CHAPTER 8

WATER RESOURCES

Photograph courtesy Richard Edwards

Photograph courtesy THA

Photograph courtesy Tyrone Gopaul

Photograph courtesy THA

Water Resources

Introduction
Water is vital to all forms of life on earth,

use in their economic activities. Water

from the simplest of living organisms to

consumption is directly related to the

the most complex of human systems. It

size, distribution and composition of the

is a vital element in the social and

population.

economic

therefore assume major importance in

infrastructure

and

as

Population

projections

populations increase, the demand for

estimating

water grows. The health and welfare of

requirements.

this increasing population bears a direct

socio-economic activities in Trinidad and

relationship to the availability of water,

Tobago

first for personal use and secondly for

recreation and tourism.

future

are

potable

water

The main water-related

industry,

agriculture,

Leisure activity near The Creek

in South Trinidad

Water requirement criteria set by the World Bank states that the minimum water
availability required to sustain human life is approximately 1000 cubic meters per capita
per year. Trinidad and Tobago, with an annual average water production of 2500 cubic
meters per capita per year, is clearly not a water scarce country.

This availability

indicates that the water needs of the populace can be adequately met.

However, there is the potential for an increase in extreme events, for example, an
increase in flooding and or extended drought-like periods as a result of climate change.
The predicted impacts of global warming on these aspects are negative.

180

8.1

Water Production and Consumption

Potable water was first produced in Trinidad in 1835 with the commissioning of the Maraval
Water Treatment Plant, which had an output of 1 million gallons per day (mgd) whereas in
Tobago, Water Development started in 1952 with the commissioning of the Hillsborough Water
Treatment Facility, with a production of 1.5 mgd.

In Trinidad the total water production for the public water supply system increased steadily over
the period 1950 to 2002. In 1962, the Navet Waterworks and Treatment Plant were
commissioned to treat approximately 10 million cubic meters (10 MCM) per year. During the
period 1970 to 1990 the average supply increased by about 160 % from approximately 99 MCM
to 255 MCM per year.

Prior to the year 2000, surface water abstraction in Tobago accounted for approximately 98% of
the public water supply, with groundwater abstraction occurring primarily at Bloody Bay and
Government Farm in Scarborough. The public water supply was provided by the Hillsborough
impounding reservoir, two (2) intakes and three (3) wells to supply Scarborough and the West of
the island, while isolated intakes supplied the rest of the island on a local basis. Production data
for Trinidad for the period 1920 to 2004 and Tobago for the period 1971-2004 are presented in
Figures 8.1 and 8.2 respectively.

181

FIGURE 8.1 ANNUAL WATER PRODUCTION IN TRINIDAD, 1920 2004

350.00
300.00
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

1980

1978

1976

1974

1972

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

0.00
1920

Production (106 m3)

400.00

Year

Throughout the mid to late 1990s various programmes aimed at augmenting the public water
supply have been commissioned. These developments include the South and North Water
projects (1998-2000), the Caroni Water Treatment Plant upgrade (1999), the Tobago Well
Development (2000), and The Trinidad Well Development Programme.

182

FIGURE 8.2 ANNUAL WATER PRODUCTION IN TOBAGO, 1971 2004

Production ( 106 m3)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2

Year
Source of Figs 8.1 and 8.2: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

During the year 2001, total water production in Trinidad and Tobago stood at approximately 291
MCM per year. Approximately 207 MCM (71%) came from surface water sources, while
groundwater production accounted for the balance of 84 MCM (29 %).

8.2 Existing State of the Water Supply Sector

Throughout the decades, the expansion and improvements in the public water supply network
has continued to such an extent that today outlying districts in, for example, Cedros and Moruga
are connected to the distribution system. It is estimated that at present approximately 86% of
the population of Trinidad and Tobago has a potable water supply. This is expected to increase
to 98% by the year 2010.

183

2003

2001

1999

1997

1995

1993

1991

1989

1987

1985

1983

1981

1979

1977

1975

1973

1971

The public water supply is composed of both surface and groundwater sources. The various
components of public water supply system for both islands are presented in Table 8.1. A
cursory glance at these tables reveals that, with the exception of the Navet scheme, the major
portion of the surface water input into WASAs production capacity in Trinidad is obtained from
river intakes and storage dams in the Northern areas of the country. It is essential to recognize
that the sustainability of the countrys water supplies depends on maintaining these surface
water systems.
TABLE 8.1 THE PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
System
Northern Systems
North Oropuche
Caroni Dam and WTP
NorthWest System

Southern System
Navet Scheme
Isolated South Plants
Tobago South west
System
Tobago - Isolated Plants

Components
Hollis Reservoir and other smaller intakes serves Arima and
surroundings
River Intake to serve Sangre Grande, Arima and Westwards.
A major reservoir in the North Central to serve the North and South of
the island in an approximate 50:50 ratio.
Water from Caroni North is supplemented by seven (7) wellfields and
river intakes to serve the City of Port-of-Spain and suburbs.
Water from Caroni South for areas in Central (including Point Lisas)
and South.
The second largest reservoir in the Central area to serve the City of
San Fernando and suburbs.
Small intakes, and wellfield within the South one-third of the island to
supply localised demands.
Hillsborough impounding reservoir, two (2) intakes and eight (8) wells
to supply Scarborough and the West of the island.
Three (3) small intakes and four (4) wells supply the rest of the island
on a localised basis.

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

184

TABLE 8.2 IMPORTANT FACTS ON WATER RESOURCES IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Number of Water Production Sources

Pumping stations (booster station)
Rural intakes and spring sources
Wells
Surface reservoirs with a total capacity of
409 millions gallon (85 in use)
Water treatment plants
Lift stations
Water customers
Wastewater customers
Raw water reservoirs:
Arena
Hollis
Navet
Hillsborough
Water mains (pipeline) ranging from 20
mm to 1,350mm in diameter
Public sewer mains
Population- access to water services
Population- covered by WASA wastewater
24/7 supply of water
Compliance- chemical
Wastewater water treated

142
110
48
439
175
57
24
300,000
46,000
9.8 billion gallons capacity
1.04 billion gallons capacity
4.1 billion gallons capacity
225 million gallons capacity
4,073.7 kilometers
1,140km
90%
20%
18%
63%
200 i.m.g.d.

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

Hillsborough Dam in Tobago

Navet Dam - Trinidad

185

Arena Dam - Trinidad

Hollis Dam Trinidad

8.3 Water Demand

The demand for water on the islands is classified as consuming or non-consuming. The former
includes domestic water, industrial (major and minor), irrigation requirements and unaccountedfor-water (UFW). The latter classification is related to the minimum flows required to maintain
healthy ecosystems in rivers and swamps, and is generally estimated as a minimum of 20% of
the natural river flow.

Estimates of consuming demands for the year 1997 and future projections in Trinidad and
Tobago are shown in Figures 8.3 and 8.4. The proportion of each demand component with
respect to the overall demand in 2000 is illustrated in Figures 8.5 and 8.6

While there is no formal policy, allocation of the resources among competing users is in the
following order of priority: - domestic, industrial, agricultural and ecological. However, there are
many cases where the order of priority changes within certain basins.

186

FIGURE 8.3 CONSUMING WATER DEMAND FOR TRINIDAD, 1997 2025

Demand (MCM)

250
200
150
100
50

2025

2015

2005

2000

1997

Year
Domestic

Maj ind

Min ind

Agriculture

U.F.W.

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

The water demand for domestic consumers

per capita consumption of 2 cubic meters

was calculated using a population growth

m3/day. Estimated UWF was 43% for 1997,

rate of 0 .7 % per annum, beginning with a

and expected to decline to 30% in the 2025.

population base of 1.3 million in 1995 and a

FIGURE 8.4 CONSUMING WATER DEMAND FOR TOBAGO, 1997 2025

8
6
5
4
3
2
1
2025

2015

2005

2000

0
1997

Demand (MCM)

Year
D om e s tic

M a j in d

M in in d

A gricu ltu re

U .F .W .

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

187

Irrigation demand estimates have been obtained by scrutiny of the irrigated area (present base3, 40 hectares), the unit demand for each crop, and irrigation efficiency. Given the current
economic outlook, indications are that this sector will not expand significantly over the period.
However, there are substantial amounts of arable lands, which, when irrigated, could provide for
expansion in the agricultural sector. Unlikely though that is, should that happen the demand for
irrigation water will increase dramatically, and will have to be factored in the projections.
FIGURE 8.5 PROPORTIONS OF COMPETING CONSUMING DEMANDS,
Trinidad 2000

2.54 MCM
34%

4.7 MCM
64%
Domestic

16
0.

M
MC

Maj ind

2%

Min ind
Agriculture
U.F.W.

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

FIGURE 8.6 PROPORTIONS OF COMPETING CONSUMING DEMANDS,

Tobago 2000
Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

124 MCM
41%

116 MCM
37%

10
MC
10 M M 3
CM %
3%

Domestic
Maj ind
51 MCM
16%

Min ind
Agriculture
U.F.W.

188

8.4 Public Water Supply and Demand

In 1997, the demand was generally equaled

Similarly

by water production in Trinidad. In 2000,

generally satisfied demand in 1997. In 2000,

WASA reported that 288 MCM of water was

WASA reported that 12 MCM was supplied

produced

and

to its customers through the public water

groundwater sources for the public water

system. During this year, a total non-

system

year

consuming water demand of 8.7 MCM was

however, a total non-consuming water

reported. Approximately 4 MCM of this

demand of 311 MCM was reported, leading

supply originated from recently developed

to a deficit of some 23 MCM.

groundwater sources in bedrock aquifers.

from

in

surface

Trinidad.

During

water

this

in

Tobago,

water

production

The public water supply and demand

situation for the islands is presented in
Figures 8.7 and 8.8.

WASA pipeline

189

FIGURE 8.7 PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN TRINIDAD, 1997 AND 2000

320
311

Quantity (MCM)

310
300

288

282
290
279

280
270

Production

260

De m and
1997
2000

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

Figure

8.7

production

shows
supply

a
in

shortfall
the

year

in

the

2000.

However, it must be realized that these

averages

over

the

country

and

over

individual year periods. It must also be

remembered that:

demand and production figures are

They do not reflect daily variations where these are not buffered by storage

They do not reflect seasonal variations

The supply-versus-demand situation varies from area to area in the country

(distribution restrictions)

The supply is presently intermittent in many areas and therefore where a twentyfour hour supply is contemplated, losses may well be considerably higher than the
assumed 34%.

Furthermore, the reliability of the production data may be limited by the distribution of
functioning metering devices. Production records in many cases are likely to reflect only the
number of days or months that the facility has been operational at a production rate, which is
presumed to equate to the original design capacity.

190

FIGURE 8.8 PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN TOBAGO, 1997 and 2000

12.0

14
10.0

Quantity (MCM)

12
10

8.8

8.7

8
6
4
2

Production

Demand
1997
2000

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

Therefore, considering the actual situation in Trinidad and Tobago where scheduled supply is
judged necessary in many areas in order to distribute inadequate resources as best as possible,
it must be concluded that:

Maximum effort must be made to reduce leakage

Improvements must be made to the distribution system to bring water from the
production facilities to the demand areas

Existing production facilities must be refurbished so as to ensure maximum output

Additional production facilities should be planned, designed and constructed

Data collection on actual supply and demand must be improved.

191

8.5 Industrial Demand and Sea Water Desalination

Projected scenarios indicate that the demand for domestic water is expected to nearly double
over the next twenty-five (25) years while the industrial demand will increase by three (3) times
over the same period.

To meet short term industrial demand at Point Lisas, a new source of water had to be
developed as soon as possible. It was evident from the recent rapid growth in industrial
demand, that there was need for a short-term, low-risk solution. After an exhaustive look at all
available alternatives, an on-site desalination plant was recommended (WRMS, 1999). The
plant was subsequently commissioned in March 2002.

Based on the projected growth in demand of the industrial, domestic, agricultural/irrigation and
tourism sectors, from a national supply point of view the desalination plant is only a temporary
measure. The provision of a desalination plant at Point Lisas was recommended as being the
most important part in a plan stressing the need to relieve the burden on the domestic water
supply system in the shortest possible time. The development of intakes and reservoir systems
in areas such as North Oropouche, Matura, and Moruga have proved the most reliable supply,
but due to their lengthy gestation period of between ten (10) and fifteen (15) years are not
expected to be completed before 2015.

The desalination project has provided short-term relief, by reducing the gap between water
demand and supply in the estate. The deslination plant has reduced current shortfall and allows
more water from Caroni Waterworks to be available to improve supplies to domestic customers.
Although seawater desalination is new to Trinidad, it is an option adopted for the provision of
potable water by many countries of the world including Barbados here in the Caribbean. The
advantages of this project are a limitless supply of seawater from the Gulf of Paria and the
lessening of transmission losses due to the close proximity of the demand centre.

The Point Lisas desalination facility is owned and operated by the Desalination Company of
Trinidad and Tobago (Desalcott). WASA purchased 25.86 MCM from the plant in 2002 and
35.08 MCM in 2003.

192

8.6

Watersheds and Catchments Status

For the purposes of watershed management, Trinidad and Tobago has been subdivided into
fifty-four (54) and fifteen (15) watershed areas respectively, as illustrated in Map 8.1. By
reducing catchment degradation and soil erosion rates, watershed management practices aim
to have a significant effect on the countrys water resources.

193

MAP 8.1 CATCHMENT AREAS OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

The timing and distribution of the streamflow within the catchment, and the sediment load of
discharges entering the lower reaches of rivers are particularly influenced by the state of a
particular watershed. Proper watershed management practices strive to minimise the sediment
load in river systems, thereby reducing reservoir storage losses, treatment costs and incidents
of flooding.

194

8.7

Water Pollution

Categories of Pollution
Surface Water Systems:

The major pollutants found in the Trinidad and Tobago water systems are solids (measured as
total suspended solids), organics (measured as biological oxygen demand), oil and grease,
nitrogen and phosphorous. The relative percentages of these pollutant loads and their sources
are shown in Figure 8.8. Other pollutants, heavy metals namely nickel, cadmium, chromium,
lead, zinc and copper were also detected in certain river systems and river sediments across
Trinidad and Tobago. However, only lead, zinc and copper were above the United States
Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) National Recommended Water Quality Criteria
(Corrected, 1999).

Water turbidity of water course in South Trinidad

195

FIGURE 8.9 MAJOR POLLUTANTS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGOS WATER SYSTEMS, 1998

livestock rearing,
municipal w aste
treatment,
manufacturing of
beverages and
petrochemicals,
petroleum refining and
hospitality
18%

oil and fatsproduction,

petroleum refining,
petrochemical
manufacturing and
municipal w aste
treatment
35%
municipal w aste
treatment and livestock
rearings
1%
municipal w aste
treatment, livestock
rearing and
manufacturing of
petrochemicals
9%

Biological
Oxygen Demand
Total Suspended
Solids
Nitrogen
Phosphorous

municipal w aste
treatment, livestock
rearing, beverage
manufacturing and
petreoleum refininged
Solids
37%

Oil & Grease

Source: Environmental Management Authority, 1998

Trinidad and Tobago is one of the most industrialised countries in the Caribbean region with
industries ranging from sugar and oil refining, rum distillation and the manufacture of petrochemicals, to paint, metal finishing, and agro-processing. Effluents from oil and sugar cane
refining affect the rivers in South Trinidad. The impact of industrial effluents on water resources
is seen mainly along the foothills of the Northern Range, Central-West and the South-West
coast of Trinidad. Industrial activity in Tobago is relatively small, being concentrated in the
South-West and Central parts of the island.

Most of the sewerage treatment plants operating in Trinidad and Tobago are inefficient, since
they produce effluent, which exceeds the standards for faecal coliform and biological oxygen
demand (BOD). Non-functional sewerage treatment plants, livestock farms, overflowing septic
tanks and pit latrines discharge significant quantities of organic waste into the nations
waterways.
The total domestic and livestock waste for Trinidad and Tobago was estimated as 10.4 million
kilograms/year with 45% being contributed from domestic sources and 55% from livestock.
Table 8.3 shows the annual pollutant loads for BOD, suspended solids, nitrogen and

196

phosphorous. It must be noted that Tobago accounts for 4% of both the domestic waste and
livestock waste.
TABLE 8.3 WASTE LOAD PRODUCTION/DISCHARGES FOR TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Country

Source

Type of
Load

Trinidad

Domestic
Livestock

Produced
Produced

Tobago

Domestic
Livestock

Discharged
Discharged

BOD
(x 1000 kg/yr)

Suspended
Solids
(x1000 kg/yr)

Nitrogen

Phosphorous

(x 1000 kg/yr)

(x 1000 kg/yr)

19,371
39,444

114,073
105,980

3,300
3,460

825
562

1,438
197

2,593
5,299

492
173

131
28

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

Substantial quantities of domestic refuse and solid wastes are dumped in the watercourses of
Trinidad and Tobago. These wastes consist of animal entrails, chicken feathers, faeces, used
containers, and bulky household items. Domestic refuse and solid waste not only clog the
waterways and produce offensive odours, but may also dissolve to produce chemical residues
which lower water quality.

The existing wastewater infrastructure covers only thirty percent (30%) of the population, with
WASA covering twenty percent (20%) of this figure and other providers the remaining ten (10%)
percent. The remainder of the population is covered by either private on lot systems such as
cesspits and soakaways or pit latrines.

The total volume of wastewater treated is approximately 200 i.m.g.d. There are over 200
Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) of which 35 are either WASA owned or operated.
Twelve (12) were originally owned by WASA while twenty-one (23) plants have been taken over
from the HDC (previously NHA), one (1) from the LSA and one (1) from the Sugar & Welfare.
Some of the major WWTPs in Trinidad and Tobago are:

197

New Beetham WWTP

Lange Park WWTP

San Fernando WWTP

Malabar WWTP

Arima WWTP

Techier WWTP

Scarborough WWWTP

Edinburgh WWTP

Trincity WWTP

Point Gourde WWTP

Penco Lands WWTP

The Authority has embarked on the implementation of some of the recommendations of several
studies conducted on the wastewater sector in Trinidad and Tobago, including:

Construction of a new wastewater treatment plant at Beetham to serve three hundred

and sixty thousand customers of the greater Port of Spain area (nearing completion);

Construction of a wastewater facility for Southwest Tobago;

Adoption/regularization, on a phased-basis, of all NHA and private package wastewater

treatment plants

The Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA) conducts the most extensive ongoing water quality
monitoring in the country through its routine samplings at all surface water intakes. The sampling
regime, although focused on water sources for the public water supply, yields information
characteristic of a substantial portion of the island of Trinidad. Over the years there is proof that
many surface bodies of water are affected by high levels of organic material (expressed as BOD),
pathogens (expressed as faecal coliform) and solids (expressed as turbidity). Table 8.4 shows data
from this sample regime for the year 1995.

This table shows clearly that most rivers are heavily polluted, the only exception being the North
Oropouche River while the South Oropouche River still has a reasonable water quality. There is
very little difference between the main Caroni River and its tributaries. All suffer from
uncontrolled waste discharges and the poor performance of wastewater treatment plants,
resulting in high BOD loads and low dissolved oxygen contents. This is also the case in the
Couva, Guaracara and Cipero Rivers. The Cipero River shows particularly excessive BOD
levels. The high BOD figure for the Couva River is due to one sampling point downstream of a
major ammonia based fertilizer plant.

198

TABLE 8.4 AVERAGES PER RIVER OF THE MEAN 1995 CONCENTRATIONS FOR WASA
SAMPLING AREAS

Substances
River

BOD
mg/l

Ortho
Phosphate
mg/l

Total
P
mg/l

FC

Free
N

nr/100ml

mg/l

DO
mg/l

Settleable
Matter
mg/l

Total
NFR
mg/l

North Oropouche

0.90

0.04

0.19

7.40

770

0.20

0.02

25

Caroni (main)

9.80

0.24

0.55

4.50

122,885

0.90

0.14

29

Caroni (trib.)

10.50

0.27

0.57

4.90

144,850

0.90

0.16

17

Couva

23.00

0.07

0.34

6.40

15,120

1.90

0.44

145

Guaracara

15.00

0.08

0.35

4.70

25,350

1.60

0.30

69

Cipero

342.5

0.17

0.50

3.10

171,213

1.50

0.94

66

3.90

0.05

0.37

5.50

16,387

0.50

0.06

225

58.10

0.16

0.46

4.90

88,486

1.00

0.27

78

South Oropouche
Average all
locations

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand
DO- Dissolved Oxygen Concentration

P - Phosphorous
FC - Faecal Coliform

NFR - Non-Filtration Residue

Two (2) major water quality studies (1977 and 1999) in the country have been restricted to the
Caroni River Basin, the major water-producing basin in the country, where the Caroni Water
Treatment Plant producing 40% of Trinidads water supply is located. The Caroni River is one
of the major rivers in Trinidad, with a length of approximately 35 km, from its source to the
mouth in the Gulf of Paria; it receives water from fourteen (14) tributary streams. There are two
main industrialized areas along the Caroni River. However, for most of its length the Caroni
River flows through sugar cane fields with scattered settlements.

Monitoring of the Caroni River and its tributaries during the wet season (1999) showed a
progressive increase in pollutant levels from the upper Caroni River, mid Caroni River and lower
Caroni River. There were increases in levels of ammonia, BOD5, chlorides, nitrates,
phosphates, total and faecal coliforms. Consistently low dissolved oxygen levels and high BOD
and faecal coliforms indicated considerable organic pollution in the Caroni River. Elevated levels
of hydrogen sulphide and the foul smell of this gas were consistent with the anoxic condition of
the Caroni River. Continued monitoring of the Caroni River during the dry season showed a
similar trend to that of the wet season. There were progressive increases downstream in BOD5,

199

nutrients, total and faecal coliforms with consistent lowering in dissolved oxygen. The anoxic
condition of the Caroni River, due to extensive pollution, makes the water quality extremely
poor.

The origins of the individual pollutants were identified as follows:

Nitrogen (ammonia) Mainly from the flushing of soil constituents

Nitrogen (nitrates)

Mainly from point source (municipal and industrial)

discharges.
Soil constituents may also be a minor source

Nitrogen (nitrites)

BOD

Oil and Grease

Total Phosphorous

Solids

Mainly from point sources and soil constraints

Mainly from particulate matter derived from Sheet erosion, bed

mobilization and the flushing of soil constituents

The majority of the rivers in the study area were found to be polluted with industrial and
domestic wastes and includes agricultural wastes proceeding from poor land use practices.

Field surveillance studies in the watersheds of the Caroni River Basin identified the major
activities affecting the catchments as quarrying, industrial and domestic waste discharges, and
domestic dumping of solid waste.

The water quality problems were attributed to:

Untreated effluent discharges by households and industry

Limited waste water treatment capacity

200

Low efficiency of existing waste water treatment facilities

Lack of sewer systems and only a small fraction (40%) of households connected to
available sewers

Surface runoff (turbidity)

There have been several incidences of spills on land in the Southern one-third of the island that
have resulted in severe pollution of the waterways in these areas. These spills often drain into
coastal areas causing substantial damage to the mangrove and beach. The South-East and
South-West areas are those most often affected. Recent efforts by the Ministry of Energy to limit
such damage through the enforcement of clean-up actions by the polluters have had some,
albeit limited, success to date.

Chronic oil pollution is not as severe a problem. However, the chronic discharge of oilfield brines
from producing wells has changed the salinity of several small waterways and thus their natural
environment. The impact of this form of pollution on coastal zones is considered minimal. While
there is no comprehensive island-wide assessment of the quality of the water resources of the
country, a number of independent studies of varying levels of reliability have been carried out.

Consequently the results of these studies, together with expert opinion, and the results of the
Caroni River Basin water quality studies, have been combined to arrive at an overview of the
quality of the surface water resource of Trinidad and Tobago. The overview shows a relatively
low surface water quality in the North, Central and Western part of Trinidad, while the Northeastern part of Trinidad and Tobago has relatively high water quality levels. The activities
affecting the water quality and the aquatic environment are (watershed degradation)
modification of the hydrological regime, discharge of chemicals, disposal of sewerage and farm
wastes, and the dumping of refuse and solid wastes.

8.8 Heavy Metal and Physico-chemical Pollution

In a study carried out by the University of the West Indies: Life Sciences and Chemistry
Departments which was presented at the Commonwealth Environmental Health Institute (CEHI)
Conference in 2004, it was found that heavy metals such as lead, zinc and copper were indeed
present in the rivers of Trinidad and Tobago as well as in the river sediments themselves. The
study was carried out at sixty-four (64) sites across Trinidad and Tobago from November 1998

201

to June 2001 and the rivers were judged in three (3) categories: clean (free from heavy metal
and physico-chemical pollution), perturbed (slightly contaminated with heavy metals but still
useable) and polluted (well contaminated and not useable).

The following Map 8.2 shows the variation of the physico-chemical pollution across Trinidad. It
can be seen that most of the rivers monitored across the North, Central and East were clean.
However, in the areas of Central, and most of South were either polluted or perturbed.
MAP 8.2 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL SURFACE WATER QUALITY

Source: University of the West Indies, 2001

a. Watersheds and Intakes

Nariva
West Peninsula/Caroni
Central West
North Coast
North Oropouche
Ortoire
Southern Range
South Oropouche
Cedros Peninsula

Source: University of the West Indies, 2001

b. Land Use
Agriculture
Commercial/Industr./Residential
Swamp/Reservoirs
Grasslands
Forest
Disturbed natural ecosystem
Pitch Lake

202

Map 8.3 shows the analysis of the heavy metal pollution of river waters in Trinidad. Only a small
number of rivers (one on the North coast and five spread across the North and central regions)
can be categorized as clean.

MAP 8.3 HEAVY METALS IN THE SURFACE WATERS OF RIVERS OF TRINIDAD

a. Watersheds and Intakes

b. Land Use

Source: University of the West Indies, 2001

Nariva
West Peninsula/Caroni
Central West
North Coast
North Oropouche
Ortoire
Southern Range
South Oropouche
Cedros Peninsula

Clean
Perturbed
Polluted
Water Intake or
Extraction point
Town
Roads

Source: University of the West Indies, 2001

Agriculture
Commercial/Industrial/Residential
Swamp/Reservoirs
Grasslands
Forest
Disturbed natural ecosystem
Pitch Lake

203

Heavy

metals

were

also

detected

in

the soils in that area.

The North-West

samples of sediments on the monitored

Peninsula/ Caroni Region also showed most

rivers, as sediments tend to trap the

of the sampled sediment as polluted with

presence of pollution for a longer period of

few perturbed areas. The rest of Trinidad

time. This analysis showed that there were

showed mainly perturbed sediment with

no clean rivers to be found across the

some areas in South as polluted. The

country.

following map illustrates this (see Map 8.4).

Rivers of the North Coast also

showed signs of heavy metal pollution.

However, this may be due to the geology of
MAP 8.4 HEAVY METALS IN THE SEDIMENTS OF RIVERS OF TRINIDAD

a. Watersheds and Intakes

b. Land Use

Source: University of the West Indies, 2001

Nariva
West Peninsula/Caroni
Central West
North Coast
North Oropouche
Ortoire
Southern Range
South
Cedros Peninsula

Clean
Perturbed
Polluted
Water Intake or
Extraction point
Town
Roads

Source: University of the West Indies, 2001

Agriculture
Commercial/Industrial/Residential
Swamp/Reservoirs
Grasslands
Forest
Disturbed natural ecosystem
Pitch Lake

204

TABLE 8.5 WATER QUALITY OF TOBAGO RIVERS

SITE
1

Bloody Bay

Courland

UPPER
/LOWER

PHYSICO

SEDIMENT

WATER

Perturbed

Polluted

Clean

Upper

Clean

Perturbed

Perturbed

Courland

Lower

Clean

Perturbed

Perturbed

Hillsborough West

Lower

N/A

Polluted

Perturbed

Lambeau

Lower

Perturbed

Polluted

Perturbed

Louis Dor

Lower

Clean

Polluted

Clean

Louis Dor

Upper

Clean

Polluted

Clean

Speyside

Upper

Clean

Polluted

Polluted

Speyside

Lower

Clean

Polluted

Perturbed

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

N/A Not Applicable

8.9 Geochemistry of Surface Water

The natural surface waters of both islands

Iron levels at several locations studied in

are fresh high quality potable water of low

Trinidad are somewhat high but variable,

dissolved solids (250 to 650 milligrams per

generally in the range of 0.1 to 1.0

litre), low chlorides (<25 milligrams per litre),

milligrams per litre. Lower values of iron are

low sulphate (<50 milligram per litre) and

present in the surface waters of Tobago of

soft (< 500 milligrams per litre hardness).

1.0 to 0.4 milligram per litre.

205

8.10 Groundwater Systems

On the whole, there have been no instances of significant widespread groundwater pollution in
Trinidad and Tobago. However, preliminary data indicated that there may be localised seepage
of hydrocarbons into the sub-surface environment in the vicinity of gas stations. Consequently a
comprehensive study was undertaken in Trinidad by the EMA in conjunction with National
Petroleum Marketing Company and the WRA. The report on this study indicates the presence of
MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) and BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene) in
areas of North Trinidad that are relatively close to gas stations. At present, there is no real
cause for concern with respect to MTBE and BTEX pollution in Tobago. However, mitigation
measures must be put in place to prevent such disasters in the future since gasoline storage
tanks are constantly deteriorating.

MTBE is a carcinogenic substance that is soluble in water and not easily absorbed into the soil
which means it can spread faster and farther in the ground than other gasoline chemicals.
MTBE does not biodegrade and will, therefore, persist in groundwater. BTEX is made up of all
components of gasoline. It is also very carcinogenic and its mere presence in groundwater
indicates the possibility of leaking gasoline storage tanks.

Excessive chloride concentrations (>250 mg/l) have been recorded in aquifers in close proximity
to the coast (e.g. Port-of-Spain Gravels, Diego Martin Gravels, El Socorro Gravels, Mayaro
Sandstone). This is due to localised seawater intrusion whenever over-abstraction occurs. In
Tobago, recent quality assessments (WASA, 2000) of the groundwater systems show that there
are no significant pollution concerns.
Given the state of pollution of Trinidads surface water systems, the lack of detection of
significant contamination in the islands aquifers is surprising. This may be related to the
frequency and method of groundwater quality monitoring being employed.

The most advanced

methods to detect micro-pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides, and benezene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xzylene (BTEXs)
need to be employed on a more sustained basis.

206

 The threats to groundwater quality appear to be by point source pollution, occurring on a

local scale. In the absence of thick overlaying clay layers, some aquifer systems are
vulnerable to infiltration by contaminants. The potential risk of pollution to aquifers may
be the result of leakage from:

Hazardous waste dump;

Underground fuel storage tanks;

Untreated sewerage;

Industrial activities;

Pit latrines and septic tanks

8.11 Geochemistry of Groundwater

Groundwater varies in composition throughout the various sources in the islands. In Trinidad the
North-West Peninsula Gravels are of mediocre hardness and little iron. Elevated levels of
chloride and hardness are present in one coastal aquifer that experienced salt-water intrusion.
Within the Northern Gravels the El Socorro aquifer has also been over-pumped resulting in
elevated levels of salinity and hardness. The other aquifers are generally fresher and higher in
iron as one travels from West to East.
TABLE 8.6 NATURAL WATER QUALITY OF MAJOR GROUNDWATER SOURCES

Aquifer Systems

TDS
mg/L

Chloride
mg/L

Hardness
mg/L

Alkalinity
mg/L

Iron
mg/L

NorthWest Gravels

125 128

18 33

75 200

42 180

0.00 0.08

Northern Gravels

122 420

20 100

28 200

15 200

0.00 0.14

Central Sands

75 430

10 140

15 120

120 250

0.10 7.25

Southern Sands

70 720

10 160

15 200

30 410

0.20 2.30

Source: Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

207

The Central Sands are generally very fresh with the exception of Sum Sum aquifer in Carlsen
Field, the Mahaica Sands of Wallerfield and the Durham Sands of Freeport. Hardness and
alkalinity are also elevated in these aquifers contributing to the elevated Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS) levels; however, higher chlorides also contributed to the TDS levels of Carlsen Field.
Most of the Central Sand aquifers contain substantial iron, the exception being Sum Sum Sands
in Carlsen Field and Mahaica in Wallerfield.

The Southern Sands have high TDS values with the exception of the Erin Sands of Granville.
The high TDS values always correlate with high hardness and alkalinity (due to calcium and
magnesium carbonates). Iron levels are significant but not as high as in the Central Sands.

208