affordable technology for storing any video signals
existed; the luminance signal has to be generated and transmitted at the same time at which it is
displayed on the CRT. It is therefore essential to keep the raster scanning in the camera (or other
device for producing the signal) in exact synchronization with the scanning in the television.The
physics of the CRT require that a finite time interval is allowed for the spot to move back to the
start of the next line (horizontal retrace) or the start of the screen (vertical retrace). The timing of
the luminance signal must allow for this.The human eye has a characteristic called Persistence of
vision. Quickly displaying successive scan images will allow the apparent illusionof smooth
motion. Flickering of the image can be partially solved using a long persistence phosphor coating
on the CRT, so that successive images fade slowly. However, slow phosphor has the negative
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side-effect of causing image smearing and blurring when there is a large amount of rapid onscreen motion occurring.The maximum frame rate depends on the bandwidth of the electronics
and the transmission system, and the number of horizontal scan lines in the image. A frame rate
of 25 or 30 hertz is a satisfactory compromise, while the process of interlacing two fields of the
picture per frame is used to build the image. This process doubles the apparent number of fields
per second and further reduces flicker and other defects in transmission.
Receiving signal
The television system for each country will specify a number of channels within
the UHF or VHFfrequency ranges. A channel actually consists of two signals: the picture
information is transmitted using amplitude modulation on one frequency, and the sound is
transmitted withfrequency modulation at a frequency at a fixed offset (typically 4.5 to 6 MHz) from
the picture signal.The channel frequencies chosen represent a compromise between allowing
enough bandwidth for video (and hence satisfactory picture resolution), and allowing enough
channels to be packed into the available frequency band. In practice a technique called vestigial
sideband is used to reduce the channel spacing, which would be at least twice the video
bandwidth if purely AM was used.Signal reception is invariably done via a superheterodyne
receiver: the first stage is a tuner which selects a channel and frequency-shifts it to a
fixed intermediate frequency (IF). Signal amplification (from the microvolt range to fractions of a
volt) is then performed largely by the IF stages.
Extracting the sound
At this point the IF signal consists of a video carrier at one frequency and the sound carrier at a
fixed offset. A demodulator recovers the video signal and sound as an FM signal at the offset
frequency (this is known as intercarrier sound).The FM sound carrier is then demodulated,
amplified, and used to drive a loudspeaker. Until the advent of NICAM, and MTS, sound
transmission was invariably monophonic.
Structure of a video signal
The video carrier is demodulated to give a composite video signal; this contains luminance
(brightness), chrominance (color) and synchronization signals;
[5]
this is identical to the video
signal format used by analog video devices such as VCRs or CCTV cameras. Note that the RF
signal modulation is inverted compared to the conventional AM: the minimum video signal level
corresponds to maximum carrier amplitude, and vice versa. The carrier is never shut off
altogether; this is to ensure that intercarrier sound demodulation can still occur.
13
Each line of the displayed image is transmitted using a signal as shown below. The same basic
format (with minor differences mainly related to timing and the encoding of color) is used
for PAL, NTSC and SECAM television systems. A monochrome signal is identical to a color one,
with the exception that the elements shown in color in the diagram (the color burst, and the
chrominance signal) are not present.
Monochrome video signal extraction
The luminance component of a composite video signal varies between 0 V and approximately
0.7 V above the 'black' level. In the NTSC system, there is a blanking signal level used during the
front porch and back porch, and a black signal level 75 mV above it; in PAL and SECAM these
are identical.In a monochrome receiver the luminance signal is amplified to drive the control
grid in the electron gun of the CRT. This changes the intensity of the electron beam and therefore
the brightness of the spot being scanned. Brightness and contrast controls determine the DC shift
and amplification, respectively.
Color video signal extraction
14
Colour bar generator test signal

A color signal conveys picture information for each of the red, green, and blue components of an
image (see the article on Color space for more information). However, these are not simply
transmitted as three separate signals, because:
such a signal would not be compatible with monochrome receivers (an important
consideration when color broadcasting was first introduced)
it would occupy three times the bandwidth of existing television, requiring a decrease in
the number of channels available
typical problems with signal transmission (such as differing received signal levels
between different colors) would produce unpleasant side-effects.
Instead, the RGB signals are converted into YUV form, where the Y signal represents the overall
brightness, and can be transmitted as the luminance signal. This ensures a monochrome receiver
will display a correct picture. The U and V signals are the difference between the Y signal and the
B and R signals respectively. The U signal then represents how 'blue' the color is, and the V
signal how 'red' it is. The advantage of this scheme is that the U and V signals are zero when the
picture has no color content. As the eye is more sensitive to errors in luminance than in color, the
U and V signals can be transmitted in a relatively lossy (specifically: bandwidth-limited) way with
acceptable results. The G signal is not transmitted in the YUV system but is recovered
algebraically at the receiving end.
Colour signals mixed with video signal
15
In the NTSC and PAL color systems, U and V are transmitted by adding a color subcarrier to the
composite video signal, and using quadrature amplitude modulation on it. In NTSC, the subcarrier
is at approximately 3.58 MHz, in the PAL system it is roughly 4.43 MHz these frequencies are
within the luminance signal band, but the exact frequency is chosen so that it is midway between
two harmonics of the line repetition rate, thus ensuring that the majority of the energy of the
luminance signal does not overlap with the energy of the chroma signal.In the U.K. PAL (D)
system the actual frequency is 4.433618.75 Hz, a direct multiple of the scan rate frequency. This
frequency was chosen to minimise the chroma beat interference pattern which is visible in areas
of high color saturation in the transmitted picture.The two signals (U and V) modulate both
the amplitude and phase of the color carrier, so to demodulate them it is necessary to have a
reference signal against which to compare it. For this reason a short burst of reference signal
known as the color burst is transmitted during the back porch (re-trace period) of each scan line.
A reference oscillator in the receiver locks onto this signal (see phase-locked loop) to achieve a
phase reference, and uses its amplitude to set an AGC system to achieve an amplitude
reference.The U and V signals are then demodulated by band-pass filtering to retrieve the color
subcarrier, mixing it with the in-phase and quadraturesignals from the reference oscillator, and
low-pass filtering the results.
Test card showing "Hanover Bars" (colour banding phase effect) in Pal S (simple) signal mode of
transmission.
NTSC uses this process unmodified; unfortunately this often results in poor color reproduction
due to phase errors in the received signal. The PAL D (delay) system corrects this by reversing
the phase of the signal on each successive line and averaging the result over pairs of lines. This
process is achieved by the use of a 1H (where H = horizontal scan frequency) duration delay line.
(A typical circuit used with this device converts the low frequency color signal to ultrasonic sound
and back again). Phase shift errors between successive lines are therefore cancelled out and the
wanted signal amplitude is increased when the two in-phase (coincident) signals are re-
16
combined.In the SECAM television system, U and V are transmitted on alternate lines, using
simplefrequency modulation of the color subcarrier.In analog color CRT displays the
brightness control signal (luminance) is fed to the cathodeconnections of the electron guns, and
the color difference signals (chrominance) are fed to the control grids connections. This simple
matrix mixing technique was replaced in later solid statedesigns of signal processing.
Signal tracking
The practical value of signal tracing as a means of rapidly locating trouble in radio circuits is too
well known to require any special pleading. Even when used by an inexperienced radio student,
this method gives his tentative efforts a quality directness and continuity In the hands of an
expert, the technique identifies and isolates trouble with incredible speed.In radio servicing, no
man can attempt to clear trouble intelligently unless he knows the function of each part ind it
relation to every other part. Aside from its practical utility, signal tracing has great educational
value. Even on paper, without instruments, a student may be taught to trace the signal from point
to point, to describe its character, and to account for any deviation from normal operation. A most
helpful exercise, both for practical work and for an underanding of principles, is to follw the signal
along its entire trip through the receiver. A detailed and lettered diagram may be used to indicate
the points at witch the signal will be examined. Other points will be tested to make sure that the
signal has not wandered off onto forbidden paths.
Fig. shows a conventional superheterodyne receiver with one untuned r.f. stage, diode detector,
a.v.c., and pentoded output. If the student will master this fundamental circuit, if he will learn "the
funciton of each part and its relation to every other part," he will find that hew knows something
about radio. A standard radio receiver can be converted easily into a simple dynamic tester.
Such an instrument was covered in an article entitled "Clearing That Intermittent," which
appeared in the September, 1944, issue of Radio News. It traces the signal audibly from antenna
post to voice coil. The use of an analyzer of this type (or any professionally manufactured unit)
gives rise to the detailed analysis that follows.
17
18
Fig The function of each stage of a super heterodyne receiver should be known before attempting
to use signal-tracing methods.
Result - It has been amply demonstrated that signal tracing/injection can follow a signal from its
first feeble flutter on the antenna to its final full force at the speaker. Signal tracing/injection can
determine whether the signal remains within the prescribed channels as a well-behaved signal
should or whether it goes out of bounds. Signal tracing/injection can track down unwanted signal
voltages and aid in their elimination. Rather, it is the radioman that does all this. The hand that
moves the probe must be guided by an intelligence that knows the function of each part and its
relation to every other part. Signal tracing/injection is a happy union of ingenious instrumentation
with high intelligence.
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Experiment no 4
Objective- Voltage and waveform measurements of signal
Apparatus required- CRO, Microphone
Theory
Many oscilloscope users take advantage of only a small fraction of the powerful features available
to them. In addition, selecting the right measurement from a catalog of possibilities and accurately
interpreting the results can lead to confusion and mistakes. This series of articles is intended to
help users understand oscilloscope measurements more completely in order to avoid common
pitfalls.
Digital storage oscilloscopes vary greatly among vendors in terms of form factor (stand-alone,
PXI, VXI, PCI, etc), resolution (8-bit, 12-bit, 16-bit, etc), acquisition rates (1 MS/sec, 1 GS/sec, 40
GS/sec, etc), functionality (advanced triggering, deep memory, self-calibration, etc.), and more.
One aspect that separates true oscilloscopes from most PC-based, modular digitizers is the
ability to make measurements in hardware on an onboard processor. The available
measurements also differ from one oscilloscope to another, although this paper will cover a large
segment of them. In addition, the algorithms used to complete the measurements may differ
slightly among vendors. This paper will focus on the measurements and algorithms used in ZTEC
modular oscilloscopes, but most of these concepts are universal.
Oscilloscope measurements can be sorted into the following three categories:
Vertical-Axis
Horizontal-Axis
Frequency Domain
Vertical-Axis Measurements
Vertical-axis measurements analyze the vertical component of the applied signal. These
measurements most often describe a signal in terms of a voltage level. However, they can also
correspond to current, power, or any other physical phenomena converted to voltage via a probe
or transducer. Some common vertical-axis measurements include Amplitude, Peak-To-Peak,
Average, and RMS measurements.
Vertical Resolution and Accuracy
The resolution and accuracy of an oscilloscope can affect measurements greatly, so its important
to understand these limitations. An oscilloscope with an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
has 28 (256) levels available while a 16-bit ADC has 216 (65536) levels. Thus, a 16-bit
oscilloscope has 256 times more resolution than an 8-bit oscilloscope. Since only finite levels are
available to represent the signal, there is a quantization error of 1 least significant bit (LSB). To
20
find the minimum detectable voltage change (code width), divide the input range by the number of
levels. Figure 1 depicts a 16-bit oscilloscope digitizing an 8 Vpp square wave with a 100 mV
ripple voltage. In this case, the oscilloscopes code
width is (10/65536) 150 uV which allows it to produce a good representation of both the large and
small signals. An 8-bit
oscilloscopes code width would be only (10/256) 39 mV, so it could not show the 100 mV
component adequately. Changing the input range setting to 250 mVpp would improve the
performance, reducing the code width to (0.25/256) 1 mV.
Figure 1: Signal with Large & Small Components

The dynamic range of an oscilloscope refers to how well the instrument can detect small signals
in the presence of large signals and is expressed in decibels (dB). It is limited by the quantization
error and all other noise sources such as background noise, distortion, spurious signals, etc. The
equation for computing the dynamic range is:
Vmax is the maximum voltage that must be acquired and Vres is the minimum resolution that can
be seen. A good rule of thumb is that every bit of resolution equals 6 dB of dynamic range. An 8bit instruments theoretical maximum dynamic range is 48 dB, but it is significantly less once all
limitations are considered.Accuracy refers to the oscilloscopes ability to represent the true value
of a signal. An oscilloscope with high resolution, does not necessarily translate into giving an
accurate result. Accuracy and resolution are related though, because the achievable accuracy of
an instrument is limited by the resolution of the ADC.The factors that reduce the accuracy of an
oscilloscope can be mostly lumped into high- and low-frequency errors. Noise is generally the
cause of high-frequency errors, while low-frequency errors are caused by drift stemming from
temperature, aging, bias currents, etc. High-frequency errors can usually be removed by
oversampling and averaging. Low-frequency errors often require the calibration of the instrument,
either internally or through a factory calibration.
Relative vs. Absolute Measurements
21
An oscilloscopes accuracy is often specified in terms of gain accuracy and offset accuracy. Gain
accuracy is related to how well it handles high-frequency noise and can be called its relative
accuracy. Offset accuracy is related to how well it handles the low-frequency issues and can be
referred to as absolute accuracy. Figure 2 shows a real and measured 1
Vpp sine wave. Notice that the measured Amplitude is 0.99 V which equates to a gain error of
0.01 V or 1%. The measured signal is also offset 0.02 V for a 2% offset error.
Figure 2: Gain & Offset Errors

Vertical-axis measurements can either be relative or absolute in nature. Relative measurements
compare two voltages within the same signal. Amplitude is an example of a relative measurement
because it returns the difference between the high and low voltage. The Amplitude of a 1 Vpp
sine wave will be the same when it is centered at zero or has an offset of 5 V. Therefore, relative
measurements are unaffected by the offset error. Absolute measurements are a representation of
their real-world value and are affected by gain and offset errors. The Average measurement is an
example of an absolute measurement.
Amplitude vs. Peak-To-Peak
Two vertical-axis measurements that are often confused are Amplitude and Peak-To-Peak. This
is understandable because they are identical for all types of signals, except a pulse signal. Figure
3 shows the difference between the Amplitude and Peak-To-Peak (PTPeak) for a pulse signal.
Peak-To-Peak returns the difference between the extreme Maximum and Minimum values, while
the Amplitude returns the difference between where the pulse settles at the top
(High) and bottom (Low) of the signal. The other measurements shown--Rise Overshoot (ROV),
Rise Preshoot (RPR), Fall Overshoot (FOV), and Fall Preshoot (FPR)--are only valid when
measuring pulses.
22
Figure 3: Vertical Axis Measurements [1]

The measurements shown in Figure 3 are computed on the oscilloscope processor using a
histogram. Figure 4 shows how the pulse signal in Figure 3 is represented in an 8-bit oscilloscope
histogram. The samples are sorted into one of 256 bins, each corresponding to a voltage range.
The algorithms simply look for the bit value with the most points for the Low and High
measurements and the absolute largest and smallest bit values for the Maximum and Minimum.
This allows for an extremely fast computation, but the measurements resolution is limited by the
quantization error (1 LSB) of the ADC. The accuracy also suffers due to a single samples
susceptibility to noise.
Figure 4: Histogram Processing of a Sine Wave

Root Mean Squared (RMS) & Average
The Direct Current (DC) RMS, Alternating Current (AC) RMS, and Average measurements are
methods of characterizing
23
the vertical level and power using the entire waveform.The Average function is the mean vertical
level of the entire captured waveform. It can be calculated by taking the sum of all of the voltage
levels and dividing that by the number of points as shown:
The DC RMS and AC RMS measurements return the average power of the signal. The DC RMS
returns the entire power contained within a signal including AC and DC components. This can
also be described as the heating power when applied to a resistor. The AC RMS is used to
characterize AC signals by subtracting out the DC power, leaving only the AC power component.
The equations for the RMS measurements are as follows:
Figure 5 shows these results on a 4 Vpp square wave with 0.5 V of offset.
Figure 5: Average & RMS

All three of these measurements are capable of more accuracy than the Amplitude and Peak-ToPeak measurements described in the previous section. The reason for this is that every single
point in the waveform is included in the calculation of the Average and RMS measurements. This
naturally cancels out noise that may be present in the signal. Additionally, when measuring the
Average or RMS values, the more points that are acquired in the waveform, the better the
accuracy of the measurements become. The upper bound of the accuracy is determined by the
number of bits in the
On board processor. Some oscilloscopes use a 16-bit processor, so these measurements are
limited to 16 bits of resolution because the largest number that can be stored on the chip is 16-
24
bits. However, the 64-bit processor on the ZT4611 modular oscilloscope allows users to attain up
to 64 bits of resolution. The tradeoff for the higher accuracy is longer computations since more
points must be analyzed.When only a few cycles of a waveform is acquired, it becomes critical to
acquire only the full cycles or otherwise the results contain an asymmetric error. Figure 6 shows
the same signal as Figure 5 except that an additional (high) half cycle was acquired. The Average
and RMS values are offset because of this.
Figure 6: Average & RMS with Partial Cycle

There are a few ways to avoid this circumstance. The best way is to acquire a longer waveform
that includes many cycles so that the offset is effectively minimized. This method requires more
time and more onboard memory to store the waveform. Another way to solve the problem is to
make use of the Cycle RMS or Cycle Average measurements. These calculate the RMS and
Average including only the points from the first cycle of the waveform. The third way to solve the
problem would be to use a gated measurement. Gated measurements allow the user to choose
the points that are included. This can be done by selecting a start and stop time or a start and
stop point. Both the Gated By Time and Gated By Points methods require the user to know the
period of the waveform to solve the problem shown in Figure 6.
Horizontal-Axis Measurements
Horizontal-axis measurements involve analyzing the horizontal time axis of the applied signal,
and include measurements such as Period, Frequency, and Rise Time. The value returned is
usually in time, but can also be expressed as a ratio, radians, or in Hertz.
Horizontal Resolution and Accuracy
The horizontal-axis resolution is limited by the sample rate of the onboard clock. A board with a 1
GS/sec acquisition rate can only achieve a time resolution of 1 / (1 GS/sec) = 1 nsec. Much like
the vertical axis, the horizontal-axis accuracy can be reduced by high- and low-frequency errors.
25
High-frequency errors consist of clock jitter or phase-noise, but these are usually minute when
considering that clocks used on most oscilloscopes have errors of 100 parts per million (ppm) or
less. An error this small is insignificant when compared to the accuracy of the vertical axis.
Occasionally, when completing horizontal-axis measurements, it may appear that clock jitter or
phase-noise is causing incorrect readings. However, it is usually the lack of vertical-axis accuracy
or noise that causes the incorrect time measurement. This will be further discussed later in the
Edge Measurement section.
Low-frequency errors can be a problem and consist of drift associated with temperature, aging,
etc. Annual factory calibrations must be completed to guarantee the accuracy of the clock over a
long period of time.
Horizontal Waveform Measurements
The majority of the horizontal-axis measurements are fairly straight forward. They are shown in
Figure 1. The Period measures the average time for a cycle to complete using the entire
waveform in the capture window. The Frequency is the inverse of the period and is measured in
Hertz. The Positive Pulse Width measures the time from the first rising edge to the first falling
edge, while the Negative Pulse Width does the opposite. The Positive and Negative Duty Cycles
are then calculated by taking the ratio of their corresponding Pulse Widths to the Period. All of
these measurements are calculated based on the Middle voltage level which is simply halfway
between the High and Low values. The time of the first maximum and minimum levels can also
be retrieved using the Time of Maximum and Time of Minimum measurements.
Figure 1: Horizontal-Axis Measurements
26
When acquiring Period and Frequency measurements their accuracy can be very much affected
by the sample rate. Both of these measurements are calculated by counting the number of
samples that occur between Middle crossings. If a 10 MHz signal is being sampled at 100 MHz,
this will result in exactly ten samples per period. The samples at the zero crossings may be very
near the borders. If one is missed, this results in only nine samples being detected which returns
a Period of 9 * (10nsec) = 90 nsec and a resulting Frequency of 11.1 MHz. This resolution is
obviously not very good. It could be improved by acquiring long waveforms to capture many
cycles and average out the resolution error. Another solution would be to sample the signal at 1
GHz or greater. Overall, for more accurate Frequency and Period measurements, it is best to
sample at a far greater rate than the signal and capture many cycles. Cycle Average and Cycle
Frequency measurements can be used to measure only the first cycle if desired. Also, the gated
methods described in the vertical-axis section can also be employed. All of these methods are
still susceptible to the resolution errors described above.Phase measurements make most sense
when acquiring two or more waveforms to determine how many radians or degrees a waveform is
shifted in relation to another. However, the phase can be measured on a single periodic signal.
This can be confusing, but it is simply calculated by comparing the starting point of the waveform
to the rising edge Middle crossing. Figure 2 shows one signal with a positive 90 degree (1.57 rad)
phase shift and another with a 270 degree (4.72 rad) phase shift.
Figure 2: Phase Measurement

Edge Measurements
A subset of Horizontal-Axis measurements is Edge Measurements. All of these measurements
are made in relation to the Reference High (REF HIGH), Reference Middle (REF MID), and
Reference Low (REF LOW). These references are user-selectable and are different than the
27
High, Middle, and Low levels discussed in the previous sections, which are not user-selectable.
By default, the REF HIGH, REF MID, and REF LOW are set to 90%, 50%, and 10% of the
Amplitude (High
Low). However, all of these percentages can be adjusted to suit the applications needs, or input
in terms of absolute voltages.
With a firm understanding of the references, the meaning of the edge measurements becomes
clear. They are shown in Figure 3. The Rise Time (RTIMe) measures the relative time for the
leading edge of a pulse to rise from the REF LOW to the REF HIGH. The Fall Time (FTIMe)
measures the same thing on the falling edge. The Rise Crossing Time (RTCRoss) is the absolute
time when the waveform rises above the REF MID, measured from the start of the waveform. The
Fall Crossing Time (FTCRoss) measures the same thing on the falling edge. All four of these
measurements are edge selectable, meaning that the user can choose which number edge to
characterize within the capture window.
Figure 3: Edge Measurements

One possible problem when taking edge measurements are inaccurate crossings due to noise on
the vertical axis. Figure 4 shows a signal with and without vertical noise and how that could affect
a horizontal measurement. The noisy signal crosses the voltage thresholds at slightly different
points than the smooth signal, causing a shorter Rise Time Measurement. Another problem with
a noisy signal is the potential for false crossings. This occurs when noise causes a signal to dither
near the crossing points in several recorded crossings. Both of these problems can be avoided by
either oversampling and averaging or by using the Smooth function before taking the
measurement to reduce the noise. The
28
algorithms used on ZTEC oscilloscopes incorporate hysteresis at the crossings which helps avoid
detecting false crossings. This does result in a minimal detectable edge, however.
Figure 4: Noisy & Smooth Rise Times

Relative vs. Absolute Measurements
Much like the distinction made between absolute and relative voltage measurements made in the
vertical-axis section, there are absolute and relative time measurements as well. For example,
the Period of a waveform compares two points on the same waveform, so its often unnecessary
to relate this to a real-world or absolute time. Therefore, this is considered a relative time
measurement. An example where the absolute time would be important is measuring the Time of
Maximum (TMAX), which returns the timestamp of the first maximum voltage level in relation to
the start of the acquisition.
Frequency Domain Measurements
Frequency domain measurements involve translating a time-domain waveform with a fast Fourier
transform (FFT), and then measuring the noise and distortion characteristics in the frequency
domain. Frequency domain measurements provide magnitude and phase characteristics versus
frequency.
Frequency Resolution and Accuracy
Using the FFT to quickly transform a signal into its frequency components is powerful, because it
reveals signal characteristics that cant be seen in the time-domain. The FFT used within ZTEC
oscilloscopes returns complex IQ data which is then converted to magnitude and phase data.
Figure 1 shows the result of calculating the FFT of a signal and a few of the measurements.
29
Figure 1: Frequency Domain Measurements

ZTEC oscilloscopes provide four FFT windows that can be applied as well. Windows are used to
increase the spectral resolution in the frequency domain. The Rectangular Window provides the
best frequency and worst magnitude resolution. It is almost the same as no window. The
Blackman-Harris Window provides the best magnitude and worst frequency resolution. The
Hamming Window provides better frequency and worse magnitude resolution than the
Rectangular Window. It provides slightly better frequency resolution than the Hanning Window.
The Hanning Window provides better frequency and worse magnitude resolution than the
Rectangular Window.Like some of the vertical- and horizontal-axis measurements discussed
previously, the accuracy of the FFT can be improved by analyzing longer waveforms. Due to the
nature of the calculations, the resolution is limited to half of the resolution of the onboard
processor. In the case of the ZTEC ZT4611 oscilloscope, which uses a 64-bit processor, the
accuracy would be limited to 32 bits of resolution. The FFT algorithm is binary in nature, so for the
best performance it is wise to select a waveform size that is equal to 2N.
Frequency Domain Measurements
Once a signal has been converted to the frequency-domain, five valuable measurements can be
performed as explained in the following paragraphs. All of these measurements assume that the
input signal is a perfect single-frequency sine wave and that all other frequency components are
assumed to be harmonics or noise. All except the ENOB (bits) are expressed in decibels relative
to carrier (dBc). THD is the only negative value.
The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the RMS amplitude of the fundamental frequency
to the RMS amplitude of all non-harmonic noise sources. SNR does not include the first nine
harmonics as noise. In Figure 1, the SNR would be computed by dividing the magnitude of the
fundamental by the sum of the magnitudes of all of the other frequency components, excluding
the 2nd through the 10th harmonics. SNR is commonly used when only the narrow-band around
30
the fundamental frequency is of concern and the harmonics will not have an effect on the system
under test.
The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is the ratio of the RMS amplitude of the sum of the first nine
harmonics to the RMS amplitude of the fundamental. In Figure 1, this would be calculated by
summing the magnitudes of the 2nd through the 10th harmonics and then dividing that by the
fundamental magnitude. THD is a concern when using active components such as amplifiers and
mixers where the harmonics need to be minimized to reduce distortion.
The Spurious-Free Dynamic Range (SFDR) is the ratio of the RMS amplitude of the fundamental
to the RMS amplitude of the largest spurious signal. This spurious signal can be a harmonic or
noise frequency component. In Figure 1, the SFDR would be computed by dividing the magnitude
of the fundamental by the magnitude of the 2nd harmonic, since it is the largest spurious signal.
SFDR is used when there is a dominant spurious signal in relation to the other noise and
distortion components.The Signal-to-Noise and Distortion (SINAD) is the ratio of the RMS
amplitude of the fundamental to the RMS amplitude of the sum of all noise and distortion sources.
This is equivalent to the sum of the SNR and THD. In Figure 1, this would be calculated by
dividing the magnitude of the fundamental by the sum of the magnitudes of all of the other
frequency components, including harmonics and noise. SINAD is used in broad-band applications
where all harmonics and noise will affect the signal.The Effective Number of Bits (ENOB) is
another way of expressing SINAD. It provides a measure of the input signal dynamic range as if
the signal were converted using an ideal ADC. For instance, the ENOB of an 8-bit oscilloscope is
often somewhere in the 6-7 bit range due to the noise and distortion affecting the instrument. The
ENOB is calculated using the following equation:
High-Speed ADC Test Example

The specifications and test procedures of a high-speed Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs) are
generally expressed in the frequency domain. The frequency measurements on a ZTEC
oscilloscope can be used to mimic a more expensive spectrum analyzer to complete these tests.
One test that is often used is a two-tone or multi-tone distortion test. This is completed because
intermodulation distortion can occur when the ADC samples a signal composed of more than one
sine wave. Figure 2 shows the FFT of an acquired ADC data record undergoing a two-tone test.
Once the FFT is created, measurements such as THD and SINAD can be used to characterize
the performance of the ADC.
31
Figure 2: FFT of Two-Tone Distortion Test

This concludes "The Fundamentals of Oscilloscope Measurements". Hopefully, these articles
have provided our readers with a little deeper understanding of the waveform measurements
available from an oscilloscope. This understanding can help users leverage the power of
oscilloscopes more effectively and avoid potential pitfalls.
Observation table-
Procedure-
32
Step 1:
Connect the cable from the DAQ card to J3-1 on the rightmost
interface module. It should look like this:
Plug your BNC-banana adapter into the 6V supply terminals.

Step 2:
Note
There is a bump on one side of the adapter to denote which
prong is connected to ground. Be sure to plug this prong into
the black terminal of the power supply.
Step 3:
Step 4:
Using a BNC patch cable, connect the 6 V supply output to J13.

Strip both ends of a 16 cm length of wire and connect J1-3 to
A/D channel 0 as shown in the following diagram. The
numbers below the connector symbols (
) are the pin
numbers on the interface connector socket strip.
33
Note that, as with the function generator and oscilloscope, the

ground connection to the DAQ card is made automatically. We
will not show the DAQ card ground in subsequent drawings.
34
Step 5:
Load the "Basic ADC" program from the Start menu by

following the path: Programs -> ELEC 243 -> Basic ADC. It
should look like this:
Labview programs are called Virtual Instruments (or VIs for

short).
Step 6:
Start the instrument by selecting Run from the Operate menu,

or by pressing the run button (the small arrow just below the
menu bar), or by pressing CTRL-R on the keyboard with the
cursor over the panel.
Vary the power supply voltage and verify that the displayed
value changes. Measure the voltage with your Fluke DMM and
see how the values compare.
Step 7:
Move the BNC patch cable from the 6 V supply to the function
generator 50 Output. With a second BNC patch cable,
connect CH 1 of the oscilloscope to J1-1. Strip a short piece of
wire and connect the function generator output (on J1-3) to the
oscilloscope input (on J1-1).
Verify that you have the following circuit:
Step 8:
Step 9:
Using the oscilloscope, adjust the function generator to

produce a 5 V p-p, 0.5 Hz sine wave. An easy way to do this is
to first select the 1 kHz range, set the amplitude to 5 V p-p and
the frequency to 500 Hz, then switch to the 1 Hz range.
Observe the signal on the Basic ADC display.
35
Step 10:
Step 11:
Question 1:
Step 12:
Step 13:
Increase the frequency to 1 Hz. Note that due to the reduced

number of samples per cycle, the sinusoidal shape of the
waveform is less smoothly defined.
Increase the freqency to 10.00 Hz. Observe the resulting
display.
Explain why a 10 Hz sine wave, when sampled 10 times per
second, appears as a nearly constant (DC) value on the A/D
display. What would an 11 Hz sine wave look like under the
same conditions?
Increase the sample rate to 100 samples per second by
entering "100" into the Samples/Second field and pressing
the Enter key. Observe the resulting display.
Stop the Basic ADC program by pressing the
red STOPbutton.
Note
Strange things can happen if two VIs are running
simultaneously. Always make sure that all other VIs have
been stopped before starting a new one.
Result - Voltage and waveform measurements of signal is taken from CRO.

Precautions1. all connection should be made properly.
2. apparatus should be handle with care.
36
Experiment no 5
Objective Alignment of RF, VIDIF and SIF sections.

Apparatus required- trap circuits, oscillator circuits, tuner, AGC, CRO, balun
Theory Monochrome Receiver Alignment The exact procedure for aligning the tuner and IF stage is based
on their design and is perfected after a great deal of experimentation by the manufacturers of television
Receivers therefore, the alignment should be carried out strictly in accordance with the
procedure recommended in the literature of the receiver.
Alignment Sequence-It is a good practice to carry out receiver alignment in the following sequence:
1. Setting up of trap circuits at proper frequencies,
2. Alignment of IF stages,
3. Sound section alignment,
4. Tracking of RF and mixer stages,
5. Tracking of oscillator circuits to obtain best picture and sound output.
RF Tuner Alignment- the main requirements of tuner alignment are:
(1) Adjustment of tuned circuit at the antenna input terminals, RF amplifier output and
mixer output, to obtain a bandwidth of 7MHz.
(2) Setting of the local oscillator to correct frequency for each channel.The initial
precaution are the same as detailed for IF section alignment. In addition the
receiver, sweep and marker generators should placed on a metal plate acting as a
ground plane. The equipment and receiver should be properly bonded and grounded
to the metal plate.The circuit connections are shown in fig. The tuner should be left
to have its normal AGC bias and the total oscillators should not be disabled.
However, the horizontal sweep oscillator may be cut-off to avoid any undesired pick
up. The shield cover of the tuner must be left on because its capacitance has an
effect an all tuner adjustment. The alignment procedure is as under:
Connect the sweep and marker generator combination of the receiver input
terminals through a
balun or any matching termination.
Set the sweep and marker generator frequencies in accordance with the
channel setting on the tuner.
Adjust width control to obtain a sweep of about 10MHz.
Adjust sluge of the tuned circuit to obtain maximum gain and a symmetrical
response curve. The marker on either side will indicate the channel
bandwidth.
Proceed as above for the remaining channels and ensure that practically
same bandwidth and response curve is obtained on all the channels. Note that
for each channel it would be necessary to reset the sweep generator and
marker frequencies to new values.
37
DIAGRAM-
IF Section AlignmentThe primary purpose of IF amplifier is to obtain a response curve of proper shape, frequency
coverage and gain. C
orrect
alignment of the combined picture and sound IF
stages is necessary for a good picture and distortion free sound. There are
two method of alignment IF
stage:
(a) Marker generator and voltmeter method. For staggered-tuned IF stage of the receiver, the individual
stage are tuned at predetermined frequencies using a CW marker generator and VTVM. The
electronic voltmeter is connected at the output of video detector. After adjusting all the trap circuit for
minimum output and tuned band-pass circuit for maximum output, a sweep generator, a marker
generator and a scope is used to check the overall response curve.
(b) Sweep cum marker generator and scope method. One such method to inject the output of the
sweep cum marker generator into the input circuit of the last IF amplifier and observe the response
on a scope connected to the video detector output. The tuned circuit of the IF stage is adjusted for
proper and amplitude following the curve given in the service manual of the receiver.
Overall IF ResponseThe overall IF response includes if all the tuned circuit from the mixer output in
the tuner to the video detector.
Initial adjustment before proceeding to adjust double-tuned circuit of the IF sections make the
following connection and adjustment:
(1) Disable the horizontal scanning oscillator to prevent the appearance of any spikes on the response
curve. In the absence of any specific service instruction connect a dummy load across the horizontal
sweep amplifier B voltage from going too high.
(2) Disable AGC bias and instead connect the recommended fixed bias from a bias box or from the
sweep generator if available.
(3) Connect sweep cum marker generator output to the mixer input through an impedance matching
transformer.
38
(4) In case of the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier is low, take after one stage of video amplifier
through an isolating resister.
(5) Calibrate the graticule of the CRO screen by feeding a low frequency ac voltage of known
amplitude.
(6) Set the sweep-mode switch of the scope on external and connected 50volt sweep voltage from the
generator to the horizontal input of the terminal of the scope.
(7) Set the dial of the sweep generator at about 36 MHz and adjust sweep width control to get an
overall variation from 28 to 43 MHz.
(8) Disable tuner oscillator to prevent any interference with sweep and marker signal.
(9) Set the marker generator to deliver simultaneous at all the important frequencies along the
response curve.
(10) Switch on all equipment and receiver. Allow a small warm up time before proceeding to adjust
various tuned circuits
IF Alignment Procedure(1) Observe the pattern which appears on the scope screen and make horizontal gain control
adjustments if necessary to obtain a suitable spread of the pattern.
(2) To make sure that the IF stages are not being overloaded; vary step attenuator or the sweep
generator to see that the height of the curve varies with changes in the RF output voltage.
(3) Adjust phase control and polarity switch if necessary to obtain a single trace of desired polarity.
(4) Use the blanking control to get a reference line during retrace interval of the sweep.
(5) Adjust slugs of the various tuned circuits to obtain an overall response as given in the service
manual. In general the response should be almost flat between 34 to 38 MHz. use variable markers to
locate these frequencies. Retune trap circuit to get almost 50% amplitude at the picture carrier marker of
38.9MHz with reference to the maximum on the response curve.
While adjusting tuned transformers, their slugs may produce to resonant point. The adjustment
which is obtained with the core farther away from center of the coil is normally the correct position for
optimum band-width.
Result- study has completed.
Alignment Precaution-While the detailed alignment procedure may differ from receiver to receiver, it is
worthwhile to observe the following precaution before commencing alignment of any section of the
receiver:
(1) Shielded wire should be used for interconnecting sweep generator, receiver under alignment and
scope to avoid stray field pickup effect.
(2) All connecting leads and cable must be kept as small as possible to minimize high frequency signal
losses.
(3) It should be ensured that the load resistance across which the scope is connected has one end at
ground potential and is also strapped to the ground terminal of the scope
39
Experiment no 6
OBJECT: - Study of composite video signal.

THEORY : - Video signal vary between constant amplitude. That level of video signal
when picture detail is transmitted according to maximum whiteness is called as peak white level.
This level signal is fixed at maximum value of 10 to 12.5% whereas black level is fixed at 72%.
Synchronous pulses are added at 75% which is called as blanking level. The difference between
black level & blanking level is called as pedestal. In original these two levels are very close to
each other. Like this picture information at special time the relative brightness of picture get vary
according to composite video signal from 10 to 75%.Lowest 10% voltage range is not used for
noise reduction it is also known as white than whiter range. In this modulator without distortion
enough margin is provided for excessive bright spot.
DC COMPONENT LEVEL OF THE VIDEO SIGNAL:-The scene of video signal according.To the
average brightness there is one average value or dc component. In the absence of dc component
receiver does not follow the change in brightness. Like in black background the gray signal of
gray picture element have white area in which there is no change in signal.
PEDESTAL HEIGHT:- Pedestal height is the distance between the video signal of pedestal level
& dc level. It indicate the average brightness because average brightness measure the average
value of black level.
THE BLANKING PULSES:- The composite video signal contains blanking pulses to make (75
percent) the retrace lines invisible by raising the signal amplitude slightly above the black level
during the time the scanning circuits produce retraces. The composite video signal contains
horizontal and vertical blanking pulses to blank the corresponding retrace intervals. The repetition
rate of horizontal blanking pulses is therefore equal to the line scanning frequency of 15625 Hz.
Similarly the frequency of the vertical blanking pulses in equal to the field-scanning frequency of
50 Hz. It may be noted that through the level of the blanking pulses is distinctly above the picture
signal information, these are not used as sync pulses. The reason is that any occasional signal
corresponding to any extreme black portion in the picture may rise above the blanking level and
might conceivably interface with the synchronization of the scanning generators. Therefore, the
sync pulses, specially designed for triggering the sweep oscillators are placed in the upper 25
percent (75 percent to 100 percent of the carrier amplitude) of the video signal, and are
transmitted along with the picture signal.
SYNC PULSE AND VIDEO SIGNAL AMPLITUDE RATIO:- The overall arrangement of
combining the picture signal and sync pulses may be thought of as a kind of voltage division
multiplexing were above 65 per cent of the carrier amplitude is occupied by the video signal and
the upper 25 per cent by the sync pulses. The final radiated signal has a picture to sync signal
ratio (P/S) equal to 10/4. This ratio has been found most satisfactory because if the picture signal
amplitude is increase at the expense of sync pulses, then when the signal to noise ratio of the
received signal falls, a point is reached when the sync pulse amplitude becomes insufficient to
keep the picture locked even though the picture voltage is still of adequate amplitude to yield an
acceptable picture. On the other hand if sync pulse height is increased at the expense of the
picture detail, then under similar conditions the raster remains locked but the picture content is
too low an amplitude to setup a worthwhile picture. A ratio of P/S = 10/4, or thereabout, results in
a situation such that when the signal to noise ratio reaches a certain low level, the sync amplitude
becomes insufficient, i.e., the sync fails at the same time as the picture ceases to be of
entertainment value. This represents the most efficient use of the television system.
40
DIAGRAM OF COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL :-
RESULT:- Study of composite video signal is completed.
41
Experiment - 7
Objective - Colour TV adjustments, gray scale tracking, Colour killer, focus, chroma traps, sound
traps,saturation control, black level
Theory- Colour TV adjustments
Room lighting
Since most people turn down the lights to watch a movie, our recommendations are designed to
deliver a better DVD picture in rooms with controlled lighting. Unless you have a bigscreen projector or you're sitting at the minimum viewing distance, you shouldn't watch movies in
complete darkness--it can cause eyestrain. For bright plasmas and smaller direct-view sets, the
ideal setup is to place a dim light directly behind the TV and leave the rest of the room dark. Look
for special "daylight" bulbs that glow at 6,500 degrees Kelvin. You should also prevent any light in
the room from reflecting off the TV, as glare will hamper image fidelity. Watching at night is best,
but if you watch during the day, thick curtains will really improve the picture. Before you make any
of the adjustments detailed below, set room lighting as if you were about to watch a movie. For
viewing in brighter environments, we recommend you use one of the picture presets, such as
Standard, Sports, or Vivid, and reserve your custom settings for dark rooms.
Brightness
What it is: Also called black level, brightness actually adjusts how dark the black sections of the
picture appear.
What it does: Excessive brightness can result in a two-dimensional, washed-out look with
reduced color saturation. Images with brightness set too low lose detail in shadows, and
distinctions between dark areas disappear in pools of black.
How to set it: After connecting your DVD player using the highest-quality input available, insert a
DVD that has letterbox bars above and below the image, and find a scene that has a roughly
equal amount of light and dark material. Turn up the control all the way, then decrease until the
letterbox bars begin to appear black, as opposed to dark gray. If you notice a loss of shadow
detail--for example, when people's eyes disappear into the depths under their brows--then you've
set brightness too low. Some plasma, LCD, DLP, and LCoS TVs won't ever look black, so you'll
need a setup disc to properly configure their brightness
Contrast
What it is: Also called picture or white level, contrast controls the intensity of the white parts of
the image and determines the overall light output of the display.
What it does: Contrast is usually set extremely high by default because it makes images look
brighter in the store. High contrast can obscure details and distort lines in the image, cause
eyestrain in dim rooms, and shorten the lifespan of tubes and plasma elements. Setting contrast
too low robs the image of impact.
How to set it: Display a still image from DVD of a white object with some visible details--such as
someone wearing a white button-up shirt or a shot of a glacier from the Ice Age DVD. Adjust the
control up all the way, then reduce it until you can make out all the details in the white (such as
buttons on a shirt or cracks in the ice). In general, TVs look best when contrast is set between 30
percent and 50 percent
Color
What it is: Also called saturation, this control adjusts how intense the colors look.
42
What it does: When there's too much color, the set looks garish and unrealistic. It's most
noticeable with reds, which are often accentuated (pushed) by the TV's color decoder. On the
other hand, too little color diminishes the impact of the picture, making it look drab. Setting color
to zero results in a black-and-white image.
How to set it: If available, first set the color-temperature control to the warmest option as
described below. Then find an image of someone with light, delicate skin tones, preferably a
close-up of a face, on a DVD. Turn up the color control until it looks like the person has sunburn,
then reduce it until the skin looks natural, without too much red. If the rest of the colors look too
drab, you can increase color slightly at the expense of accurate skin tones.
Other controls
Tint: Unless you're using one of the DVDs mentioned in the Intermediate section to set it
properly, this control is best left at the midway point.
Sharpness: This adds artificial edges to objects, which sometimes helps with soft cable signals
but almost always mars the already sharp image from a DVD. Reduce it to zero unless you detect
visible softening along the edges of text; if you do, increase it until the edges appear sharp again.
Edge enhancement: Also called VSM or SVM for scan-velocity modulation, set this control to Off
if possible.
Color temperature: This important control affects the entire palette of colors. Select the Warm or
Low option, which should come closest to the NTSC standard of 6,500 degrees Kelvin.
Generally, the image looks best for DVD with picture "enhancements" such as autocolor,
autoflesh tone, autocontrast, noise reduction, and other proprietary processing modes turned off.
DVD image quality is good enough that these modes usually do more harm than good
gray scale tracking
Conventional image display apparatus, such as color televison receivers employing multibeam
cathode ray display devices, are provided with potentiometers for adjusting the biases and the
gains of video amplifiers driving electron gun cathodesproducing the electron beams. These
potentiometers are factory adjusted to present neutral gray images when a video signal
representing a gray image of any intensity is applied to the video amplifiers. The bias
adjustments, made while a video signalrepresenting a low intensity gray image is applied,
establish the output voltages of the video amplifiers at magnitudes which cause the production of
low magnitude electron beam currents having predefined ratios resulting in a low intensity gray
image. At other image intensities, the ratios of these beam currents must be maintained to
achieve gray scale tracking. The gain adjustments, made while a video signal representing a
higher intensity gray image is applied, set the gains of the amplifiers tocompensate for differences
in the transconductances of the respective cathodes driven thereby and establish individual
transfer functions such that the predefined ratios of the beam currents are maintained at all
intensities.Adjusting the biases and gains of the video amplifiers, as described above,
accomplishes more than the production of neutral gray images. It also causes the beam currents
to be maintained at predefined magnitudes for any given hue, saturationlevel and intensity
represented by a video signal applied to the video amplifiers. Maintaining gray scale tracking is
essential for the accurate representation of color images.Although control of the biases and gains
of the video amplifiers is an effective manner of achieving and maintaining gray scale tracking,
control by manual adjustment of potentiometers suffers a major disadvantage--lack of
permanency. Theelectrical characteristics of the cathode ray devices drift with age, change with
cathode temperature and are susceptible to changes caused by mechanical shock. Also, the
output voltages of the video amplifiers vary with temperature and the supplyvoltage. Thus,
43
continual bias and gain readjustment is necessary if degradation of color quality is to be

avoided.Continual bias and gain readjustment is also necessary in single beam image display
apparatus such as monochromatic television receivers. Here readjustment is necessary to
maintain initially established relationships between video signalmagnitude and image
intensity.Circuitry is known for automatically adjusting beam current in a CRT and thus eliminating
the need for manual adjustments. The known circuitry works upon the premise that the beam
current produced by each cathode in the CRT is equal to thecathode current itself. This is not
realistic because it fails to account for leakage current which often exists in CRTs. The magnitude
of this leakage current, which varies with the temperatures and voltages of the CRT device
elements between which itflows (typically, the cathode, the heater filament and a control
electrode adjacent to the cathode), can be substantial with respect to the beam current, even for
high magnitude beam currents. The error in ignoring leakage current becomes most apparentat
low beam currents, however, because the leakage component of the cathode current increases
as the beam current is decreased. At the lowest beam currents the leakage current component
can become orders of magnitude larger than the beam current component. This large error at low
beam currents is particularly objectionable in the display of color images because the eye is most
sensitive to color abnormalities at low image intensities. It is also objectionable in the display of
monochromaticimages because the eye is most sensitive to intensity abnormalities at the dark
level. Thus, beam current control circuitry which does not take such leakage current into account
cannot adequately maintain gray scale tracking.
Colour killer
The color killer is a stage in color TV receiver sets which acts like a mute circuit to cut off the
color amplifiers when the signal received is in black and white (i.e., monochrome) the color tv
signal In color TV waveform a reference pulse, named burst is transmitted in the back porch of
the line. (Burst is actually a 10 period color carrier signal.) If the transmitted signal is
monochromatic, then the burst is not transmitted. The color killer is actually a muting circuit in the
chroma section which supervises the signal and turns off the color amplifiers when the signal is
received in monochrome.
Focus
In geometrical optics, a focus, also called an image point, is the point where light raysoriginating
from a point on the object converge.
[1]
Although the focus is conceptually a point, physically the
focus has a spatial extent, called the blur circle. This non-ideal focusing may be caused
by aberrations of the imaging optics. In the absence of significant aberrations, the smallest
possible blur circle is the Airy disc, which is caused by diffraction from the optical
system'saperture. Aberrations tend to get worse as the aperture diameter increases, while the
Airy circle is smallest for large apertures.
An image, or image point or region, is in focus if light from object points is converged almost as
much as possible in the image, and out of focus if light is not well converged. The border between
these is sometimes defined using a circle of confusion criterion.
A principal focus or focal point is a special focus:
44
For a lens, or a spherical or parabolic mirror, it is a point onto which collimated
light parallel to the axis is focused. Since light can pass through a lens in either direction, a lens
has two focal pointsone on each side. The distance in air from the lens or mirror's principal
plane to the focus is called the focal length.
Elliptical mirrors have two focal points: light that passes through one of these before
striking the mirror is reflected such that it passes through the other.
The focus of a hyperbolic mirror is either of two points which have the property that light
from one is reflected as if it came from the other

chroma traps
In a NTSC or PAL video signal, the luma (black and white) and the chroma (color) information are
combined together. If you want to decode the video signal, the luma and chroma must be
separated. The chroma trap is one method for separating the chroma from the luma, leaving the
luma relatively intact. How does it work? The NTSC or PAL signal is fed to a trap filter. For all
practical purposes, a trap filter allows certain frequencies to pass through, but not others. The
trap filter is designed with a response to remove the chroma so that the output of the filter only
contains the luma. Since this trap stops chroma, it's called a chroma trap. The sad part about all
of this is that not only does the filter remove chroma, it removes luma as well if it exists within the
frequencies where the trap exists. The filter only knows ranges and, depending on the image, the
luma information may overlap the chroma information. The filter can't tell the difference between
the luma and chroma, so it traps both when they are in the same range. What's the big deal?
Well, you lose luma and this means that the picture is degraded somewhat. Using a comb
filter for a Y/C separator is better than a chroma trap or chroma bandpass
sound trap
A sound trap is a special acoustical treatment of Heating Ventilating and Air-Conditioning
(HVAC) ductwork designed to reduce transmission ofnoise through the ductwork, either from
equipment into occupied spaces in a building, or between occupied spaces.In its simplest form, a
sound trap consists of an offset in the ductwork to reflect the sound back to its source. This
configuration is often combined with the use of sound-absorbing material inside the trap. The
physical dimensions of the sound trap may be selected to tune the trap to specific frequencies of
sound. As such, it is then essentially a Helmholtz resonator used as a passive noise-control
device.
saturation control
45
the reproduced image; and (8) a saturation (or colour) control, which adjusts the magnitudes of
the colour-difference signals applied to the electron guns of the picture tube. If the saturation
control is turned to the off position, no colour difference action will occur and the reproduction
will appear in black and white.
Black level
black level is defined as the level of brightness at the darkest (black) part of a visual image or the
level of brightness at which no light is emitted from a screen, resulting in a pure black screen.
Video displays generally need to be calibrated so that the displayed black is true to the black
information in the video signal. If the black level is not correctly adjusted, visual information in a
video signal could be displayed as black, or black information could be displayed as above black
information (gray).The voltage of the black level varies across different television
standards. PAL sets the black level the same as the blanking level, whilstNTSC sets the black
level approximately 54 mv above the blanking level.User misadjustment of black level on
monitors is common. It results in darker colours having their hue changed, it affects contrast, and
in many cases causes some of the image detail to be lost.Black level is set by displaying a
testcard image and adjusting display controls. With CRT displays:
'brightness' adjusts black level
'contrast' adjusts white level
CRTs tend to have some interdependence of controls, so a control sometimes need
adjustment more than once.

In Digital video black level usually means the range of RGB values in video signal, which can be
either [0..255] (typical of a computer output) or [16..235] (standard for video)
Result- study of all terms in the objective are completed.
46
Experiment no 8
Aim : Familiarization with specification, operation and use of TV set equipment, DVM, TVM
Monochrome & Colour pattern generators, sweep generator, X-Y display wobbuloscope etc
Operettas Required :Pattern generator, T.V. Receiver, connecting wires. Wobbuloscope, Balun,
Theory :
A pattern generator produces audio / video signals, direct and with the RF modulation, on
theallocated T.V. Channel frequencies for alignment, testing and servicing of T.V. receivers. The
outputsignals is designed to simple patterns.
1. Chess board pattern
2. Horizontal bars
3. Vertical bars
4. Chess board patter at one corner
5. Cross hatched
6. Dot pattern
7. Pure white pattern
Block Diagram :
The block diagram of the pattern generator given below.The pattern generator contains two
stable chains of multi vibrators, dividers and pulse shaping circuits, one below the line frequency
to produce a series of horizontal bars and the other above 15,625 Hz to produce vertical bars.
The signals are modified into short duration pulses which fed to
the video section of the receiver along with the sync pulses train to produce fine lines on the
screen. Output from the multi vibrator produces square wave video signal at m times the
horizontal frequency to provide vertical block and white bars. After every m cycles the
horizontal blanking pulse triggers the multi vibrator for synchronizing the bar signal on each line.
We can vary the number of bars by the front panels of pattern generator by changing its
frequency. In the same way, square wave pulses derived either from 50Hz mains or from the
master oscillator are used to trigger another set of multi vibrators to generate square wave video
signal that is n times the vertical frequency. When these are fed to the video amplifier they
produce horizontal black and white bars. The switching rate of the multi vibrator can be
controlled by a potentio meter i.e., onthe front panel. It control the number of black and white
horizontal bars. The sync and blanking pulses are added to these signals prior to modulation. A
master oscillator is used to generate blanking and gating pulses and generation. The composite
sync. Signal is given to the pattern vedio signal and sync adder. The output of the vertical
andhorizontal bar generators goes to cross hatch and chequer board pattern generator. The
pattern vedio signal is given to the adder. From this adder the signal goes to the VHF modulator.
STUDY OF PATTERN GENERATOR AND ITS USE
Amplitude modulation takes place over the carrier frequency output is available in high or low
level from the output sockets. The master oscillator, sync, generator and blanking generator
supply the blanking pulses getting pulses to the multi vibrators that generator the vertical and
horizontal bar signals. A. 1 KHz audio oscillator generate a signal which is frequency modulated
over a carrier of 5.5 MHz. This serves the purpose of the frequency modulated audio signal for
the testing of the audio sections. Its output is available over a separate socket marked as audio /
sound signal. The combination of switches mH and nV, the multi vibrator generate different
pattern.
Switch mH Switch nV Output pattern
OFF OFF Pure white raster
47
OFF ON Horizontal bars

ON OFF Vertical bars
ON ON Cross hatch
The horizontal bar pattern is used for checking vertical linearity. The vertical bar pattern is used
for check horizontal linearity.
PATTERN GENERATOR
The cross hatch pattern is used for both linearity picture centering and aspect ratio. The
dotpattern is suitable for checking and adjusting the static convergence of the picture in the
centre of thescreen with a low ambient brightness. The white pattern, with no information is
suitable for checking uniformity of brightness over the entire screen in the absence of hum.
Colour picture patterns are suitable for checking colour purity, proper colour reproduction and
over all performance of the receiver. The test signals available with patterns generator are (1) RF
signals (2) IF signals (3) Vedio signals.
Controls and specifications of pattern generator :
Controls :
1. Line frequency
2. Video (amplitude) output
3. Power ON/OFF switch
4. FM socket
5. RF socket
6. Controls to change vertical and horizontal bars.
7. Pattern selector switch.
FRONT PANEL CONTROLS OF PATTERN GENERATOR
48
Specifications:
Power: 230V/50Hz- 6W
FM Carrier: 5.5 MHz
Internal signal: 1KHz sine wave
Test signals: Vertical bars
Horizontal bars
Cross hatch
Chequer board
Circle - white
Circle on black back - ground
RF output: 100mV peak to peak
Applications:
1. Checking line and frame time bar linearity
2. Checking picture height and width
3. Video IF checking
4. Adjustments of sound IF stage and checking
5. AGC section checking
6. Trouble shooting video amplifier and using variable video output.
Procedure:
Connect the pattern generator to the T.V. receiver. Switch on the pattern generator. Set the T.V.
Receiver to the desired channel using band selector switches and channel selector switch\
Band I - 2 to 4 channels
Band III - 5 to 12 channels
Observe the seven patterns on T.V. receiver and make necessary adjustments in T.V. receiver.
Result:
The pattern generator is studied 7 patterns; video/audio patterns are observed and drawn.
WOBBULOSCOPE
.Theory:
A wobbuloscope consists of a sweep generator, CRO and a marker generator, which can be
tuned to frequencies corresponding to the vision carrier, associate of sound signal as well as the
IF of the T.V. receiver
Alignment of a T.V. Receiver using wobbuloscope :
49
Using Wobbuloscope can test the tuner response, vedio I-F response, vedio response, sound
IFresponse and over all frequency response using the following block diagram. The response of a
amplifieror particular section visible on the screen of the CRO.
Two frequencies are generated from the sweep generator. One is at low frequency
generally below 100 Hz called wobbulator frequency and another is corresponding to produce
centre frequency is produce to IF frequency of the T.V. receiver 33.4 MHz, 38.9 MHz
respectively. The output signal from wobbuloscope given to the x-input of the CRO directly and
another signal is given to balun (75:300) for impedance matching to the sections of the tuner of
the receiver Y plates input to the CRO. The response curve is displayed on the CRO. The
connections are made as per the block diagram.
Sweep Generator
75:300 Tuner
X. Amplifier plates
X. Input CRO
Y. Amplifier plates
Y. Input CRO
Balun
X
Y
6
Controls :
1. Sweep frequency fine control
2. Sweep frequency course range control
3. ON/OFF switch
4. Marker frequency course range control
5. Marker frequency fine control
6. Sweep width control
7. Sweep width attenuator control
8. Rotating dial for marker frequency.
50
9. Y shift, X shift, Focus, Illumination, Time/Division Amplitude / Division of CRO controls.

10. RF output socket
11. Marker output terminals
Specifications :
1. Power supply : 230V/50Hz
2. Sweep width : 5MHz - 40 MHz
3. Sweep frequency : 5MHz - 400 MHz
4. Band width of oscilloscope : 20Hz - 1MHz
5. Frequency of the time base
generator of CRO : 20Hz to 50 KHz
6. RF output voltages : 0.25V - 0.5V (rms).
Results :
Marker frequency
(i) AM - IF marker for Radio 455KHz
(ii) FM - IF - 10.7 MHz
(iii) Inter carrier frequency between SIF to VIF is 5.5 MHz
(iv) VIF - 38.9 MHz
SIF - 33.4 MHz and various controls of wobbuloscope is studied
51
Experiment no 9
Objective - Test TV antenna and booster.
Apparatus required- Booster amplifier, antenna
Theory Television antenna
HD- 68 element VHF/UHF aerial antenna

A television antenna, or TV aerial, is an antenna specifically designed for the reception of over
the air broadcast television signals, which are transmitted at frequencies from about 41 to
250 MHz in the VHF band, and 470 to 960 MHz in the UHF band in different countries. To cover
this range antennas generally consist of multiple conductors of different lengths which correspond
to the wavelength range the antenna is intended to receive. The length of the elements of a TV
antenna are usually half the wavelength of the signal they are intended to receive. The
wavelength of a signal equals the speed of light (c) divided by the frequency. The design of a
television broadcast receiving antenna is the same for the older analog transmissions and the
digital television transmissions which are replacing them Sellers often claim to supply a special
"digital" or "high definition" antenna advised as a replacement for an existing analog antenna,
[1][2]
even if satisfactory: this is misinformation to generate sales of unneeded equipment.
Simple/indoor
"rabbit ears" set-top antenna of older model
52
Simple half-wave dipole VHF antennas or UHF loop antennas that are made to be placed indoors
are often used for television (and VHF radio); these are often called "rabbit ears" or "bunny
aerials". because of their appearance. The length of the telescopic "ears" can be adjusted by the
user, and should be about one half of the wavelength of the signal for the desired channel. These
are not as efficient as an aerial rooftop antenna since they are less directional and not always
adjusted to the proper length for the desired channel. Dipole antennas are bi-directional, that is,
they receive evenly forward and backwards, and also cover a broader band than antennas with
more elements. This makes them less efficient than antennas designed to maximise the signal
from a narrower angle in one direction. Coupled with the poor placing, indoors and closer to the
ground, they are much worse than multi-element rooftop antennas at receiving signals which are
not very strong, although often adequate for nearby transmitters, in which case they may be
adequate and cheap. These simple antennas are called set-top antennas because they are often
placed on top of the television set or receiver.The actual length of the ears is optimally about 91%
[3]
of half the wavelength of the desired channel in free space. Quarter-wave television antennas
are also used. These use a single element, and use the earth as a ground plane; therefore, no
ground is required in the feed line. See also: Dipole antenna#Quarter-wave antenna
Outdoor
Yagi antenna
An aerial or rooftop antenna generally consists of multiple conductive elements that are arranged
such that it is a directional antenna. The length of the elements is about one half of the signal
wavelength. Therefore, the length of each element corresponds to a certain frequency.In a
combined VHF/UHF antenna the longer elements (for picking up VHF frequencies) are at the
"back" of the antenna, relative to the device's directionality, and the much shorter UHF elements
[citation needed]
are in the "front"
, and the antenna works best when "pointing" to the source of the
signal to be received. The smallest elements in this design, located in the "front", are UHF
director elements, which are usually identical and give the antenna its directionality, as well as
improving gain. The longest elements, located in the "back" of the antenna form a VHF phased
array. Other long elements may be UHF reflectors Another common aerial antenna element is the
corner reflector, a type of UHF reflector which increases gain and directionality for UHF
frequencies.
An antenna can have a smaller or larger number of directors; the more directors it has (requiring
a longer boom), and the more accurate their tuning, the higher its gain will be. For the commonly
used Yagi antenna this is not a linear relationship. Antenna gain is the ratio of the signal received
from the preferred direction to the signal from an ideal omnidirectional antenna. Gain is inversely
proportional to the antenna's acceptance angle. The thickness of the rods on a Yagi antenna and
its bandwidth are inversely proportional; thicker rods provide a wider band. Thinner rods are
preferable to provide a narrower band, hence higher gain in the preferred direction; however, they
must be thick enough to withstand wind.Two or more directional rooftop antennas can be set up
53
and connected to one receiver. Antennas designed for rooftop use are sometimes located in
attics.Sometimes television transmitters are organised such that all receivers in a given location
need receive transmissions in only a relatively narrow band of the full UHF television spectrum
and from the same direction, so that a single antenna provides reception from all stations.
Types of outdoor antenna
A UHF television antenna
An antenna pole setup in a chimney, reaching 35 feet (10.7 meters) off the ground Small multidirectional: The smallest of all outdoor television antennas. They are designed to receive equal
amounts of signal from all directions. These generally receive signals up to a maximum of thirty
miles away from the transmitting station, greatly depending on the type. But, things such as large
buildings or thick woods may greatly affect signal. They come in many different styles, ranging
from small dishes to small metal bars, some can even mount on existing satellite dishes.Medium
multi-directional: A step up from the small multi-directional, these also receive signals from all
directions. These usually require an amplifier in situations when long cable lengths are between
the television receiver and the antenna. Styles are generally similar to small multi-directionals, but
slightly larger.Large multi-directional: These are the largest of all multi-directional outdoor
television antennas. Styles include large "nets" or dishes, but can also greatly vary. Depending on
the type, signal reception usually ranges from 30 to up to 70 miles.Small directional: The smallest
of all directional antennas, these antennas are multi-element antennas, typically placed on
rooftops. This style of antenna receives signals generally equal to that of large multi-directionals.
One advantage that small directionals hold, however, is that they can significantly reduce
"ghosting" effects of television picture.Medium directional: These antennas are the ones most
often seen on suburban rooftops. Usually consisting of many elements, and slightly larger than
the small directionals, these antennas are ideal for receiving television signals in suburban areas.
Signal usually ranges from 30 to 60 miles away from the broadcasting station.Large directional:
The largest of all common outdoor television antennas, these antennas are designed to receive
the weakest available stations in an area. Largerthan the medium directional, this type of antenna
consists of many elements and is usually used in rural areas, where reception is difficult. When
used in conjunction with an amplifier, these antennas can usually pick up stations from 60 up to
and over 100 miles, depending on the type.The use of outdoor antennas with an amplifier can
54
improve signal on low signal strength channels. If the signal quality is low repositioning the
antenna onto a high mast will improve signalInstallation
A short antenna pole next to a house; this setup would only work well for receiving signals on that
side of the house as they would not go through stone, especially
Multiple Yagi TV aerials

Antennas are commonly placed on rooftops, and sometimes in attics. Placing an antenna indoors
[7] [8]
significantly attenuates the signal available to it.
Directional antennas must be pointed at the
transmitter they are receiving; in most cases great accuracy is not needed. In a given region it is
sometimes arranged that all television transmitters are located in roughly the same direction and
use frequencies space closely enough that a single antenna suffices for all. A single transmitter
location may transmit signals for several channelsAnalog television signals are susceptible to
ghosting in the image, multiple closely-spaced images giving the impression of blurred and
repeated images of edges in the picture. This was due to the signal being reflected from nearby
objects (buildings, tree, and mountains); several copies of the signal, of different strengths and
subject to different delays, are picked up. This was different for different transmissions. Careful
positioning of the antenna could produce a compromise position which minimized the ghosts on
different channels. Ghosting is also possible if multiple antennas connected to the same receiver
pick up the same station, especially if the lengths of the cables connecting them to the
55
splitter/merger were different lengths or the antennas were too close together. Analog television
is being replaced by digital, which is not subject to ghosting.
Rooftop and other outdoor antennas
Aerials are attached to roofs in various ways, usually on a pole to elevate it above the roof. This is
generally sufficient in most areas. In some places; however, such as a deep valley or near taller
structures, the antenna may need to be placed significantly higher, using a lattice tower or
mast.The higher the antenna is placed, the better it will perform. An antenna of higher gain will be
able to receive weaker signals from its preferred direction. Intervening buildings, topographical
features (mountains), and dense forest will weaken the signal; in many cases the signal will be
reflected such that a usable signal is still available. There are physical dangers inherent to high or
complex antennas, such as the structure falling or being destroyed by the weather. There are
also varying local ordinances which restrict and limit such things as the height of a structure
without obtaining permits. For example, in the USA, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 allows
any homeowner to install "An antenna that is designed to receive local television broadcast
signals", but that "masts higher than 12 feet above the roof-line may be subject to local permitting
requirements." [11]
Indoor antennas
As discussed previously, antennas may be placed indoors where signals are strong enough to
overcome antenna shortcomings. The antenna is simply plugged into the television receiver and
placed conveniently, often on the top of the receiver ("set-top"). Sometimes the position needs to
be experimented with to get the best picture. Indoor antennas can also benefit from RF
amplification, commonly called a TV booster. Indoor antennas will never be an option in weak
signal areas.
Attic installation
Sometimes it is desired not to put an antenna on the roof; in these cases, antennas designed for
outdoor use are often mounted in the attic or loft, although antennas designed for attic use are
also available. Putting an antenna indoors significantly decreases its performance due to lower
elevation above ground level and intervening walls; however, in strong signal areas reception
may be satisfactory. One layer of asphalt shingles, roof felt, and a plywood roof deck are
considered to attenuate the signal to about half.
Multiple antennas, rotators
Two aerials setup on a roof. Spaced horizontally and vertically
56
It is sometimes desired to receive signals from transmitters which are not in the same direction.
This can be achieved, for one station at a time, by using a rotator operated by an electric motor to
turn the antenna as desired. Alternatively, two or more antennas, each pointing at a desired
transmitter and coupled by appropriate circuitry, can be used. To prevent the antennas interfering
with each other, the vertical spacing between the booms must be at least half the wavelength of
the lowest frequency to be received (Distance=/2). The wavelength of 54 MHz (Channel 2) is 5.5
meters ( x f = c) so the antennas must be a minimum of 2.25 meters, or ~89 inches apart. It is
also important that the cables connecting the antennas to the signal splitter/merger be exactly the
same length, to prevent phasing issues,which cause ghosting with analog reception. That is, the
antennas might both pick up the same station; the signal from the one with the shorter cable will
reach the receiver slightly sooner, supplying the receiver with two pictures slightly offset. There
may be phasing issues even with the same length of down-lead cable. Bandpass filters or "signal
traps" may help to reduce this problemFor side-by-side placement of multiple antennas, as is
common in a space of limited height such as an attic, they should beseparated by at least one full
wavelength of the lowest frequency to be received at their closest point.Often when multiple
antennas are used, one is for a range of co-located stations and the other is for a single
transmitter in a different direction.
How Television Broadcasting Works
While millions of people watch television each day, many of us aren't quite sure how the
technology works. Television has been around for many decades and although some of the
technology components have changed over the years, the way in which television broadcasts
work is still pretty much the same.
Elements of Broadcast Television
There are a several major parts that are required in order to receive television broadcasts at
home. They include an image source, a sound source, a transmitter, a receiver, a display device
and a sound device.
Image Source
The image source can be defined as the program. It can be a movie, TV show, news program,
etc. The image source is just the video of the source and does not include the sound. Usually the
image source has been recorded on camera or flying spot scanner
Sound Source
We already have the image source, let's say
the video of a movie, now to complete the
media, we also need the sound. The sound
source is the audio signal of the TV
programming whether coming from a movie,
TV show, news program, etc. It can come in
57
the form of mono, stereo or even digitally processed surround sound.

Transmitter
A transmitter is what sends both audio and video signals over the air waves. Transmitters usually
transmit more than one signal (TV channel) at a time. A transmitter modulates both picture and
sound into one signal and then send this transmission over a wide range to be received by a
receiver (TV set).
Receiver
A receiver (TV set) is able to receive the transmitted signals (TV programs) and turn radio waves
which include audio and video signals into useful signals that can be processed back into an
image and sound.
Display Device
This is either a TV set or monitor. A display device has the technology to turn the electrical
signals received into visible light. On a standard TV set this includes the technology CRT
(Cathode Ray Tube).
Sound Device
The sound device are usually speakers either built into the TV set or that accompany the TV set
that turns electrical signals into sound waves to play audio along with the video images that the
person is viewing.
Broadcast Television Signals - Broadcast Television Signals are video and sound signals that
are transmitted over the air. They are usually free to be picked up by anyone using a television
set that has a receiver and an antenna. Antennas are used to grab as much signal as possible
and to sometimes amplify the signal.All TV sets include the ability to switch the receiver's tuner to
pick up specific channels of programming. Each channel is transmitted on its own frequency
which can be tuned in and received by your TV set.
Broadcast TV vs. Satellite TV and Cable TV
There are three main ways to receive TV programming, one is through broadcast television, and
the other two are through satellite TV and cable TV.
Broadcast TV
Broadcast TV are audio and video signals transmitted over the air waves from a ground based
transmitter. These signals are usually free to pick up and are on specific frequency spectrums.
Satellite TV
Satellite TV is usually a digital TV signal broadcasted from a satellite flying in space, orbiting the
earth. They are usually pay services that require special equipment to receive programming and
operate on special frequencies.
Cable TV
58
Cable TV are pay TV services that send out signals not over the air, but through cable that runs
from the cable company to the viewers home. There are many types of cables used from copper
cable to fiber optic cable. The signal can be analog or digital.
Television Transmission Bands
Television is transmitted on various bands or frequencies. Transmission bands vary by country. In
America, the bands III to V are used, they include VHF and UHF signals.
Band I
It is important to note that lower band signals such as bands I do not have enough bandwidth
which means they can't carry lots of information or data..
Band II
Band II in America is what carries FM radio. While this band is able to carry an audio signal,
adding video to the signal would overcrowd it and it would be inferior to the signal that you
receive today.
Bands III , IV and V
A Normal TV signal is located on either Band III, IV or V. Usually these bands require bandwidth
to carry both audio and video signals. Most TV signals have about 4MHz of bandwidth for the
video portion, when you add on the sound portion of the signal the signal will have a total of about
6 MHz. The FCC has allocated each TV channel to a bandwidth of 6 MHz. Channels are as
followed
Band III Channels 2 to 6 (54 to 88 MHz)

Band IV Channels 7 to 13 (174-216 MHz)
Band V Channels 14 to 83 (470 to 890 MHz)
VHF and UHF

VHF (very high frequencies) are usually channels that include channels 2 to 13. UHF (ultra high
frequencies) are channels that usually include channels 14 to 83.Both VHF and UHF are great
frequencies for carrying TV signals (both audio and video signals). They have a long range and
can penetrate structures such as walls.
Higher Bands
These bands are much higher in frequency and behave like light waves instead of radio waves.
They are usually obstructed by structures and need a clear line of sight. Many satellite signals
can use these frequencies, but do require special equipment.
NTSC
All standard television signals that are transmitted in the United States follow NTSC regulations.
NTSC (National Television Standards Committee) states that the video signal must have a video
line resolution of 525 lines with a 3.58 MHz chroma carrier (color TV signal) and must cycle at 60
59
cycles per second. It also states that frames are to be displayed at 30 frames per second. NTSC
standard makes it easy for all TV sets to pick up the same signals transmitted by broadcast
companies. It is important to note that this standard is for analog television only.
Testing of TV antenna and booster
Procedure to testing of anteena
1 Locate the dipole away from the television and as close as you can to a window. In all
likelihood, the cable will be too short and you will need to extend it. The extension is needed to
reduce any electrical interference from the television, which would ruin this test.
2 Ensure the television antenna selector is set to "Off-air", which should be an option in the setup
menu.
3 Position the dipole in a "V" shape and initially extend the telescopes fully. The "V" shape is best
for channels 7 to 13. Run the channel scan on the television.
4 Allow the scan to complete and verify the results by surfing the channels. See what you
captured. If your preference is for channels 2 to 6, the optimum position is to have the dipoles
horizontal and shortened. In both positions, some channels you like may not be receivable with
this solution.
Procedure to make TV antenna booster
1 Draw a circle on a piece of cardboard, then draw a pair of semi-circular projections on either
side of the circle, just above and below the midpoint of the circle. These should not be very large
in relation to the circle.
2 Cut another piece of cardboard into a rectangle that's a little longer than the diameter of the
circle. The width of this piece will be a bit less than that of the circle, but should extend noticeably
beyond the projections at either end of the circle. You're essentially making a reflector, so think of
that when you consider the size in relation to your wireless TV antenna.
3 Cover one side of each piece of cardboard with aluminum foil.
4 Fold the long piece of cardboard around the circular piece, and fold the circle in half. Use the
projections on the circular piece like tabs so that they fit through slots that you cut in the
rectangular piece. The whole thing should look sort of like a semicircle when you are finished.
5 Fold the outside edge of the circle up to form a lip that runs the length of the piece. The foilcovered circle will be suspended in the other piece.
6 Cut a small hole for the antenna in the middle of what used to be the circle--which now looks
like a semicircle.
7 Attach your TV antenna booster over the existing antenna on your wireless TV antenna.
Precautions (Safety)
TV antennas are large conductors of electricity and attract lightning, acting as a lightning rod. The
use of a lightning arrestor is usual to protect against this. A large grounding rod connected to both
the antenna and the mast or pole is required. Properly installed masts, especially tall ones, are
guyed with galvanized cable; no insulators are needed. They are designed to withstand worstcase weather conditions in the area, and positioned so that they do not interfere with power lines
if they fall.
60
Experiment-10
Objective- Troubleshoot VCRs for simple faults

Equipment required : A B/W T.V receiver, Multimeter tool kit box, soldering iron, paste and lead
, Colour T.V. Trainer Kit, Multi meter tool Kits.
Theory :
There are no thumb rules or cut and dry methods for the repairing of T.V. receivers except a
through knowledge of the functions of the various stages and a careful observations of the
indications provided by the picture tube screen and the loud speaker. However certain trouble
shooting charts or tables based on major fault indications provided by the raster, picture and
sound together with suspected stages and the likely defects sometimes prove helpful in quick
location of the faulty stage or component as follows-
61
62
Faults in receiver-
Result :
In all stages various problems are studied with rectification measures
63
Experiment - 11
Objective- Study of multimedia and animation
Theory Multimedia is media and content that uses a combination of different content forms. The term
can be used as a noun (a medium with multiple content forms) or as an adjective describing a
medium as having multiple content forms. The term is used in contrast to media which only use
traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material. Multimedia includes a combination
of text, audio, still images,animation, video, and interactivity content forms.
Multimedia is usually recorded and played, displayed or accessed by information
content processing devices, such as computerized and electronic devices, but can also be part of
a live performance. Multimedia (as an adjective) also describes electronic media devices used to
store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in fine
art; by including audio, for example, it has a broader scope. The term "rich media" is synonymous
for interactive multimedia. Hypermedia can be
considered one particular multimedia application.
Examples of individual content forms
Categorization of multimedia
combined in multimedia:
Multimedia may be broadly divided

into linear and non-linear categories. Linear active
content progresses without any navigational control
for the viewer such as a cinema presentation. Non-
Text
Audio
Still Images
Animation
Video
Footage
Interactivity
linear content offers user interactivity to control

progress as used with a computer game or used in
self-paced computer based training. Hypermedia is
an example of non-linear
content.Multimedia presentations can be live or
recorded. A recorded presentation may allow
interactivity via a navigation system. A live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via an
interaction with the presenter or performer.
Major characteristics of multimedia
Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected, transmitted, or played
locally with a media player. A broadcastmay be a live or recorded multimedia presentation.
Broadcasts and recordings can be either analog or digital electronic media technology.
64
Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed. Streaming multimedia may be live or
on-demand.
Multimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects,
with multiple users in an onlinenetwork, or locally with an offline computer, game system,
or simulator.
The various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users'
experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey information. Or in entertainment or
art, to transcend everyday experience.
A laser show is a live multimedia performance.

Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content.
Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications
with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time.
Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with
both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficients, events,
illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia "experience" to be
altered without reprogramming. In addition to seeing and hearing, Haptic technology enables
virtual objects to be felt. Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also
enhance the multimedia experience.
Usage
65
A presentation using Powerpoint. Corporate presentations may combine all forms of media
content.
Virtual reality uses multimedia content. Applications and delivery platforms of multimedia are
virtually limitless.
VVO Multimedia-Terminal in Dresden WTC (Germany)

Multimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited
to, advertisements,art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business,
scientific research and spatial temporal applications. Several examples are as follows:
66
Creative industries
Creative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging from fine arts, to
entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any
of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum
throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical, to creative.
Commercial
Much of the electronic old and new media used by commercial artists is multimedia. Exciting
presentations are used to grab and keep attention in advertising. Business to business, and
interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced
multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven-up training.
Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental
services andnonprofit services applications as well.
Entertainment and fine arts
In addition, multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to developspecial
effects in movies and animations. Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software
programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Some video games also use multimedia
features. Multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by
as passive recipients of information are called Interactive Multimedia. In the Artsthere
are multimedia artists,
whose minds are able to blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporates
interaction with the viewer. One of the most relevant could bePeter Greenaway who is
melding Cinema with Opera and all sorts of digital media. Another approach entails the creation
of multimedia that can be displayed in a traditional fine arts arena, such as an art gallery.
Although multimedia display material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong
as any traditional media. Digital recording material may be just as durable and infinitely
reproducible with perfect copies every time.
Education
In Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called
CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a
series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various
67
information formats. Edutainment is an informal term used to describe combining education with
entertainment, especially multimedia entertainment.
Learning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of
multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved (e.g. Cognitive load, Multimedia learning, and
the list goes on). The possibilities for learning and instruction are nearly endless.The idea of
media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education.
Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity
applications) and video that now share resources and interact with each other, synergistically
creating new efficiencies, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all
over the world. Likewise, it is changing the availability, or lack thereof, of jobs requiring this savvy
technological skill.
Journalism
Newspaper companies all over are also trying to embrace the new phenomenon by implementing
its practices in their work. While some have been slow to come around, other major newspapers
like The New York Times, USA Today and The Washington Post are setting the precedent for the
positioning of the newspaper industry in a globalized world.News reporting is not limited to
traditional media outlets. Freelance journalists can make use of different new media to produce
multimedia pieces for their news stories. It engages global audiences and tells stories with
technology, which develops new communication techniques for both media producers and
consumers. Common Language Project is an example of this type of multimedia journalism
production.
Engineering
Software engineers may use multimedia in Computer Simulations for anything from entertainment
to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done
as a collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers.
Industry
In the Industrial sector, multimedia is used as a way to help present information to shareholders,
superiors and coworkers. Multimedia is also helpful for providing employee training, advertising
and selling products all over the world via virtually
unlimited web-based technology
68
Mathematical and scientific research

In mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation.
For example, a scientist can look at amolecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it
to arrive at a new substance. Representative research can be found in journals such as
the Journal of Multimedia.
Medicine
In Medicine, doctors can get trained by looking at a virtual surgery or they can simulate how
the human body is affected by diseasesspread by viruses and bacteria and then develop
techniques to prevent it.
Document imaging
Document imaging is a technique that takes hard copy of an image/document and converts it into
a digital format (for example, scanners).
Disabilities
Ability Media allows those with disabilities to gain qualifications in the multimedia field so they can
pursue careers that give them access to a wide array of powerful communication forms.
Structuring information in a multimedia form
Multimedia represents the convergence of text, pictures, video and sound into a single form. The
power of multimedia and the Internet lies in the way in which information is linked.Multimedia and
the Internet require a completely new approach to writing. The style of writing that is appropriate
for the 'on-line world' is highly optimized and designed to be able to be quickly scanned by
[6]
readers. A good site must be made with a specific purpose in mind and a site with good
interactivity and new technology can also be useful for attracting visitors. The site must be
attractive and innovative in its design, function in terms of its purpose, easy to navigate,
[7]
frequently updated and fast to download. When users view a page, they can only view one page
at a time. As a result, multimedia users must create a mental model of information structure.
Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D or 3-D artwork or model positions
in order to create an illusion of movement. The effect is an optical illusion ofmotion due to the
phenomenon of persistence of vision, and can be created and demonstrated in several ways. The
most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although
there are other methods.
Origin of the name
69
"Animation" derivated from the Latin anima, the "animating principle", the vital force inside every
living creature. It is often used as a translation for the Greek word psyche, and related to the
Christian concept of soul. "Animation" would be the technique of giving "soul" to inanimate
objects, drawings, etc.
.
Techniques
[
Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used
for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film
are photographs of drawings, which are first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement,
each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or
photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in
assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels
are photographed one-by-one onto motion picture film against a painted background by a rostrum
camera.
The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century.
Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a
computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate
camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery
media, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media such asdigital video. The "look" of
traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained
essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term
"tradigital" to describe cel animation which makes extensive use of computer technology.
Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated

films, which regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement. Fully animated films
can be done in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works such as those
produced by the Walt Disney studio (Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, Lion King) to the more
'cartoony' styles of those produced by theWarner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney
animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works such asThe
Secret of NIMH (US, 1982) and The Iron Giant (US, 1999), Nocturna (Spain, 2007)
Limited animation involves the use of less detailed and/or more stylized drawings and
methods of movement. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of
America, limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as
70
in Gerald McBoing Boing (US, 1951), Yellow Submarine (UK, 1968), and much of
the anime produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective
animated content for media such as television (the work of Hanna-Barbera,Filmation, and
other TV animation studios) and later the Internet (web cartoons). Some examples
are; Spongebob Squarepants (USA, 1999present), The Fairly OddParents (USA, 2001
present) and Invader Zim (USA, 20012002, 2006).
Rotoscoping is a technique, patented by Max Fleischer in 1917, where animators trace

live-action movement, frame by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors'
outlines into animated drawings, as in The Lord of the Rings (US, 1978), used as a basis and
inspiration for character animation, as in most Disney films, or used in a stylized and
expressive manner, as in Waking Life(US, 2001) and A Scanner Darkly (US, 2006). Some
other examples are: Fire and Ice (USA, 1983) and Heavy Metal (1981).
Live-action/animation is a technique, when combining hand-drawn characters into live

action shots. One of the earlier uses of it wasKoko the Clown when Koko was drawn over live
action footage. Other examples would include Who Framed Roger Rabbit? (USA,
1988), Space Jam (USA, 1996) and Osmosis Jones (USA, 2002).
2D animation
2D animation figures are created and/or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics or
created and edited using 2D vector graphics. This includes automated computerized versions of
traditional animation techniques such as of tweening,morphing, onion
skinning and interpolated rotoscoping.
3D animation
3D animation are digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. In order to manipulate a
mesh, it is given a digital skeletal structure that can be used to control the mesh. This process is
called rigging. Various other techniques can be applied, such as mathematical functions (ex.
gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, effects such as fire and water and the use
of motion capture to name but a few, these techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.
Well-made 3D animations can be difficult to distinguish from live action and are commonly used
as visual effects for recent movies
71
Experiment -12
Objective- Use of various video cameras and its controls
Theory A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially developed by
the television industry but now common in other applications as well.
A Sony high definition video camera

The earliest video cameras were those of John Logie Baird, based on the
electromechanical Nipkow disk and used by theBBC in experimental broadcasts through the
1930s. All-electronic designs based on the cathode ray tube, such as Vladimir
Zworykin's Iconoscope and Philo T. Farnsworth's Image dissector, supplanted the Baird system
by the 1940s and remained in wide use until the 1980s, when cameras based on solidstate image sensors such as CCDs (and later CMOS active pixel sensors) eliminated common
problems with tube technologies such as burn-in and made digital video workflow practical.Video
cameras are used primarily in two modes. The first, characteristic of much early television, is
what might be called a live broadcast, where the camera feeds real time images directly to a
screen for immediate observation. A few cameras still serve live television production, but most
live connections are for security, military/tactical, and industrial operations where surreptitious or
remote viewing is required. The second is to have the images recorded to a storage device for
archiving or further processing; for many years, videotape was the primary format used for this
purpose, but optical discmedia, hard disk, and flash memory are all increasingly used. Recorded
video is used in television and film production, and more oftensurveillance and monitoring tasks
where unattended recording of a situation is required for later analysis.
72
Using a pocket video camera

Modern video cameras have numerous designs and uses, not all of which resemble the early
television cameras.
Types of video camera1. Professional video cameras, such as those used in television and sometimes film
production; these may be studio-based or mobile. Such cameras generally offer
extremely fine-grained manual control for the camera operator, often to the exclusion
of automated operation.
2. Camcorders, which combine a camera and a VCR or other recording device in one
unit; these are mobile, and are widely used for television production, home
movies, electronic news gathering (including citizen journalism), and similar
applications. Some digital ones are
3. Pocket video cameras.
4. Closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras, generally used for security, surveillance,
and/or monitoring purposes. Such cameras are designed to be small, easily hidden,
and able to operate unattended; those used in industrial or scientific settings are
often meant for use in environments that are normally inaccessible or uncomfortable
for humans, and are therefore hardened for such hostile environments (e.g. radiation,
high heat, or toxic chemical exposure).
73
5. Webcams are video cameras which stream a live video feed to a computer. Larger
video cameras (especially camcorders and CCTV cameras) can be similarly used,
though they may need an analog-to-digital converter in order to store the output on a
computer ordigital video recorder or send it to a wider network.
6. Digital cameras which convert the signal directly to a digital output; such cameras are
often small, even smaller than CCTV security cameras, and are often used
as webcams or optimized for still-camera use. The majority are incorporated directly
into computer or communications hardware, particularly mobile phones.
7. Special systems, like those used for scientific research, e.g. on board a satellite or
a spaceprobe, or in artificial intelligence and roboticsresearch. Such cameras are
often tuned for non-visible radiation for Infrared photography (for night vision and
heat sensing) or X-ray (for medical and video astronomy use).
Result study of video camera is completed.
74

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Government Girls Polytechnic, Bilaspur

Name of the Lab: Communication Lab

End Semester Examination: 40

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

2. Laser Use in TV without Protective Housing

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Horizontal Driver Transformer :

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

this is identical to the video

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Colour bar generator test signal

Colour signals mixed with video signal

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 1: Signal with Large & Small Components

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 2: Gain & Offset Errors

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 3: Vertical Axis Measurements [1]

Figure 4: Histogram Processing of a Sine Wave

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 5: Average & RMS

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 6: Average & RMS with Partial Cycle

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 1: Horizontal-Axis Measurements

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 2: Phase Measurement

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 3: Edge Measurements

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 4: Noisy & Smooth Rise Times

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 1: Frequency Domain Measurements

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

High-Speed ADC Test Example

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Figure 2: FFT of Two-Tone Distortion Test

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Plug your BNC-banana adapter into the 6V supply terminals.

Using a BNC patch cable, connect the 6 V supply output to J13.

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Note that, as with the function generator and oscilloscope, the

Television Engg. Lab Manual: 6th semester(ET &T)

Load the "Basic ADC" program from the Start menu by