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Hydraulic System Design for Service Assurance

too much of the available atmospheric pressure to overcome frictional resistances in the suction line at the rated flow of the pump, insufficient pressure will
be available to accelerate the liquid to the velocity needed to fill the pumping
chambersthus the pump becomes starved and a serious vacuum condition will
persist in the pump chambers causing both gaseous and vaporous cavitation to
occur.

4.12

Pump Filling Characteristics

anufacturers of positive displacement hydraulic pumps generally specify

the filling characteristics as the minimum suction pressure which must exist at the pump inlet in order to induce sufficient flow at the pump suction port to
fill the pumping chambers at a given maximum pump speed for a specific fluid
viscosity and density. This pump speed characteristic is a necessary function of
the design configuration of the flow duct or passage between the suction port of
the pump and the actual pumping mechanism (see Fig. 4-23). Each pump type
has a different flow passage configuration and exhibits a specific internal pressure loss from the suction port to the suction chamber which varies with the duct
size, severity and number of flow diversions, and the nature of the constrictions
within the duct.

Figure 4-23. Flow Path Between Pump Suction Port and Pumping Mechanism.

During the operation of a fixed displacement pump, the volume of its

working chambers periodically increase and decrease while communication between the suction line and the pumping chambers takes place through the suction
ducts of the pump. A complete change in fluid volume occurs within the pump
during the rotation of the shaft and this change for one rotation is called the displacement rating of the pump. The theoretical flow capacity of a pump is equal to
the displacement rating times the rotational speed of the shaft. The actual flow of
the pump is always less than the theoretical capacity due to two factors:

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Chapter 4 Hydraulic Reservoir and Suction Line Dynamics

249

Slippage or internal leakagethat is the flow that occurs between the discharge and suction sides of the pump. Obviously,
it is a function of the discharge pressure of the pump and the
clearances associated with the pumping chambers.

Incomplete filling of the pumping chambers with liquidnormally a function of excessively flow restriction in the flow path
to the pump at a specific shaft speed of the pump.
The pumps volumetric efficiencya function of the pumps speed and
pressure drop across the pumpreflects the internal leakage and any lack of
filling of the pumps working chambers. At low speeds, more time is available
for leakage to occur and, at high speeds, excessive suction losses cause incomplete filling of the pumping chambers. Internal leakage is a function of the discharge pressure of the pump because the pressure differential between the discharge and suction pressures is one of the primary driving forces creating internal
leakagethe other being the drag forces of moving surfaces or Couette flow.
Internal leakage is inversely proportional to fluid viscosity; hence, volumetric efficiency is directly proportional to the viscosity of the fluid in the region
where internal leakage dominatesthat is, at low speed. However, increasing the
viscosity of the fluid to minimize leakage will have an unfavorable effect on suction losses. An increase in viscosity will result in higher suction line pressure
losses that will produce incomplete filling of the pumping chambers and be a
dominant factor in the efficiency of the suction line system. Thus an optimum
value of fluid viscosity exists for any given pump and operating condition. Too
low a viscosity will cause excessively high internal leakage, whereas too high a
viscosity will cause excessively high suction lossesthat is, higher pressure
drops between the reservoir and the suction chamber of a pump.
The major causes of incomplete filling of the working chambers of a pump
which occur when it is communicating with the suction port are
Too low a pressure existing at the pump intake port
Too high a resistance to fluid flow through the suction ducts of
the pump at the operating speed
The undesired presence of an excessive amount of entrained air
in the suction fluid
These factors can lead to the incomplete filling of the working chambers during
the suction process. Incomplete filling of the pumping chambers will ultimately
result in dissolved air coming out of solution and/or vaporous cavitation occurring as the pressure falls below the vapor pressure of the fluid. The probability of
this condition occurring increases proportionally with higher rotational speeds of
the pump.
When the rotational speed of the pump increases, the amount of fluid
passing through the feed ducts and distribution (intake valves) of the system increase proportionally. Consequently, the flow resistance (suction head losses)
increases correspondingly. However, for a constant fluid pressure at the pump
intake, a certain critical speed exists where the amount of fluid required to fill the

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250

Hydraulic System Design for Service Assurance

working chambers cannot enter the pump at the intake); by further increasing the
speed above this critical value, a proportional increase in pump delivery will not
occurindeed, the pump capacity may even decrease (a condition known as
pump starvation) as Figs. 4-24 and 4-25 show.

Figure 4-24. Pump Filling Characteristics for Various Inlet Pressures and Speeds.

Figure 4-25. Pump Filling Characteristics of Gear and Piston Pumps.

Internal flow and pressure losses vary depending on the pump design. In
the case of axial piston pumps, the internal head losses basically depend on the
resistances offered by the distribution unit feeding the individual pistons of the
pumpincluding the suction port restriction and also the resistances in the ducts
conducting the fluid to the cylinder chambers. For gear and vane pumps, besides
the losses resulting from flow constrictions in the intake, the centrifugal force of

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Chapter 4 Hydraulic Reservoir and Suction Line Dynamics

251

the fluid during the rotation of the pumping chambers can also cause a significant
resistance to flow.
From the inlet port of the pump to the pumping chamber, significant losses
can occur as follows:
Pressure drop due to the inertia of the fluid
Pressure drop due to centrifugal forces
Pressure drop due to axial velocity
Pressure drop due to tangential velocity
The influence of each of these types of pressure losses varies according to the
type of pump and its suction passage configuration. The design of this suction
passage imposes limits on the pressure that must be available at the inlet port of
the pump and the maximum speed the pump can efficiently operate. High speeds
can reduce the pressure at the suction chamber not only below the air-fluid saturation pressure where dissolved air is released but also below the vapor pressure
of the liquid where vaporous cavitation can occur.
All pumps have limitations on their suction capabilities. The filling characteristics curves of the pump reflect these limitations. As the following suggests,
there are at least two ways of presenting the filling characteristics curves of fixed
displacement pumps:
Output flow versus pump speed as shown in Fig. 4-24 for various inlet pressures.
Output flow versus inlet pressure for a specific pump, pump
speed and oil temperature, as Fig. 4-25 shows.
Figure 4-24 shows that for a given pump, fluid, temperature, and inlet pressure, a
particular pump speed cannot be exceededotherwise, the flow will be choked
off and the pump starved. Similarly, for a given pump, fluid, temperature, and
speed, the system must maintain a specific inlet pressure to have cavitation stability as Fig. 4-25 shows.
In any given application, it is essential to know the filling characteristics of
a fixed displacement pump for the operating conditionsfluid type, temperature,
and operating speed. In addition, for variable displacement pumps, the technologist must also know these filling characteristics under maximum stroking speed
conditions. These conditions always increase the magnitude of the inlet pressure
requirements that is needed to avoid cavitating conditions.
The overall significance of knowing the filling characteristics curves of a
specific pump is that the curves establish the minimum inlet port pressure for a
given set of reference conditions. The system that does not maintain this minimum pressure at all times will lose cavitation stability and will ultimately destroy
itself. It is important to realize that monitoring the inlet pump pressure is often a
necessary operation because this monitoring alone can reveal physical changes in
the pump as well as critical suction line hydraulic parameters essential in maintaining cavitation stability.
In summary, in order to avoid pump cavitation, the inlet pressure of the
pump should be higher than the pressure required to accelerate the fluid to the

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252

Hydraulic System Design for Service Assurance

flow rate required by the pump in order to equal or exceed the speed of the pump
displacement elements. For details in terminology, see The Conduit System
chapter in the companion Hydraulic Component Design and Selection book. In
the terminology commonly used in the fluid power industry, this means that the
Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) must be greater than or equal to
the Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR). NPSHA is the actual fluid
energy available at the inlet of the pump. According to Bernoullis equation, the
NPSHA is described as:
NPSHA = h a + h s h f h m h vp
= h pi + h vi h vp
where

(4-38)

ha = tank pressure head, normally is atmospheric pressure

hs = static suction head, i.e., the vertical distance above the
centerline of pump inlet to the free level of the fluid in
the tank
hf = friction head loss
hm = minor head loss
hvp = fluid vapor pressure head
hpi = pressure head at pump inlet
hvi = velocity head at pump inlet

Eq. (4-38) is more commonly expressed as:

NPSHA =
where

pi

g
vi
pvp

p i v i 2 p vp
+

2g

(4-39)

= pump inlet pressure

= fluid specific weight
= acceleration of gravity
= fluid inlet velocity
= vapor pressure

The NPSHR is dependent on the pump structure, fluid properties, and operating conditions. It is normally determined experimentally. From published
research literature of the pump manufacturer, for a specific pump design, the
NPSHR is a function of pump speed, dynamic viscosity of fluid, and gas separation pressure. Note that ideally, if there is no air in the fluid, the onset point of
vaporous cavitation depends on the fluid vapor pressure. However, if the fluid
contains air and the air separation pressure happens to be greater than the fluid
vapor pressure, air will be released before the fluid evaporates. In other words,
pump filling characteristics are determined by the effect of cavitation (vapor
pressure, pvf) and aeration (gas separation pressure, pgs).
In general, the term cavitation represents any bubble formation in the fluid
that is caused by either gas desorption or separation or by a suction pressure below the vapor pressure of the fluid. Hence, the critical pressure required to initi-

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Chapter 4 Hydraulic Reservoir and Suction Line Dynamics

253

ate gaseous or vaporous cavitation is the maximum of the fluid vapor pressure
and the gas diffusion or air separation pressure.
p vp = max( p vf , p gs )

(4-40)

Furthermore, the gas separation pressure is a function of both the fluid temperature and the amount of gas dissolved in the fluid. A set of the typical gas separation pressure curves for air in oil is shown in Fig. 4-26. Using gas separation
pressure as the reference parameter, Professor Tsuji at Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan, reported that the NPSHR required to avoid cavitation can be modeled by the following relationship:
NPSHR ( K1v p + K 2 ) m
where

K1
vp
K2

= a constant
= velocity of pumping element
= a constant
= kinematic viscosity of fluid
= an exponent

Figure 4-26. Air Separation Pressure Curves.

Copyright 1999 by BarDyne, Inc. of Stillwater, Okalhoma. All Rights Reserved.

(4-41)

254

Hydraulic System Design for Service Assurance

Typically, K1, K2, and m bear the following respective empirical values:
for gear pumps (0.086, 2.0, 1/3), fixed displacement vane pumps (0.172 to 0.266,
2.30 to 4.28, 1/8), variable displacement vane pumps (0.160, 0.35, 1/3), and piston pumps (0.7, 4.17, 1/13) where vp is in m/sec and in cm2/sec. However, to be
more accurate, each design should be tested to obtain its specific K1, K2 and m
values.
Considering the model representation of a pumping mechanism as shown
in Fig. 4-27, the energy balance equation can be derived from Bernoullis equation as follows:
ph p =
where

v f 2
2

(4-42)

ph (p) = higher (lower) pressure acts on the fluid slug in the pumping
chamber
vf = velocity of fluid slug
= fluid mass density (=/g)

Note that cavitation occurs whenever the fluid velocity cannot catch up
with the piston velocity. Hence, the onset pressure to introduce cavitation is
when vf is equal to vp. In practice, it is more convenient to use a simplified approach by assuming the NPSHR be solely proportional to the pump speed and
introducing a dimensionless cavitation factor, Kc, into the energy equation (Eq.
4-42) to account for the energy loss due to the fluid entering from the inlet port to
the pumping chamber. In addition, the pumping flow rate into each chamber is
equal to one half the product of the piston reciprocating velocity and the piston
area. By substituting piston velocity, vp, with 2qa/Ap, into Eq. (4-42), and assuming the acceleration pressure (ph-p) is approximated by the measurable pressure
differential, (pi-pvp), yields,
( p i p vp )A p = K c q a v p
where

Ap
qa
Qa
np

(4-43)

= pumping element pressure sensing area

= actual flow delivery from a single pumping element (= Qa/np)
= total actual pump delivery flow rate
= number of pumping element

Thus, NPSHR is given by:

NPSHR = p vp +

K c q a v p
Ap

Copyright 1999 by BarDyne, Inc. of Stillwater, Okalhoma. All Rights Reserved.

(4-44)

Chapter 4 Hydraulic Reservoir and Suction Line Dynamics

255

Figure 4-27. Pump Filling Characteristic Model.

Note that it is assumed that the pressure adjacent to the displacement

pumping element is the critical cavitation pressure, pvp. The term at the right
hand side of Eq. (4-42) is the acceleration force modified by the cavitation factor,
Kc. It is the minimum pressure force required to pump the fluid from the inlet
port into the pumping chamber without cavitation. However, if the NPSHA (i.e.
pi) is less than NPSHR, cavitation occurs. As a result, the actual pump delivery
will be less than the ideal (theoretical) flow rate. In this case, the actual flow rate
delivered by each individual pumping chamber can be derived by replacing vp
with vf and NPSHR with NPSHA in Eq. (4-44). Furthermore, substituting vf with
2qa/Ap, yields,
qa = Ap

NPSHA p vp
2K c

(4-45)

Hence the ratio of the total actual flow, Qa, delivered by the pump to the ideal
flow rate, QT, must include cavitation flow as given as
Qa n pq a
=
Q T ND p
where

QT
N
Dp
dp

(4-46)

= pump theoretical flow rate (= NDp)

= pump rotational speed
= total pump theoretical displacement (= npdp)
= theoretical displacement (capacity) of a single
pumping element

Eq. (4-46) is the Pump Filling Characteristic Model. It is only valid when
NPSHA is larger than pvp and is less than or equal to NPSHR. The ratio has a
value from 0 to 1. This equation describes the filling characteristic curves as

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256

Hydraulic System Design for Service Assurance

shown in Fig. 4-24. It also serves as the basis for deriving parameter adjustment
factors that will be discussed in the following sections.

Example 4-3
The theoretical flow rate of a 9-piston pump is 60 gpm at 1800
rpm. The piston diameter is 0.5 inches. The NPSHA at the pump
inlet measured at 150F is 0.4 atm. Assume the cavitation factor
is 0.7 with no air in the fluid, find the actual pump delivery if the
working fluid is
a. MIL-H-5606
b. Oil-Water Emulsion

Solution:
The NPSHA at the inlet is 0.4 atm which is 5.879 psia. If the
NPSHR is larger than 0.4 atm, cavitation occurs. The NPSHR
can be determined using Eq. (4-44). From the data given, we
have the following parametric values for calculation:
Kc = 0.7
Ap = 0.25d2 = 0.25(0.5)2 = 0.196 in2
qa = Qa / np = 60 gpm / 9 = 25.667 in3/sec
w = 1 g/cm3 (mass density of water)
va =

2 Q a /( N n p A p )
2(piston stroke)
=
time per revolution
2 / N

2 60gpm /(1800rpm 9 0.196in 2 )

2 / 1800rpm
in
ft
= 261.439
= 21.787
sec
sec
=

a. MIL-H-5606
The vapor pressure, pvp, of MIL-H-5606 at 150F can be
found from Fig. 4-34 which is approximately 0.8 mm Hg.
The specific gravity is 0.86. Thus,

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Chapter 4 Hydraulic Reservoir and Suction Line Dynamics

257

K c q a v p

NPSHR = p vp +

Ap

g
in 3
ft

21.787
0.7 0.86 1 3 25.667

sec
sec
cm

= 0.8mmHg +
0.196in 2
= 1.941 psia

Because the NPSHA (5.879 psia) is larger than the NPSHR

(1.941 psia), there is no cavitation. Hence, the flow rate will
be the same as the theoretical flow that is 60 gpm.
b. Oil-Water Emulsion
From Fig. 4-24, it is found that the vapor pressure, pv, of oilwater emulsion at 150F is around 210 mm Hg. The specific
gravity can be assumed to be the same as water. Thus,
NPSHR = p vp +

K c q a v p
Ap

= 210 mmHg +

0.7 (1

g
in 3
ft

)
(
.
) (21787
.
)
25
667
3
sec
sec
cm
in 2
.
0196

= 6.3 psia
Because the NPSHA (5.879 psia) is smaller than the NPSHR
(6.3 psia), cavitation occurs. Hence, use Eq. (4-45) to find
the actual delivery.
Qa = npq a = npA p

NPSHA p vp
2K c

= (9)(0196
in 2 )
.

psi 210 mmHg

.
5879
(2)(0.7)(1 g / cm 3 )

= 54.058 gpm
The actual pump delivery is only 90.1 percent of the ideal
flow rate. There is about 10% flow loss due to the cavitation
effect.

Example 4-4
Find the minimum NPSHR if the MIL-H-5606 fluid contains air.
Use the same parameters and data as those in Example 4-3 for
calculation.

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258

Hydraulic System Design for Service Assurance

Solution:
From Fig. 4-26(a), the gas separation pressure at 150F is around
7 psia which is greater than the fluid vapor pressure (= 0.8 mm
Hg or 0.015 psia). Thus, the gas separation pressure must be used
to determine the minimum NPSHR.
NPSHR = p vp +

K c q a v p

= 7 psia +

Ap
0.7 (0.86 1

gm
in 3
ft

)
(
.
) (21787
.
)
25
667
3
sec
sec
cm
in 2
.
0196

= 8.925 psia
Hence, the NPSHR is 8.925 psia or 0.607 atm. It is much higher
than the NPSHA given (= 0.4 atm). Thus, the pump will cavitate
if air exists in the fluid at the above stated operating conditions.

Example 4-5
Set up a HyPneu circuit to generate the filling characteristic
curves for a pump similar to those shown in Fig. 4-22 (inlet pressure effect) and Fig. 4-21 (pumping speed effect). Use data described in Ex. 4-2.

Solution:
Construct a HyPneu circuit as shown in Fig. 4-28 below:

Figure 4-28. HyPneu Circuit for Simulating Pump Cavitation.

The inlet pressure (NPSHA) effect on the cavitation can be

simulated by using a variable pressure source varying from 1 atm
(14.7 psia) down to 0 atm (0 psia). Using the same circuit, we
can simulate the pumping speed effect by varying the electrical

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Chapter 4 Hydraulic Reservoir and Suction Line Dynamics

259

motor speed from 0 to 5000 rpm at various inlet pressure settings. The simulation results are shown in Fig. 4-29 below.

Figure 4-29. HyPneu Simulation Results of Pump Cavitation.

4.13

Pump Suction Pressure Adjustment

he filling characteristics of a pump establish the pressure that must exist at

the pumps intake (suction) port when a given fluid, temperature, and rotational speed exists. The question that must be answered is what pressure is
needed at the reservoir pump outlet port in order to ensure that the required pump
intake port pressure will exist. The following conditions establish the necessary
pressure adjustments that must be added to the reference atmospheric pressure in
the reservoir:
When the fluid density is not the same as that of the reference
fluid used at the time the filling characteristics test was conducted

Copyright 1999 by BarDyne, Inc. of Stillwater, Okalhoma. All Rights Reserved.