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32 views3 pages

Chapter Two 22

Ch

Uploaded by

DDelGGul
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter Two

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
2.1 HIGHWAY DESIGN SOFTWAREPACKAGE

2.2 GEOMERIC DESIGN ELEMENT


2.2.1
DESIGN SPEED
Design speed is a selected speed used to determine the various
geometric design features of the roadway. The assumed design speed should be
a logical one with respect to the topography, anticipated operating speed, the
adjacent land use, and the functional classification of highway. Except for local
streets where speed controls are frequently included intentionally, every effort
should be made to use as high a design speed as practical to attain a desired
degree of safety, mobility, and efficiency within the constraints of
environmental quality, economics, aesthetics, and social or political impacts.
Once the design speed is selected, all of the pertinent highway features should
be related to it to obtain a balanced design. Above-minimum design values
should be used, where practical. Some design features, such as curvature,
superelevation, and sight distance, are directly related to, and vary appreciably
with, design speed. Other features, such as widths of lanes and shoulders and
clearances to walls and rails, are not directly related to design speed, but they
do affect vehicle speeds. Therefore, wider lanes, shoulders, and clearances
should be considered for higher design speeds. Thus, when a change is made in
design speed, many elements of the highway design will change accordingly.

2.2.2

SIGHT DISTANCE

A drivers ability to see ahead is of the utmost importance in the safe and
efficient operation of a vehicle on a highway. For example, on a railroad, trains
are confined to a fixed path, yet a block signal system and trained operators are
needed for safe operation. On the other hand, the path and speed of motor
vehicles on highways and streets are subject to the control of drivers whose
ability, training, and experience are quite varied. For safety on highways, the
designer should provide sight distance of sufficient length that drivers can
control the operation of their vehicles to avoid striking an unexpected object in
the traveled way. Certain two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight
distance to enable drivers to occupy the4opposing traffic lane for passing other
vehicles without risk of a crash. Two-lane rural highways should generally

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE
LITERATURE
REVIEW
REVIEW

provide such passing sight distance at frequent intervals and for substantial
portions of their length. By contrast, it is normally of little practical value to
provide passing sight distance on two-lane urban streets or arterials. The
proportion of a highways length with sufficient sight distance to pass another
vehicle and interval between passing opportunities should be compatible with
the design criteria established in the subsequent chapter pertaining to the
functional classification of the specific highway or street.
Four aspects of sight distance are discussed below: (1) the sight distances
needed for stopping, which are applicable on all highways; (2) the sight
distances needed for the passing of overtaken vehicles, applicable only on twolane highways; (3) the sight distances needed for decisions at complex
locations; and (4) the criteria for measuring these sight distances for use in
design. The design of alignment and profile to provide sight distances and that
satisfy the applicable design criteria are described later in this chapter. The
special conditions related to sight distances at intersections.

2.2.3

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

For balance in highway design all geometric elements should, as far as


economically practical, be designed to provide safe, continuous operation at a speed
likely to be observed under the normal conditions for that roadway. For the most part,
this can be achieved through the use of design speed as an overall design control. The
design of roadway curves should be based on an appropriate relationship between
design speed and curvature and on their joint relationships with superelevation and
side friction. Although these relationships stem from the laws of mechanics, the actual
values for use in design depend on practical limits and factors determined more or less
empirically over the range of variables involved. These limits and factors are
explained in the following discussion, as they relate to the determination of logical
controls for roadway curve design.
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it undergoes a centripetal acceleration
that acts toward the center of curvature. This acceleration is sustained by a component
of the vehicles weight related to the roadway superelevation, by the side friction
developed between the vehicles tires and the pavement surface, or by a combination
of the two. As a matter of conceptual convenience, centripetal acceleration is
sometimes equated to centrifugal force. However, this is an imaginary force that
motorists believe is pushing them outward while cornering when, in fact, they are
truly feeling the vehicle being accelerated in an inward direction. The term
centripetal acceleration and its equivalent in horizontal curve design, lateral
acceleration, are used in this policy as they are fundamentally correct.

2.2.4

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE
LITERATURE
REVIEW
REVIEW

The combination of the above external resistance and numerous internal


resistance forces not discussed acts to limit the maximum speed of an out-of-control
vehicle. Speeds in excess of 130 to 140 km/h [80 to 90 mph] will rarely, if ever, be
attained. Therefore, an escape ramp should be designed for a minimum entering speed
of 130 km/h [80 mph] , with a 140-km/h [90-mph] design speed being preferred.
Several formulas and software programs have been developed to determine the
runaway speed at any point on the grade. These methods can be used to establish a
design speed for specific grades and horizontal alignments.

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