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Contents
About This Manual
Conventions ...................................................................................................................ix
Related Documentation..................................................................................................ix
Chapter 1
Introduction to the LabVIEW Order Analysis Toolkit
Features of the Order Analysis Toolkit..........................................................................1-1
Finding Examples ..........................................................................................................1-2
Accessing the Order Analysis Demo .............................................................................1-2
Chapter 2
Introduction to Order Analysis
Definition of Order Analysis .........................................................................................2-1
Order Analysis Methods ................................................................................................2-4
Gabor Transform .............................................................................................2-4
Resampling ......................................................................................................2-6
Comparing Order Analysis Methods...............................................................2-8
Order Analysis Application Areas .................................................................................2-8
Design and Validation Applications................................................................2-8
Manufacturing Applications............................................................................2-8
Operational Applications.................................................................................2-9
Order Analysis Application Process ..............................................................................2-9
Chapter 3
Order Analysis Data Acquisition Systems
Signal Types and Transducers .......................................................................................3-1
Vibration Signals .............................................................................................3-1
Accelerometer Signals ......................................................................3-1
Velocity Signals ................................................................................3-2
Displacement Signals ........................................................................3-2
Selecting a Vibration Transducer ....................................................................3-3
Noise Signals ...................................................................................................3-4
Tachometer Signals .........................................................................................3-5
Analog Tachometer Signals ..............................................................3-7
Digital Tachometer Signals...............................................................3-7
Contents
Chapter 4
Order Analysis Preliminary Processing
Scaling and Calibration ................................................................................................. 4-1
Scaling to Engineering Units .......................................................................... 4-1
Calibration....................................................................................................... 4-2
Tachometer Signal Processing ...................................................................................... 4-2
Locating Pulse Positions ................................................................................. 4-2
Calculating the Rotational Speed .................................................................... 4-2
Removing Trend in Analog Tachometer Signal ............................................. 4-3
Compensating for the Input Filter Delay ........................................................ 4-4
Calculating a Speed Profile Without a Tachometer Signal............................. 4-4
Generating a Simulated Speed Profile.............................................. 4-5
Vibration Preprocessing ................................................................................................ 4-8
Filtering ........................................................................................................... 4-8
Integration ....................................................................................................... 4-9
Reference Signal Processing ......................................................................................... 4-10
Chapter 5
Order Analysis Functions and Displays
Spectral Map.................................................................................................................. 5-3
Color Map ....................................................................................................... 5-4
Waterfall Plot .................................................................................................. 5-6
Cascade Plot .................................................................................................... 5-6
Order Power Spectrum .................................................................................................. 5-7
Spectrum Averaging ....................................................................................... 5-8
RMS Averaging .............................................................................................. 5-9
Vector Averaging ............................................................................................ 5-9
Choosing Between RMS and Vector Averaging ............................................ 5-10
Peak Hold ........................................................................................................ 5-10
Weighting Mode ............................................................................................. 5-11
Extended Measurement................................................................................... 5-11
Unit Conversion .............................................................................................. 5-11
Spectrum Peak Search..................................................................................... 5-11
Power in Band ................................................................................................. 5-12
Order Waveform, Magnitude, and Phase ...................................................................... 5-12
Order Waveform ............................................................................................. 5-12
Order Magnitude and Phase ............................................................................ 5-14
Phase Definition ............................................................................... 5-15
vi
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Contents
Appendix A
Technical Support and Professional Services
Glossary
vii
Conventions
The following conventions appear in this manual:
The symbol leads you through nested menu items and dialog box options
to a final action. The sequence FilePage SetupOptions directs you to
pull down the File menu, select the Page Setup item, and select Options
from the last dialog box.
This icon denotes a tip, which alerts you to advisory information.
This icon denotes a note, which alerts you to important information.
bold
Bold text denotes items that you must select or click in the software, such
as menu items and dialog box options. Bold text also denotes the names of
parameters, dialog boxes, sections of dialog boxes, windows, menus,
palettes, and front panel controls and buttons.
italic
monospace
Text in this font denotes text or characters that you should enter from the
keyboard, sections of code, programming examples, and syntax examples.
This font is also used for the proper names of disk drives, paths, directories,
programs, subprograms, subroutines, device names, functions, operations,
variables, filenames, and extensions.
Related Documentation
The following documents contain information that you might find helpful
as you read this manual:
ix
Order analysis can help you greatly improve device under test (DUT)
knowledge. You can use order analysis to accomplish the following tasks:
Multiple channel order tracking in fast run-up and run-down tests with
multiple tachometer references
Various plots such as orbit plots, timebase plots, bode plots, polar
plots, color maps, waterfall plots, and cascade plots
1-1
Chapter 1
You can access any of these features with the VIs included in the Order
Analysis Toolkit
Finding Examples
The Order Analysis Toolkit provides examples to help you get started using
this toolkit. Select HelpFind Examples in LabVIEW to launch the
NI Example Finder. Select Toolkit and ModulesOrder Analysis in the
browse tab to view all of the available examples, or use the Search tab to
locate a specific example. Order Analysis examples come in two
categories:
Functions
Getting Started
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This chapter defines order analysis and introduces some of the methods,
concepts, and applications for order analysis.
2-1
Chapter 2
Coils
Blades
Shaft
+
3,300 RPM = 55 CPS
55
Overall Vibration
220
Hz
385
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Chapter 2
Figure 2-2. Blurred FFT Power Spectrum With Changing Rotational Speed
Order analysis techniques are suitable for analyzing noise and vibration
signals when the rotational speed changes over time. Order is defined as the
normalization of the rotational speed. The first order is the rotational speed
and order m is n times the rotational speed. Order components are the
vibration harmonics of the rotational speed. In the case of the PC fan, the
shaft vibration is the first order vibration. The coil and blade vibrations are
the fourth and seventh order vibrations, respectively.
With order analysis, you can uncover information about harmonics buried
in the FFT power spectrum due to changing rotational speed. Figure 2-3
shows the order power spectrum of the same signal used to compute the
FFT power spectrum shown in Figure 2-2. The order power spectrum is one
of the order analysis techniques available in the LabVIEW Order Analysis
Toolkit. The order power spectrum shows more clearly defined peaks
associated with the different mechanical parts. The peak at the first order
corresponds to the shaft vibration. The peak at the fourth order corresponds
to the vibration generated by the coils. The peak at the seventh order
corresponds to the vibration generated by the blades.
2-3
Chapter 2
Gabor transform
Resampling
Gabor Transform
The Gabor transform based method performs order analysis by analyzing
noise and vibration signals in the time-frequency domain.
Traditional FFT analysis is ineffective at analyzing machinery noise and
vibration signals with changing rotational speed. Fourier transform only
provides the frequency domain information. When the fundamental
frequency such as rotational speed changes over time, the FFT is unable to
reflect this variation. Joint time-frequency analysis (JTFA), which provides
both the time and frequency domain information, can overcome the
limitation of FFT analysis. The most basic JTFA method is the short-time
Fourier transform (STFT). When applying an STFT to a signal, you can
identify the order components in the time-frequency domain even if the
speed is variable.
Figure 2-4 shows the STFT results of an example vibration signal on an
intensity graph, and the corresponding speed profile. The x-axis and y-axis
of the intensity graph are time and frequency, respectively. The bright shade
in the graph represents significant vibration amplitude. Spectral Map signal
speed is increasing from approximately 1,400 rpm to 3,700 rpm during a
run-up test. Several curves appear on the intensity graph that change with
the speed. These curves are the order components. The order component
frequencies are increasing over time as the speed increases.
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Chapter 2
2-5
Chapter 2
Resampling
When applying an FFT to even time spaced samples, or a time waveform,
you can calculate the frequency components that are periodic in time. Order
components take place n times per revolution and are periodic in rotational
angle. Signals that are spaced evenly in rotation angle are even-angle
signals. Similarly, if the noise or vibration samples are spaced evenly in the
rotation angle, you can apply an FFT to the even-angle spaced samples to
calculate the order components that are periodic in rotational angle. You
can think of the even-angle signals as those acquired when the machine
rotates over a constant angle. You can use standard FFT methods to
perform order analysis with an even-angle signal.
In order to acquire even-angle samples, you must adjust the sampling rate
according to the rotational speed. The adjusted sampling rate is called a
synchronous sampling rate. In practice, it requires complex additional
hardware to set a variable sampling rate to acquire samples with a
synchronous sampling rate. Applying anti-alias filtering when the sampling
rate is variable is also difficult. The Order Analysis Toolkit provides
software resampling to avoid the challenges of hardware implementation.
Typically, you acquire noise and vibration signal with a fixed sampling rate
and then use software to resample the signal with the synchronous sampling
rate.
Figure 2-5 describes the effect of resampling on a simulated vibration
signal in a run-up test. Each point on the shaft represents a sampling
position. As the shaft rotates faster, the intervals between adjacent samples
become larger. Accordingly, the period of the signal gets lower and the
frequency span becomes wider. With so many elements changing,
identifying the characteristic components is difficult. After resampling, all
the samples appear with constant angle intervals. The period of the
even-angle signal is constant and you can identify the order components.
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Chapter 2
Resampling
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
Shaft
1000
750
500
250
0
250
500
750
1000
Amplitude
Amplitude
Shaft
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0
0.02
0.04 0.06
Time (s)
0.08
0.109
0.0045
0.0040
0.0035
0.0030
0.0025
0.0020
0.0015
0.0010
0.0005
0
Amplitude
Amplitude
100
200
300
Frequency (Hz)
400
500
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
0
4
5
Orders
2-7
Chapter 2
Manufacturing Applications
You can perform order analysis to set vibration measurement baselines.
You can test machine performance and quality with the baselines you
create. You also can use order analysis to fine-tune a machine in the field.
You can use order analysis for typical adjustments such as balancing and
alignment before products ship.
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Chapter 2
Operational Applications
Machines like turbines, pumps, or compressors require careful monitoring
and maintenance during operation. Vibration signals are good indicators of
machine physical condition. Order analysis can help you check working
conditions as well as detect faulty components.
2-9
Chapter 2
Data Source
DSA Device
DAQ Device
WAV File
DAT Recorder
Simulated Signal
Scaling and
Calibration
Scaling Voltage to
Engineering Unit
Calibration
Tachometer Signals
Noise/Vibration
Signals
Tacho Signal
Processing
Tacho Signal
Processing
Pre-filtering
Integration
Get Reference
Data
Order Tracking
Order Power
Spectrum
Order Spectral
Map
Extract Order
Waveform
Vibration Level
Measurement
Waveform Vector
Compensation
Extended
Measurement
Limit Testing
Orbit Plot
Timebase Plot
Polar Plot
Bode Plot
Color Map
Waterfall Plot
Cascade Plot
Shaft Centerline
Plot
Pre-processing
Analysis
Display
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This chapter describes the order analysis data acquisition (DAQ) system,
such as signal types and transducers. This chapter also provides tips for
making accurate measurements.
Vibration Signals
There are three basic types of vibration transducers:
accelerometer
velocity transducer
displacement transducer
Accelerometer Signals
The accelerometer is the most widely used vibration transducer for
measuring vibrations on stationary machinery elements. An accelerometer
is a full-contact transducer mounted directly to a system or device under
test (DUT). The benefits of an accelerometer include linearity over a wide
frequency range and a large dynamic range. Due to the rugged and reliable
construction of accelerometers, you can use most accelerometers in
hazardous environments.
Accelerometers typically are used in applications involving frequencies
from a few hertz to tens of kilohertz. Most accelerometers usually have low
dynamic signal response below 10 Hz, making them less useful for low
3-1
Chapter 3
10
100
1000
Frequency (Hz)
10000
50000
Velocity Signals
Velocity transducers measure the absolute motion of a system or DUT with
a good response range from 15 Hz to 1.5 kHz. Due to their limited response
range and other limitations, accelerometers often are used in place of
velocity transducers in many applications. You can obtain velocity output
from an accelerometer using the integration function provided in the
LabVIEW Order Analysis Toolkit. Refer to Chapter 4, Order Analysis
Preliminary Processing, for information about the integration function.
Displacement Signals
Displacement transducers, such as shaft-sensing proximity probes, often
are used to obtain measurements such as the relative displacement of a
rotating shaft surface. A proximity probe is a noncontacting transducer
mounted on a stationary mechanical structure. A proximity probe has
excellent signal response between DC and 1.5 kHz as well as flat phase
response in the operational range. Proximity probes typically are used for
lower frequency measurements.
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Chapter 3
System Rigidity
With a mechanical system composed of flexible heavy rotors and fluid film
bearings like those commonly found in turbo machinery, the vibration does
not transmit to the outer casing well. In these cases you need to use
proximity probes to directly measure shaft motion. If the system or DUT
components are stiff enough to transmit vibrations effectively, such as with
most rolling-element bearings, accelerometers can measure the vibration
effectively. In some cases, a combination of proximity probes and
accelerometers can generate better results.
3-3
Chapter 3
100
Proximity Probe
Accelerometer
10
1
Velocity Transducer
0.1
0.01
1
10
100
1000
20000
Frequency (Hz)
Noise Signals
The most common type of noise transducer is a microphone, a device
designed to produce an electrical signal that is proportional to the sound
pressure, or pressure gradient, in the air immediately in front of the
microphone. A microphone can measure the noise emitted from the
rotating or reciprocating machinery. The noise signals typically are used
for NVH test applications. Performing order analysis on the noise signals
can separate the noise components emitted by different mechanical parts.
This helps you evaluate the noises of individual mechanical parts as well as
the physical conditions of the mechanical parts and the machine as a whole.
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Chapter 3
Tachometer Signals
Along with the vibration or noise signals, most order analysis applications
require a tachometer signal to provide a rotational reference. The most
common tachometers are proximity probes, optical transducers, and
magnetic pickups. These transducers generate pulses at a rate proportional
to the rotational speed, typically once per revolution. A proximity probe
detects the presence of a keyway slot. The probe generates a pulse at certain
fixed amplitudes as the keyway slot passes it. Optical probes observe a
piece of reflective tape attached to the shaft. The coincidence of the
reflective tape and the optical probe produces a pulse signal. Figure 3-3
illustrates a proximity probe and an optical probe working as tachometers
to generate pulses. Optical transducers are well-suited to machines that
cannot tolerate drilled holes or milled slots in the exposed shaft surface.
Optical transducers also are appropriate for detecting pulses from high
speed machines.
3-5
Chapter 3
Proximity
Probe
Optical
Transducer
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Chapter 3
3-7
Chapter 3
Aliasing
Aliasing is the phenomenon by which frequencies greater than the Nyquist
frequency are shifted erroneously to lower frequencies. Detecting if the
acquired signal has aliased frequencies after the signal is digitized is
extremely difficult, if not impossible. The Nyquist frequency is calculated
with the following formula:
f Nyquist = sample rate 2
When acquiring data with an NI dynamic signal acquisition (DSA) device,
alias protection is automatic. The DSA device employs analog and digital
lowpass filters to reject the frequency components above the Nyquist
frequency.
When acquiring data with other DAQ devices, NI strongly recommends
that you apply anti-aliasing filters to each channel prior to the data
acquisition.
Sampling Rate
The scan rate, or the sampling rate in NI-DAQmx, determines how often an
analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion takes place. A fast input sampling rate
acquires more points in a given time and can form a better representation
of the original signal than a slow input sampling rate.
The sampling rate is determined by two key parameters, maximum
rotational speed and maximum order to analyze. For sound and vibration
signal acquisition, choose the sampling rate according to the following
equation:
sample rate sound and vibration = 2.56 max order max speed (RPM) 60
When using an analog input channel to acquire a tachometer signal, set the
sampling rate to a higher rate. When performing run-up or run-down tests,
the measurement results are highly dependent on the accuracy of the
tachometer pulse measurement. You typically want to select a tachometer
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Chapter 3
signal sample rate at least four times larger than the sound and vibration
signal sampling rate. Use the following equation to calculate the
tachometer signal sampling rate:
sample rate tacho = 4 2.56 max order max speed (RPM) 60
Note The max order is the actual max order output in the OAT Convert to Even Angle
Signal VI. The maximum order can be much higher than the one you specify when the
number of pulses the tachometer generates in each revolution is larger than what is in the
max order control.
The synchronized analog input channels for tachometer and sound and
vibration signals usually work at the same sampling rate. When measuring
high orders running at a fast speed, you must set the sampling rate to a very
high value. The fast sampling rate for the tachometer signal leads to
unnecessary processing for the slower sound and vibration signals. Based
on the sampling rate of your DAQ device, you might not be able to set the
sampling rate to the required value.
In this case, you can use a counter device to acquire the tachometer signal
and keep the sound and vibration signal sampling rate at an appropriate
value. When using a counter device synchronized with a DSA device, the
counter can acquire the tachometer signal at a much higher rate than the
DSA acquisition rate. Using this combination of devices can generate more
accurate measurement results.
3-9
For most order analysis applications, you typically need to preprocess the
noise, vibration, and tachometer signals before you apply order analysis
algorithms. For example, you can select the frequency band of interest with
filters. You also can remove baseline drifting in the tachometer signal by
detrending the signal.
This chapter briefly discusses order analysis preliminary processing steps,
including scaling and calibration, tachometer signal processing, vibration
preprocessing, and reference signal processing.
4-1
Chapter 4
NI-DAQmx tasks or global channels created with Measurement & Automation Explorer
(MAX), the DAQ Assistant, or the DAQmx Create Virtual Channel VI.
Calibration
You typically perform system or sensor calibration before acquiring data
for order analysis. Most calibrations are performed with a dedicated
calibrator, such as a pistonphone for microphones or a shaker for
accelerometers.
The Order Analysis Toolkit provides sensor-specific calibration VIs, such
as the SVL Calibrate Microphone VI for microphones and SVL Calibrate
Accelerometer VI for accelerometers. The sensor-specific VIs are similar
to the general-purpose SVL Calibrate Sensor VI, but the sensor-specific
VIs offer the advantage of having default values commonly used for
pistonphones or hand-held shakers. All of the Calibration VIs use
characteristics of the calibrator, such as reference calibration value and
frequency, to perform calibration.
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Chapter 4
4-3
Chapter 4
Note
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Chapter 4
2.
3.
Select the most significant order and place a set of control points on the
order trace by right-clicking on the trace and selecting Add Control
Point as shown in Figure 4-2.
4-5
Chapter 4
4.
Specify the order number to which you have added control points in
Current Order.
5.
6.
Set the Mask Width to a value sufficient to cover the most significant
order. You also can add other significant orders in Reference Orders
to help refine the most significant order. Figure 4-3 shows the options
available on the Refine tab.
7.
Click the Refine button to get the final order lines in the
Time-Frequency plot. The OAT Tachless Speed Profile Generator VI
computes the simulated speed profile based on this order line.
Figure 4-4 shows the final order line.
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Chapter 4
8.
If you want, compute the order waveform and magnitude with the
simulated speed profile. Figure 4-5 shows the simulated speed profile.
4-7
Chapter 4
Vibration Preprocessing
Vibration preprocessing refers to the preliminary analysis functions
applied to the acquired vibration signal prior to any order analysis
functions. Vibration preprocessing consists mainly of two functions:
Filtering
Integration
Filtering
When measuring vibration signals, you typically measure over a fixed
frequency range. For example, when measuring the vibration levels of a
gearbox, you know that the casing velocity should be within the range
10 Hz to 1 kHz, while the gear casing vibration acceleration should be
within the range 1 kHz to 10 kHz. With some basic knowledge of the DUT,
you can formulate the requirements for highpass, lowpass, or bandpass
filters. Make sure you complete all filtering steps before integration.
You can find the OAT IIR Preprocess Filter VI and OAT FIR Preprocess
Filter VI. Use these two VIs to design common lowpass, highpass,
bandpass, and bandstop filters, as well as filter the input signals.
The OAT IIR Preprocess Filter VI provides Butterworth, Chebyshev,
Inverse Chebyshev, and Elliptic methods to design an Infinite Impulse
Response (IIR) filter. You can specify the filter type, frequency range, band
specifications, and filter order to design the IIR filter.
The OAT FIR Preprocess Filter VI uses the Kaiser window method to
design a Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filter. You can specify the filter
type, frequency range, and band specifications for that filter.
Refer to the LabVIEW Analysis Concepts manual for more information about FIR and
IIR filters.
Tip
You can filter the signal with the same VI used to design the filter. The VIs
in the Order Analysis Toolkit only provide basic functions for filter design
and implementation. For more advanced filter design and implementation,
you might consider using the LabVIEW Digital Filter Design Toolkit.
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Chapter 4
Integration
Use the integration function to convert between acceleration, velocity and
displacement. If you need to operate on velocity or displacement signals
after acquiring acceleration or velocity signals, you can integrate the
acquired signal to yield the desired result.
You can use the SVL Integration VI to integrate time-domain signals. For
more information about the basic concepts of integration and challenges
using the SVL Integration VI, refer to the LabVIEW Sound and Vibration
Toolkit User Manual, available on ni.com.
4-9
Chapter 4
Extract the slow-roll reference signal. Use the OAT Get Vector
Reference VI to extract the vector reference signal. Use the OAT Get
Even Angle Reference VI to extract the even-angle reference signal
from the slow-roll vibration and tachometer signal.
2.
Remove the reference signal from the acquired vibration signals. Use
the OAT Compensate Vector Signal VI to remove the slow-roll errors
in the vector signal. Use the OAT Compensate Even Angle Signal VI
to remove the slow-roll errors from the even-angle signal. Even-angle
signal compensation typically is performed prior to displaying an
unfiltered orbit plot and unfiltered timebase plot. You can compensate
the even-angle signal with an even-angle reference or vector reference.
You usually need to compensate for centerline offset when you compute the
centerline plot of shafts. This requires another type of reference signal
called a DC gap reference. The DC gap reference is the DC values of the
probes when the shaft is at rest.
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Chapter 4
2.
For more information about how to use the VIs to extract and compensate for a
reference signal, refer to the examples in the Order Analysis Toolkit.
Note
4-11
5-1
Chapter 5
might want to remove the slow-roll errors in the vector signal. Finally, you
need to use OAT Orbit Plot VI to display the results. The boxes in dashed
lines are optional operations.
Waveform
Spectra
Data Source
Spectral Map
Color Map
Speed
Waterfall Plot
Cascade Plot
Waveform
Tachless Order
Tracking
Vibration Level
Measurement
Simulated Speed
Order Waveforms
Extract Order
Waveforms
Speed
Waveform
Order Waveforms
Bode Plot
Even-Angle Signal
Compensate
Even Angle
Signal
Vibration Level
Measurement
Order Power
Spectrum
Even-Angle
Signal
DC Gap
Estimator
Order Magnitude
and Phase
Unfiltered Orbit/
Timebase Plot
DC Gap
Shaft Centerline
Plot
Compensate
Vector
Signal
Bode Plot
Vector Signal
Polar Plot
Figure 5-1. Programming Flow Chart of Order Analysis Functions and Displays
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Chapter 5
Spectral Map
A spectral map is a three-dimensional display of a noise or vibration
spectrum as a function of time or speed. The spectrum can be a frequency
or order spectrum. A spectral map provides an excellent overview of the
frequency or order content of a signal related to the incremental time or
speed. A spectral map can help you locate strong noise or vibration
components, identify the components changing with the rotational speed,
and the fixed components within a certain frequency range.
Figure 5-2 shows the spectral map of the vibration signal acquired from a
gearbox casing in a run-up and coast-down test. On this spectral map the
strong order components change with time. In the frequency range from
1.8 kHz to 3.0 kHz, the vibrations are stronger than in other frequency
ranges. That range is the resonance range of the gearbox. In general, a
spectral map helps you get overview information such as how the signal
components change, and the location of the significant frequency or order
components.
Because a spectral map provides overall signal information, it is usually
performed as the first step in order analysis applications. You can locate the
signal components of interest from the view of time, speed, frequency, or
order. After you locate the components of interest, you can perform some
more detailed analysis with other functions such as order power spectrum,
order magnitude and phase, or order waveform.
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You can use the OAT Spectral Map VI to generate the spectral map data as
a two-dimensional array. You can display the spectral map data in a color
map, waterfall plot or cascade plot for offline or online analysis.
Color Map
A color map displays the spectral map data in a customized intensity graph.
The color map uses different colors on the plot to represent the signal power
distribution.
When displaying a signal with a color map, you can select any one of eight
plot types in the OAT Spectral Map VI to view different information related
to time, speed, frequency and order. Figure 5-3 shows vibration results
from a run-up test in a Frequency-Time and RPM-Order display. In
Figure 5-3, you can see the Frequency-Time and RPM-Order information
related to different units.
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Chapter 5
Waterfall Plot
Use a waterfall plot to observe frequency or order spectrum changes versus
time. A waterfall plot consists of a series of spectra acquired at consecutive
times. The abscissa displays frequency or order. The ordinate axis shows
the time. The third axis is the amplitude or power. Figure 5-4 shows a
waterfall plot.
A waterfall plot is used primarily for online analysis, because it shows how
vibration changes with time and indicates which components are related to
rotational speed. Connect the spectral map data to the OAT Waterfall Plot
VI to display a waterfall plot.
Cascade Plot
Use a cascade plot to observe frequency or order changes versus rotational
speed. A cascade plot consists of a series of spectra acquired at consecutive
speeds, either increasing or decreasing. The abscissa displays frequency or
order. The ordinate axis shows speed and the third axis is the amplitude or
power. Figure 5-5 shows a cascade plot.
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Chapter 5
You can use a cascade plot for both online or offline analysis. A cascade
plot is used primarily to show results for tests such as run-up and
coast-down tests. The components that move across the plot as the speed
changes are the order components, while fixed frequency components
move straight up the plot. You can use this cascade plot feature to recognize
machine resonances which occur at fixed frequencies.
Connect the spectral map data to the OAT Cascade Plot VI to create a
cascade plot.
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Chapter 5
Spectrum Averaging
Averaging successive measurements usually improves measurement
accuracy. You typically average the spectrum, but not the time record
directly. The OAT Order Power Spectrum VI supports spectrum averaging.
You can choose from the following averaging modes to perform spectrum
averaging:
RMS averaging
Vector averaging
Peak hold
Weighting mode
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Chapter 5
RMS Averaging
Performing RMS averaging on the spectrum can reduce the signal
fluctuation, but not the noise floor. Because RMS averaging averages the
power of the signal, the averaged RMS spectrum does not contain phase
information. The VIs compute RMS averaging for order power spectrum
according to the following equation:
X X
where
Vector Averaging
Vector averaging, also called coherent averaging or time/angle
synchronous averaging, can reduce the noise floor in the even-angle signal.
Vector averaging computes the complex quantity and averages the real and
imaginary parts separately. The VIs compute vector averaging for order
power spectrum according to the following equation:
X X
where
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Chapter 5
4 Revolutions
160
160
160
512 Samples
512
4 Revolutions
160
160
160
160
160
512 Samples
512
Output-Triggered
Even-Angle
Signal
Peak Hold
Peak hold averaging is performed at each individual order line and retains
the RMS peak levels of the averaged quantities from one FFT spectrum to
the next. Peak hold averaging is most useful when configuring a
measurement system or when applying a limit to an order spectrum. The
VIs compute peak hold averaging for order power spectrum according to
the following equation:
MAX ( X X )
where
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Chapter 5
Weighting Mode
You can choose from the following weighting modes when performing
RMS or vector spectrum averaging:
Linear
Exponential
Extended Measurement
You can use the Extended Measurement VIs to perform extended
measurement on the order power spectrum results:
Unit Conversion
Use the SVL Unit Conversion VI to switch the order power spectrum
between magnitude and power spectra, switch between dB on and off,
change the dB reference, or change the peak unit.
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Chapter 5
Power in Band
The SVL Power in Band VI measures the total power within a specific
order range. The VI computes the power in band from the order power
spectrum according to the following equation:
stop order
PS
where
Order Waveform
Figure 5-8 shows the original waveform and extracted order waveform.
You can see the contribution of the fourth order to the overall waveform
signal. You can also calculate the running RMS value of a certain order
from order waveform, which you then can use to indicate the amplitude of
a certain order.
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Chapter 5
Original Waveform
One feature of order waveform extraction is the ability to play back the time
signal. Playing back the time signal enables you to listen to the sound of a
certain order or a combination of orders. This feature is useful for both
testing and monitoring applications, or any application where a microphone
acquires the signal. You can use it to perform noise analysis and locate a
noise source by comparing the noise generated by different orders or order
combinations. The most common applications utilizing this feature are in
sound quality engineering. You can analyze and synthesize the sound of
several orders and evaluate the subjective perception of these sounds. In
automotive NVH tests, one example is the evaluation of power train
components like the engine to get a more comfortable noise level for the
passengers.
Use the OAT Extract Order Waveforms VI to compute the order waveforms
of specified orders. You also can compute the order components with the
highest power with the OAT Extract Most Significant Order Waveforms VI.
Specify the number of significant orders you would like to extract, and the
VI returns the most significant order waveforms.
To better select the order of interest and specify the appropriate bandwidth,
you may interactively extract the order from a time-frequency color map
with cursor positions. You can move the cursor to the order of interest on
the time-frequency color map and specify the bandwidth to cover that order.
Figure 5-9 shows the color map and the extracted order waveform.
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Chapter 5
Figure 5-9. Interactively Selecting Orders in a Color Map to Extract Order Waveforms
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Chapter 5
Phase Definition
Phase describes the relative timing between two signals. Phase is the angle
difference of the measured point and reference point. You can use phase to
locate the imbalance location on a rotor. Measuring the phase of vibration
signals requires a reference signal or a reference trigger point. In machinery
vibration analysis, the tachometer pulses work as the reference trigger
points.
The phase measurement in machinery vibration measurement uses the
phase lag convention. Phase is defined as the angle difference measured
from the peak of a vibration signal backward in time to the reference trigger
point. This means the directions of numerically increasing angles are
always set against the shaft rotation.
Figure 5-10 shows the relationship of the vibration signal and reference
signal to zero degree phase. The shaft has a heavy spot and a keyway slot.
When the keyway slot passes the tachometer, the tachometer detects a
trigger pulse. The heavy spot causes the shaft to vibrate as the shaft rotates.
When the heavy spot passes the proximity probe, the vibration reaches a
peak. When the heavy spot passes the proximity probe and the keyway slot
passes the tachometer simultaneously, the peak of the vibration does not lag
or lead the reference trigger point. At this point the phase is zero degrees.
= 0
Proximity
Probe
Heavy Spot
Proximity
Probe
Tachometer
CW
Keyway Slot
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Chapter 5
The other part of the convention dictates that 90 degrees means that the
peak of vibration lags 90 degrees behind the trigger point. Figure 5-11
illustrates the 90 degree phase. When the vibration signal reaches the peak,
rotate the shaft backward (counter the rotation direction) until the keyway
slot passes the tachometer. The number of degrees you rotate is the phase
lag, or the phase value in machinery vibration measurement. Figure 5-11
shows the relationship of the vibration signal and reference signal to the
90 degrees phase convention.
= 90
Proximity
Probe
Heavy
Spot
90
Proximity
Probe
Tachometer
CW
Keyway Slot
Bode Plot
A Bode plot displays order magnitudes and phases as a function of
rotational speed or frequency. You typically use Bode plots for transient
analysis in both start-up and coast-down conditions. A Bode plot can help
to identify the resonance speed of a rotor or examine the rotor dynamics on
an order basis. Figure 5-12 shows the resonance phenomena of a rotor in a
Bode plot. When the rotor passes the resonance speed area, the magnitude
reaches the peak and the phase shift approaches 180 degrees. Figure 5-12
shows that the resonance speed is at approximately 3,500 rpm.
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Use the OAT Order Magnitude and Phase VI to generate a Bode plot.
Polar Plot
Polar plots and Bode plots often are combined to describe the rotating
speed vector signal locus during speed changes. A Bode plot provides
excellent change visibility with respect to speed, while the polar plot shows
improved phase variation resolution. This is due to the nature of both the
Bode and the polar plots. The x-axis in the Bode plot is speed or frequency,
which allows you to see the changes in magnitude and phase over speed or
frequency. In the polar plot, the plot displays the data in polar coordinates,
which allows you to see the phase changes in the range of zero to
360 degrees. Figure 5-13 shows a polar plot. From this plot, you can see
that the phase angle shifts 180 degrees after the speed passes the resonance
range.
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Chapter 5
Figure 5-13. Polar Plot with Different Probe Angles and Shaft Rotation Directions
Use the OAT Polar Plot VI to display a polar plot. The polar plot zero
degree point always is located at the transducer angular position. You can
compare data from orthogonally mounted proximity probe pairs with a
polar plot. Because the VI defines the phase of the vector signal as a phase
lag value, the phase increases in the direction counter to shaft rotation in the
polar plot. Specify the probe angle value and shaft rotation direction in the
channel settings control to set the transducer angular position. The VI
rotates the plot accordingly. Figure 5-13 also shows the polar plot when the
probe is at zero degrees with a counter clockwise rotation direction and
90 degrees with a clockwise rotation direction. From this plot, you can see
how the zero degree position changes according to the probe angle position
and how the phase changes according to the shaft rotational direction.
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Chapter 5
A shaft centerline plot displays the shaft center DC position changes within
a bearing clearance range. An orbit plot represents the shaft center AC
dynamic motion. Use a shaft centerline plot with an orbit plot to track both
aspects of shaft motion.
Figure 5-14 shows how you might configure a system to display an orbit
plot and a shaft centerline plot. In this plot, the outer circle depicts the
bearing clearance. Two orthogonally mounted proximity probes measure
the shaft motion. As the shaft speeds up in the counterclockwise (CCW)
rotation direction, the center moves from the bottom of the bearing
clearance to the normal operational center as shown by the shaft centerline.
As the shaft continues in normal operation, the shaft center moves around
the normal operating center as shown by the shaft orbit.
Vertical
Probe
Horizontal
Probe
Bearing
Center
Vertical
Clearance
CCW
Rotation
Shaft
Centerline
Shaft Orbit
Horizontal
Clearance
The most common use for the orbit, timebase, and shaft centerline plots is
to monitor turbomachinery with fluid film bearings. Some turbomachinery
mechanical faults have characteristic plot shapes. You can compare the
acquired plots with any known characteristics to detect faults and diagnose
machine problems.
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Chapter 5
Orbit Plot
An orbit plot is a plot that shows the dynamic motion of the center of a
rotating shaft. An orbit plot generates a two-dimensional image of the shaft
center motion. Figure 5-15 shows a filtered orbit plot and the typical setup
for monitoring a rotating shaft with an orbit plot. XY proximity probes,
two probes of the same type mounted 90 degrees apart, monitor the shaft.
If you do not use orthogonally-mounted XY probes, the orbit might appear
skewed.
Y Axis
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0.25
0.55
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.5 1.0 0.5
0..5
1.0
1.5
X Axis
Use the OAT Orbit Plot VI to display both filtered and unfiltered orbit plots.
The unfiltered plot shows the direct motion of the shaft center and displays
all orders. An unfiltered orbit plot displays shaft motion based on data from
an even-angle signal. A filtered plot shows the synchronous motion of a
particular order. A filtered orbit plot displays the shaft motion based on
vector signal data.
When creating an orbit plot, you need to pay attention to two important
issues:
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The blank-bright sequence represents the orbit procession direction. The orbit
procession direction can be different from the shaft rotation direction. Some complex
machinery instabilities display an order less than one that have a procession direction that
is the opposite of the shaft rotation.
Note
CCW
CCW
CW
CW
Figure 5-17. Variation of Blank-Bright Sequence with Pulse Type and Orbit Precession
Timebase Plot
A timebase plot displays the vibration amplitude of one or more revolutions
of a shaft as a function of time. Whereas an orbit plot shows the whole
picture of the rotating shaft, a timebase plot allows you to get a clearer
picture of what an individual transducer is seeing in terms of vibration
amplitude. A timebase plot also uses the blank-bright system to represent
points on the plot. The timebase plot follows the same convention as the
orbit plot. Figure 5-18 shows a typical unfiltered timebase plot for the
x-axis and y-axis. Each dot on the plot represents the trigger pulse position.
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Use the OAT Timebase Plot VI to draw both unfiltered and filtered plots.
The unfiltered timebase plot displays shaft vibration with an even-angle
signal. The filtered timebase plot displays the shaft vibration with a vector
signal. A filtered timebase plot only shows the synchronous motion of a
certain order.
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Chapter 5
The start point reference you choose greatly affects the clearance boundary
circle position in the shaft centerline plot. Figure 5-20 shows three shaft
centerline plots with different start point references.
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Chapter 5
Level Measurements
A level measurement is a common measurement technique available in the
Order Analysis Toolkit. A level measurement gives a quantitative
description of the overall vibration acquired from the transducer. Level
Measurement & Limit Testing VIs work with time-domain or even-angle
signals. You can use the vibration level measurement VIs to obtain the
following values:
Peak level
Max-min level
Crest factor
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Chapter 5
Limit Testing
The SVL Limit Testing VI allows you to specify a mask around a data set
to define a pass range. You can enter a scalar value to the upper limit, lower
limit, or both to specify a constant ceiling or floor for the data. This allows
you to perform tests such as range detection. You can enter an upper limit
mask, lower limit mask, or both to the SVL Limit Testing VI to define a
pass range that varies in shape and level based on acceptable results at any
given point in the measurement. You must enter at least one limit, or the
SVL Limit Testing VI returns an error.
You can use this VI to analyze almost any results produced by the Order
Analysis Toolkit. The supported datatypes include:
waveform
order spectrum
scalar
5-27
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A-1
Glossary
Numbers/Symbols
Infinity.
2D
Two-dimensional.
A
adaptive filter
aliasing
anti-aliasing filter
C
critical sampling
Occurs in Gabor transform when the window length equals the window
shift step. In critical sampling, the number of Gabor coefficients cm, n equals
the number of original data samples s[k].
D
dB
Decibel.
dual functions
Pair of window functions for Gabor transform and Gabor expansion. The
two dual functions are interchangeable. That is, you can use either of the
dual functions for a Gabor transform while using the other dual function for
a Gabor expansion.
G-1
Glossary
F
FFT
fundamental component
G
Gabor coefficient
Gabor expansion
Gabor transform
H
harmonic
L
LMSE
N
Nyquist frequency
O
order
order analysis
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Glossary
order curves
The high power density curves in a spectral map which indicate order
components.
orthogonal-like Gabor
transform pair
over sampling
Occurs in a Gabor transform when the window length is greater than the
window shift step. In over sampling, the number of Gabor coefficients cm, n
is more than the number of original data samples s[k].
R
resampling
RMS
RPM
S
STFT
W
window shift step
The shortest time interval between two windows. In the LabVIEW Order
Analysis Toolkit, the window shift step is always equal to a quarter (0.25)
of the window length. For example, if the window length is 2,048, the
window shift is 512.
G-3