GUIDANCE NOTE 47

FLAMMABLE SOLVENTS AND THE HAZARD OF STATIC

ELECTRICITY
Introduction
Most organic solvents are generally combustible under the right conditions. Exceptions include
those that are heavily halogenated. There are certain criteria that have to be met before ignition will
occur.
1. For a vapour ignition, the air and vapour must be present within certain concentrations
and an ignition source present.
2. For a liquid fire sufficient air and high enough temperature have to be present to ignite
the liquid. The temperature may be from the ignition source such as a static spark or
from the liquid itself being above its auto-ignition temperature.
Auto-ignition Temperatures and Explosive Limits.
Auto-ignition occurs when the solvent to air ratio is correct and the liquid is at an elevated
temperature, usually well above the boiling point of the material. This type of incident can occur
during manufacturing, e.g. the failure of a pump seal in the high temperature loop resulting in loss of
containment and almost instantaneous fire.
Auto-ignition Temperatures vary considerably and Table 1 shows some typical examples.
Explosive limits
When the vapour to air ratio is within certain limits, an ignition source would create an explosion
rather than just a fire and after the explosion there will be an associated liquid fire.
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
When the concentration of the vapour is below this figure there is insufficient vapour present to
cause an explosion i.e. too lean in vapour, too much air.
Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
When the concentration of the vapour is above this figure there is insufficient air present to cause an
explosion i.e. too rich in vapour, insufficient air.
Table 1 shows examples for several types of solvents.

UK Solvents Industry Association

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Disclaimer
This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

Table 1 Ref 1
Substance

Closed
Flash
Point C

Lower
Explosive
Limit % v/v

Upper
Explosive
Limit % v/v

Auto-ignition
Temperature C

Pentane

-49

1.5

7.8

285

n-Hexane

-22

1.2

7.5

233

Acetone

-18

2.6

12.8

485

iso-Octane

-12

1.1

411

Benzene

-11

1.4

7.1

560

Methyl Ethyl Ketone

-7

1.8

11.5

505

Ethyl Acetate

-4

2.2

11.4

460

n-Heptane

-4

1.2

6.7

215

Toluene

1.3

535

Methanol

10

7.3

36

455

iso Propanol

12

12

425

Ethanol

13

3.3

19

365

n-Octane

13

3.2

210

n-Butyl Acetate

24

1.7

15

370

m-Xylene

25

1.1

525

n-Nonane

31

0.74

2.9

205

n-Butanol

35

1.4

11.2

340

Explosion
An explosion will occur if the vapour concentration above the liquid is between the lower (LEL) and
upper explosive limits (UEL). n-Octane, n-Heptane, iso-Propanol and Toluene fall within this
category at normal storage temperatures and if an ignition source is present an explosion will occur
followed by a liquid fire.
Flash Point
The flash point of a liquid is a measure of the temperature at which the vapour air ratio attains the
lower explosive limit. There are many different pieces of equipment (open cup and closed cup).
There are also different methods to determine a flash point and invariably each method gives
slightly different results. Determinations using open cups are affected considerably by external
conditions, such as air movements. Closed cup determinations are more repeatable.
There are two distinct types of flash point method they are dynamic or static.

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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
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warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

Dynamic Method
The material under test is heated from a temperature below its expected flash point and testing
occurs at a set temperature difference below its expected flash point. This method burns off the
lighter ends of the material under test and some loss of vapour occurs, as the equipment is not gas
tight. The initial testing is continued until the vapour/air ratio is at the lower explosion level when
very minor explosion occurs. As the vapour that ignited was not the same as the original, the flash
point obtained will be above the true flash point unless the material under test is a pure substance
such as, ethanol, methanol or meta-xylene etc. Meta-xylene is used as a flash point standard for
calibration.
Static Method
The material under test is held at static test temperature until the air and vapour are equilibrated and
only one test is carried out giving a go/no-go flash point. This can be repeated with fresh samples at
ascending/descending temperatures until the flash point is determined. This method is closer to the
true flash point but, as the test equipment is again not gas tight, a very slightly high result is
obtained unless the material under test is a pure compound.
Ignition Sources
There are many possible ignition sources where solvent vapours are present. The Explosive
Atmospheres Regulations (ATEX 1 and 2) addresses many of the problems by ensuring areas are
zoned and only equipment suitable for the zoned area is used. The zones Ref2 and Ref 14 are :ZONE 0

In which an explosive gas/air mixture is continuously present, or present for long

periods.

ZONE 1

In which an explosive gas/air mixture is likely to occur in normal operation.

ZONE 2

In which an explosive gas/air mixture is not likely to occur in normal operation, and
if it occurs, it will exist only for a short time.

Other ignition sources such as mobile telephones, pagers, vehicles etc should not be present in a
zoned area. Any work within these areas e.g. maintenance or repair must be subject to risk
assessment and a "Permit to Work" system which is required under the Dangerous Substances and
Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002.
Static Electricity
Static electricity is produced by pumping of materials or by any other means of motion, such as
agitation when the movement separates electrical charges which accumulate in the liquid and the
containment system (lines, tanks drums etc). The charge on the containment system is dissipated
quickly by earthing, but the charge in the liquid remains and is slowly dissipated, depending on the
conductivity of the liquid.

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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

Diagram 1 shows what occurs during pumping a liquid through a line

Diagram 1

The more turbulent the flow the more static electricity is produced. The Reynolds Number Ref 2 Sec 5-4
is a measure of turbulence within a pipe. The Critical Reynolds Number when flow changes from
laminar to turbulent is about 2-3000 Reynolds Number Ref 2 Sec 5-4. Table 2 shows the Reynolds
Number for 4" (100 mm) pipe and a 2 centipoise viscosity liquid.
The Reynolds Number is calculated as (Calculation 1):-

Table 2 (These figures demonstrate that turbulence occurs at very low flow rates)
Flow
M/sec

Diameter
M

Diameter
Inches
approx

Density
Kg/M3

Viscosity
centipoise

Viscosity
Kg/M*sec

Reynolds
Number

Pumped
Volume
L/hour

0.2

0.025

800

0.002

2000

353

0.3

0.025

800

0.002

3000

530

0.1

0.05

800

0.002

2000

707

0.15

0.05

800

0.002

3000

1060

0.05

0.1

800

0.002

2000

1414

0.08

0.1

800

0.002

3200

2262
2545

0.04

0.15

800

0.002

2400

0.05

0.15

800

0.002

3000

3181

0.025

0.2

800

0.002

2000

2827

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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

0.035

0.2

800

2800

0.002

3958

Conductivities of Solvents
The static charge built up within a liquid will dissipate by migrating from the liquid to an earthing
point. The rate of dissipation depends on how readily the liquid will conduct electricity.
Hydrocarbons do not readily conduct electricity and oils boiling in the range of 350-500C have
extremely low conductivities and are used as insulators in large transformers. More polar materials
such as alcohols, ketones and acetates readily conduct electricity as can be seen in the table below.
The following table of conductivities (Table 3) is from empirical data Ref 13 using readily available
industrial solvents. The figures are for comparison only as the values will vary depending on trace
impurities such as water, sulphur, traces of acids or even trace quantities of metals present.
Care must be taken when measuring conductivities that the result has not been distorted by
polarisation and a high enough oscillating current has been used during the measurement.
Table 3
Substance

Conductivity pS/M

Methanol

7000000

Acetone

6000000

Methyl Ethyl Ketone

5000000

n Butanol

4000000

Ethanol

4000000

iso Propanol

2000000

Ethyl Acetate

2000000

n Butyl Acetate

2000000

n-Hexane

24

n-Pentane

24

m-Xylene

n-Octane

Toluene

n-Heptane

iso Octane

Operations which generate static Ref 4 Section 4.4.3.2

(a)
(b)
(c)

High velocity and turbulent conditions for example in pipelines, or the discharge of jets from
nozzles and tank mixing.
Filtration, particularly through micropore elements with a large surface area exposed to the
flow.
Liquid droplets or foam falling through a vapour, for example a spray or mist formation in
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user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

vapour spaces, splash filling of tanks, tankers, drums or intermediate bulk containers,
especially if the tank is of plastic. An example is fire fighting foam projected onto a semiconfined oil surface i.e. a floating roof tank with hydrocarbon above the roof.
(d)

Settling water droplets through liquid hydrocarbon i.e after a line has been pigged off into a
tank with water.
Bubbling of gas or air through liquids.
Mechanical movements such as belts or pulleys used as air blast coolers.
The movement of vehicles, fans or even people.
Movement or transport of powders. There have been many incidents involving, so called,
harmless materials such as flour, where static build-up has caused an explosion of flour
dust.
High velocity release of steam to atmosphere.

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

(i)

Mitigation Measures (Storage and Handling)

Tank and Vessel Earthing and Bonding.
Earthing establishes a continuous electrical path to earth.
Bonding ensures that all the plant is at the same equal potential.
The earthing/bonding of tanks and vessels is essential to reduce the likelihood of static discharge
and potential plant damage from Ref 5 Sec 2.1 :(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Faults between live conductors and non-current carrying metal work.

Lightning strikes
Induced currents and voltages from radio frequency radiation.
Accumulation of static charges.

The I.P. Electrical Safety CodeRef 6 Table 4 Part 1BS5958 and Ref5 Sec 2.5.1 recommends the following
Table 4
Type of installation

Electrical
Zones

Tanks

Large
plant

fixed

Metal pipelines

metal

0,1,2

Recommended
Maximum
resistance to
earth
10

0,1,2

10

0,1,2

10

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Comments

Normally 2 earthing connections are

required but on larger tanks more are
needed. See Notes 1 & 2 below.
Earthing is normally inherent in the
structure. Occasionally items may be
mounted on non-conducting supports
and special earthing connections may
be required.
Earthing is normally inherent in the
structure. Special earthing connections
may be required across joints if there
is doubt that the 10 criterion will not
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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

Transportable metal
containers
(drums,
ISO containers, IBC's
road and rail tanks
etc.)

0,1,2

10

be satisfied.
Special earthing connection will
normally be required.

More information on other structures can be obtained from the IP Electrical Safety Code and BS
5958.
Note 1
The IP Electrical Safety Code recommends that tanks over 30 metres diameter should have 3 earth
connections. BS 6651Ref 7 Sec 22.2.5.1 on lightning protection, recommends that metal structures should
be protected by earthing and that the earthing points should not be more than 10 metres apart,
equally spaced. A 30 metre diameter tank would therefore require 9 earthing points. The lightning
protection for a tank is far greater than that required for safe static dissipation.
Note 2 Ref 6 Part 1 Sec 13.2.2
Calculations have shown that a safe resistance to earth for static dissipation of 10 6 and even 108
is safe in many situations. The code points out that achieving an earth resistance of less than 10
presents no practical difficulties and therefore recommends a 10 maximum resistance to earth.
Tank/Tank transfers Ref 6 Part 2 Sec 13.3.4
Splash filling into a tank should be avoided by the use of main inlet line at low level, or a fill pipe to
the tank bottom.
When transferring liquids with conductivities below 50 pS/m (i.e. hydrocarbons) the linear velocity
should be kept below 1m/sec until the inlet pipe is covered. After this the pumping rate could
increase up to 7 m/sec but it advisable to keep as low as reasonably practicable, typically 2-3
m/sec. If a second phase is present i.e. water, the pumping rate should be kept to 1 m/sec.
Dipping and Sampling
Once a tank has been transferred or mixed it may be necessary to dip or sample. During the period
of transfer or agitation, static charge will have built up within the tank, sufficient time must be
allowed for this charge to dissipate (relaxation time). Most hydrocarbon tanks contain a small
amount of second phase i.e. water and the recommended relaxation period before sampling or
dipping is 30 minutes Ref 6 Part 2 Sec 6.3.2. If no free water or second phase is present the relaxation time
can be shortened to 10 minutes Ref 6 Part 2 Sec 6.3.3
Dipping or sampling Ref 6 Part2 Sec 6.2 must not be carried out whilst transferring or mixing. The
equipment for dipping should be of metal or natural fibre and be earthed. Sampling cords should
also be of natural fibres with resitivities, which are unlikely to give rise to the accumulation of static
charge.

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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

Dipping and sampling of flammable liquids should not be carried out in extreme adverse weather
conditions Ref 6 Part 2 Sec 6.4i.e snow or hail storms or during a thunderstorm

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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

Loading and filling operations (transportable metal items)

Road/Rail (Bulk)
When being filled, unless special earthing connections are made, the resistance to earth of a lorry
with pneumatic tyres on dry concrete could well exceed 10 6 . Provision must be made to reduce
this resistance to 10 Ref 6 Part 2 Sec 7.2.1. Rail tanks are earthed through the rail, during loading there is
no requirement to use a special earth. If any doubt exists on the electrical continuity between the
running gear and the tank, then a special earth should be used with a maximum resistance of 10
to earth Ref 6 Part 2 Sec 9.4.1
Splash filling a tank should be avoided and at the start of filling the pumping rate should be no
greater than 1m/sec Ref 6 Part 2 Sec 7.3.1. Once the inlet pipe is covered the pumping rate can be
increased and calculated in terms of linear velocity u (in m/sec) and the diameter of the pipe d (in
meters).
The pumping rate should always be below 7 m/sec (u 7)Ref 6 Part 2 Sec 7.3.3
ud N
Where N is between 0.38 and 0.5 m 2/sec. In the UK the value of N is nominally 0.5. but 0.38 is used
by some companies.
Thus for a 100 mm pipe the maximum linear flow should 5 m/sec during loading. This figure should
not be exceeded and in practice the pumping rate would normally be lower than this, typically nearer
1.5 m/sec which would be about 42,000 litres/hour.
If a fine filter is used the static charge must be allowed to dissipate before filling the lorry
(relaxation). A relaxation chamber Ref 6 Sec 2.21 is part of a liquid flow system which provides sufficient
residence time for the charge to be reduced to a safe level. Typical residence time required for
hydrocarbons with conductivities >= 2 pico Siemens/metre is given by (Calculation 2):-

For a liquid with a conductivity of 2 pS/m and relative permittivity of 2,

the relaxation time is 8.85
seconds. The code recommends an additional factor of 3 as a minimum relaxation time i.e. about
30 seconds. For liquids with conductivities less than 2 pS/m a minimum relaxation time of 100
seconds is required. This may involve introducing a large earthed pipe section (relaxation chamber)
into a loading system before discharge into the road/rail tank. There have been several publications
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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

specifically on the safety of loading of road tankers with fuel and the associated risks of static
ignition Ref 8, 9 & 10. Highly refined materials, especially hydro-treated gas oils with sulphur contents
below 50 ppm, appear to have a higher risk of electrostatic ignition Ref 10
The formula above was developed for use with hydrocarbons and would indicate that there is little
requirement to allow a dissipation time for polar solvents. However there is still a finite time required
for the charge to dissipate and containers must still be earthed.
ISO containers must be earthed directly to the loading system and will tend to build up a greater
charge as they are normally one compartment of about 30-35 M3 capacity, rather than a multi-pot
vehicle where the typical compartment is 7.5 M3 . The charge build up is reduced where there are
baffles as they help to dissipate the static.
Switch Loading
Switch loading is where the compartments are not cleaned between deliveries and a product is
loaded where there is vapour from the previous load. This is a hazardous procedure, especially
where the previous load was highly flammable and the next load is high flash and viscous. This is
typically done loading gas oil/derv after petrol. There have been several incidents of explosion/fire
arising from this procedure.
Filling IBC Containers (Metal)
These should not be splash filled and must be earthed directly back to the loading system. The
frame around the IBC may or may not be bonded to the tank. The tank usually rests in brackets and
contains cushioning materials to absorb shock during transit and, unless there is an earthing strap
between the frame and the tank, both the tank and frame should be earthed. If there is earth
bonding between the tank and frame only one earthing point is needed.
Filling should be to the bottom of the IBC and the linear fill velocity should not exceed 1 m/sec.
There is no means of measuring the tank volume and IBC's must be loaded via a metering system
to ensure overspill does not occur.
Filling IBC Containers (Plastic)
The cost of metal IBC's is high and there is a trend to the use of plastic IBC's with their much lower
cost and availability. Plastic IBC's cannot be earthed unless there is special provision within the
container. Low flash solvents should not be filled into plastic IBC's as static charge could build up
during filling and take considerable time to dissipate (see SIA guidance on filling IBCs). Filling
materials with a flash point below ambient temperature will mean that the vapour concentration
above materials will go from zero to between the lower and upper explosion limits, and either
exceed the upper explosion limit or remain within the band.
Under these circumstances it is inadvisable to use plastic IBC's, as there is no guarantee that the
static charge will dissipate safely.

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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

Filling drums/cans
Drums/cans should not be splash filled and must be earthed directly back to the loading system.
Filling should be to the bottom of the drum/can and the linear fill velocity should not exceed 1 m/sec.
There is no means of measuring the volume filled into a drum or can and filling should be via a
metering system to ensure overspill does not occur. Drums and cans must be earthed with a special
earth clip that penetrates the paint coating and ensures that the earth resistance is not greater than
10.
Static Dissipation
The dissipation of static electricity is dependent on good connections to earth i.e. resistance less
than 10 and the conductivity of the material. The value of
in Calculation 2 gives the time for
37% of the charge to be dissipated Ref 6 Sec 1.8.2.2 after 3 , only 5% of the charge should remain.
Anti-static Additives.
Anti-static additives work by migration of the additive to the tank walls carrying the charge with
them, thus reducing the relaxation time after pumping. However, the anti-static additives continue to
migrate to the tank walls even after the charge has dissipated. A material dosed with anti-static
additive slowly returns to the original state of low conductivity and care must be taken to ensure that
the additive is still active if pumping at high linear velocities is to take place.
The Solvents Industry Association Ref 11 does not recommend, to Members, the addition of anti-static
additives to solvents, by SIA Members. Some Companies in the past have assumed that the
addition makes the solvent safe to use without any other precautions, and this has resulted in
accidents.
Customers should be advised on the correct procedures and practices to prevent static electricity
problems and hence eliminate the need to add ASAs.
If customers still insist on using ASAs it should be done by the customer and under customer
control.
Anti-static additives are used in aviation fuels and the conductivities of the fuel are regularly
checked to ensure compliance with specifications. AVTUR Ref 12 requires a conductivity of 50-400
pS/M and to achieve this anti-static additives must be used. The need to add anti-static additives is
due to the very high pumping rates used to fill aircraft (reducing the turn round time whilst on the
ground), thus potentially producing excess static. Regular checks are made of the conductivity if
AVTUR is stored e.g. on small airfields. Larger airfields consume large quantities of fuel which is
continually replenished giving virtually no time for the anti static additive to lose its effectiveness.

for the Solvents Industry Association.

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Disclaimer
This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use

References
1.

"FIRE AND RELATED PROPERTIES OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS" PUBLISHED BY THE

FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION.

"ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR USE IN POTENTIALLY EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES"

PUBLISHED BY HMSO ISBN 0-11-883746-X HS(G) 22.

"CHEMICAL ENGINEERS' HANDBOOK" BY PERRY AND CHILTON PUBLISHED BY

MC GRAW HILL.

"FIRE PRECAUTIONS AT PETROLEUM REFINERIES AND

INSTALLATIONS" PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM.

"ELECTRICAL SAFETY CODE MODEL CODE OF PRACTICE" PUBLISHED BY THE

INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM.

"BS5958 PART 1 & 2 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR CONTROL OF UNDESIRABLE STATIC

ELECTRICITY. PART 1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. PART 2. RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR PARTICULAR INDUSTRIAL SITUATIONS" PUBLISHED BY THE BRITISH STANDARDS
INSTITUTE.

"BS6651 CODE FOR PROTECTION OF STRUCTURES AGAINST LIGHTNING" PUBLISHED

BY THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE.

"GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS TO HELP AVOID ELECTROSTATIC IGNITION IN MIDDLE

DISTILLATES DURING LOADING OF ROAD-TANKERS" PUBLISHED BY EUROPIA.

"SAFETY ADVICE TO MANAGE THE RISK OF ELECTROSTATIC IGNITION WHEN

LOADING AND RECEIVING FUELS" PUBLISHED BY SHELL GLOBAL SOLUTIONS.

BULK

STORAGE

10 "AN ASSESSMENT OF ELECTROSTATIC RISKS AND FILLING RULES FOR LOADING

ROAD TANKERS WITH LOW SULPHUR DIESEL" PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTE OF
PETROLEUM.
11 "NOTICE NO 10" PUBLISHED BY THE SOLVENTS INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION.
12 SPECIFICATION DERD 2494.
13 DATA PROVIDED BY PETROCHEM CARLESS TECHNICAL CENTRE HARWICH
14 THE DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES AND EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES REGULATIONS

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This information is to the best of the Solvents Industry Association's knowledge and
believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation,
warranty or guarantee is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness. It is the
user's responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitability and completeness of such
information for his own particular use