A Tectonic Model For The Spatial Occurrence of Porphyry Copper and Polymetallic Vein Deposits-Applications To

A Tectonic Model for the Spatial Occurrence of Porphyry
Copper and Polymetallic Vein DepositsApplications to

Central Europe
Scientific Investigations Report 20055272
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
A Tectonic Model for the Spatial

Occurrence of Porphyry Copper and
Polymetallic Vein DepositsApplications
to Central Europe
By Lawrence J. Drew
Scientific Investigations Report 20055272


Dirk Kempthorne, Secretary
P. Patrick Leahy, Acting Director
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2006
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On the cover: View of the Assarel porphyry copper deposit, the largest open-pit mine in Bulgaria.
Production is more than 10 million metric tons per year of ore, from which 180,000 metric tons of
copper concentrate is extracted (0.45 percent copper, 2.5 grams per metric ton gold). The mine
is located in the Panagyurishte area, which is within the central Srednogorie region of central
Bulgaria. The snow-covered Stara Planina Mountains in the background are seen 40 kilometers to
the south.This area is famous for the discovery in the 1950s of a fabulous gold treasure dating to
2,500 B.C., and the region has a rich mining history since before Thracian time. The mine is located
near the headwaters of the Luda Yana River, which flows into the Maritsa River, which then flows
southward across Bulgaria and Greece, into the Aegean Sea. Photograph by Lawrence J. Drew.
Suggested citation:
Drew, L.J., A tectonic model for the spatial occurrence of porphyry copper and polymetallic vein depositsApplications to central Europe: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20055272, 36 p.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Drew, Lawrence J.
A tectonic model for the spatial occurrence of porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits : applications to central
Europe / by Lawrence J. Drew.
p. cm. (Scientific investigations report ; 2005-5272)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 1-411-30960-X
1. PorphyryEurope, Central. 2. CopperEurope, Central. 3. Sediments (Geology)Europe, Central.
4. Hydrothermal depositsEurope, Central. 5. Geology, StratigraphicCretaceous. 6. Geology,
StratigraphicMiocene. 7. GeologyEurope, Central. I. Title.
QE462.P6D74 2006
553.430943dc22
2006041307
iii
Contents
Abstract............................................................................................................................................................1
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1
The Tectonic Deposit Occurrence Model...................................................................................................2
Emplacement of a Porphyry Stock and Deposition of Porphyry Mineralization.........................2
Deposition of Polymetallic Veins.........................................................................................................6
Association Between Strike-Slip Faulting and Magmatism in Convergent-Margin
Magmatic Arcs.......................................................................................................................10
Orogenic Collapse, Strike-Slip Faulting, and Basin Development...............................................11
Application of the Model to Certain Ore Fields in Central Europe........................................................12
Late Cretaceous OrogenBanat-Timok-Srednogorie Region....................................................12
Establishing the Sense of Shear in the Orogen..............................................................................15
The Rift Model for the Orogen...........................................................................................................15
Application of the Model....................................................................................................................15
Relative Probability of Occurrence of Undiscovered Resources in Porphyry Copper
and Polymetallic Vein Deposits............................................................................................19
Porphyry Copper and Associated Deposits in Serbia...................................................................20
Porphyry Copper in the Banat Region, Romania............................................................................24
Gravitational Collapse and Escape Tectonics........................................................................24
Middle Miocene Porphyry Copper and Polymetallic Vein Deposits in Romania and Slovakia........... 27
Apuseni Mountains, Romania...................................................................................................27
Central Slovakian Volcanic Field..............................................................................................29
Conclusions...................................................................................................................................................32
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................................32
References Cited..........................................................................................................................................32
Figures

1. Map showing three regions where porphyry copper deposits occur in central
Europe..............................................................................................................................................2
2. Diagram showing strike-slip fault duplex structures along an active tectonic-plate
margin..............................................................................................................................................3
3. Diagram showing strain features developed in the principal deformation zone of a
strike-slip fault system..................................................................................................................3
4. Diagram showing the possible relation between deformation at the surface,
intermediate, and at the brittle-ductile transition in a strike-slip fault zone........................4
5. Diagrams showing areas of tensional and shear fracturing between the tips of two
interacting master strike-slip faults in a right-lateral system................................................5
6. Schematic cross section through a hypothetical granodiorite porphyry stock and
associated dikes at three progressive stages of their solidification....................................5
7. Diagram showing the possible evolution of an extensional fault duplex.............................6
8. Diagram of tensional and shear fracturing in and near a strike-slip fault duplex..............7
iv
9. Diagram of a strike-slip fault duplex showing the region most favorable for the
tensional fracturing with maximum fluid flow...........................................................................7
10. Diagrams showing cross sections through positive and negative flower structures.......7
11. Cross section through the Larga porphyry copper deposit, Apuseni Mountains,
Romania...........................................................................................................................................8
12. Diagram showing the extensional-shear mesh of a brittle fracture within a strikeslip duplex.......................................................................................................................................9
13. Schematic diagram showing movement on a strike-slip fault...............................................9
14. Map of the summit region of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii...........................................................9
15. Diagram showing shear fractures and zones of extension filled by basaltic dikes ........10
16. Diagrams showing examples of mineralized strike-slip fault duplexes.............................11
17. Model for kinematics and heat distribution in a contractional magmatic arc..................12
18. Map showing location of study areas......................................................................................13
19. Tectonic model for the late Tertiary evolution of the Carpathian-Pannonian area..........14
20. Schematic reconstruction of subduction of the Vardar Ocean under the
Rhodopian-Dacia blocks and docking with the Tisza block during the CampanianMaastrichtian...............................................................................................................................14
21. Sketch map showing the Timok-Srednogorie paleorift system in the Serbian and
Bulgarian part of the Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region.......................................................15
22. Composite satellite image of the west-central Srednogorie region, Bulgaria..................16
23. Satellite image showing the locations of the three largest porphyry copper
deposits in Bulgaria.....................................................................................................................17
24. Geologic map showing rock types and known porphyry copper deposits in the
west-central Srednogorie region, Bulgaria............................................................................18
25. Geologic map showing rock types, known porphyry copper deposits, and strikeslip faults in the central Srednogorie region, Bulgaria.........................................................18
26. Map showing relations between porphyry copper deposits and their hosting strikeslip fault duplexes in the west-central Srednogorie region, Bulgaria................................19
27. Map showing locations of porphyry copper deposits in the Timok magmatic zone,
Serbia.............................................................................................................................................21
28. Map and cross section of a positive flower structure of the Majdanpek porphyry
copper deposit.............................................................................................................................22
29. Tectonic map of the Timok magmatic zone, Serbia...............................................................23
30. Geologic map of the Banat region, Romania..........................................................................25
31. Map and diagrams of tectonic elements in the area of the Moldova Nou copper
deposit in the Banat region, Romania......................................................................................26
32. Diagram showing tectonic transport direction in the Carpathian-Pannonian region
during the middle Miocene........................................................................................................27
33. Map showing extension during the Karpatian-earliest Badenian......................................28
34. Map showing strike-slip faults formed in the study area during the late BadenianSarmatian......................................................................................................................................29
35. Map showing deposits in the Brad-Sacaramb and Zlatna basins, Apuseni
Mountains, Romania...................................................................................................................30
36. Map showing deposits in the Sacaramb-Hondol duplex in the Apuseni Mountains,
Romania.........................................................................................................................................31
37. Map showing the pull-apart basins created by strike-slip faulting in the central
Slovakian volcanic field near Kremnica and Banksa Stiavnica, Slovakia.........................31
Table

1. Tonnages and grades of porphyry copper deposits of the Banat-Timok-Srednogorie

region.............................................................................................................................................13
Conversion Factors
Multiply
kilometer (km)
square kilometer (km2)
kilogram (kg)
By
0.6214
247.1
2.205
To obtain
mile (mi)
acre
pound avoirdupois (lb)
A Tectonic Model for the Spatial Occurrence of Porphyry

Copper and Polymetallic Vein DepositsApplications to
Central Europe
By Lawrence J. Drew
Abstract
A structural-tectonic model, which was developed to
assess the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits and associated polymetallic vein systems for the Mtra
Mountains, Hungary, has been expanded here and applied
to other parts of central Europe. The model explains how
granitoid stocks are emplaced and hydrothermal fluids flow
within local strain features (duplexes) within strike-slip fault
systems that develop in continental crust above subducting
plates. Areas of extension that lack shear at the corners and
along the edges of the fault duplexes are structural traps for the
granitoid stocks associated with porphyry copper deposits. By
contrast, polymetallic vein deposits are emplaced where shear
and extension are prevalent in the interior of the duplexes. This
model was applied to the Late Cretaceous-age porphyry copper
and polymetallic vein deposits in the Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region of Romania-Serbia-Bulgaria and the middle Miocene-age deposits in Romania and Slovakia. In the first area,
porphyry copper deposits are most commonly located at the
corners, and occasionally along the edges, of strike-slip fault
duplexes, and the few polymetallic vein deposits identified are
located at interior sites of the duplexes. In the second area, the
model accounts for the preferred sites of porphyry copper and
polymetallic vein deposits in the Apuseni Mountains (Romania) and central Slovakian volcanic field (Slovakia).
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to present tectonic data and analyses relevant to the occurrence of porphyry copper and associated
polymetallic vein, skarn, and replacement deposits. The primary
goal is to develop a tectonic deposit occurrence model useful for
assessing the occurrence of undiscovered deposits in the porphyry
copper and related family of deposits. The model further quantifies
the assessment of the occurrence of undiscovered mineral resources
in porphyry and polymetallic vein deposits. A second goal is to
provide historical context for this recent research work. Some of the
ideas about the relation between structural geology and polymetal-
lic veins were elucidated before 1950. A third goal is to set out
instructional ideas for the use of the tectonic occurrence model to
assess undiscovered mineral resources.
Many porphyry copper and associated polymetallic vein
deposits occur in central Europe. These deposits have been well
described, and geologic maps of the area show tectonic and
geologic information that was useful for expanding and further
testing the tectonic deposit occurrence model. Three areas in central Europe were studied in detail (fig. 1). The first is the BanatTimok-Srednogorie region in Romania, Serbia, and Bulgaria,
where the porphyry copper and associated mineralization is Late
Cretaceous to Paleocene in age. The second area is the central
Slovakian volcanic field in Slovakia. The third area comprises the
Apuseni Mountains in Romania. The mineralization in the latter
two areas is middle Miocene in age. To avoid cumbersome repetition, the skarn and replacement deposits that belong to this family
are here included under the title polymetallic vein deposits.
The analytical framework used in this study is based on the
tectonics of porphyry-related stock emplacement and the formation of porphyry-style mineralization and associated polymetallic
veins, as described by Cox (1986). This framework is expanded
into a tectonic deposit occurrence model. The principal elements
considered in the model include (1) the association between
strike-slip faulting and the emplacement of porphyry stocks
(Seraphim and Hollister, 1976; Titley and Beane, 1981); (2) the
thermal regimes necessary for development of a mineralized porphyry stockwork (Burnham, 1979; Titley and Beane, 1981; Titley,
1990); and (3) the temporal transition from the deposition of a
porphyry stockwork to the formation of polymetallic veins.
Carranza and Hale (2002) introduce a statistical basis for
the assessment of porphyry copper deposits using tectonic elements, such as strike-slip faulting. Their conclusions support
quantitative mineral resource assessments. The methods used
here, by contrast, focus on building the tectonic and geologic
reasoning to move from the description of the occurrence of
past discoveries to the use of structural and tectonic data to
forecast the probable location of undiscovered deposits. This
progression from investigation and description to forecasting
using a geologic based model, can, hopefully, be achieved
through a synthesis of tectonic principles and geologic data.
The goal is to move the field of resource assessment from its
A Tectonic Model for Porphyry Copper and Polymetallic Vein Deposits in Central Europe
15
50
20
CZECH
REPUBLIC
Vienna
25
Central Slovakian
volcanic field
(middle Miocene)
30
POLAND
UKRAINE
50 kilometers
SLOVAKIA
Area of
figure 37
MOLDOVA
AUSTRIA
Budapest
ROMANIA
Apuseni Mountains
(middle Miocene)
Area of
figure 34
HUNGARY
SLOVENIA
Zagreb
Area of
figure 18
Banat
region
CROATIA
45
Belgrade
BOSNIA
Adriatic
Sea
Bucharest
SERBIA
BULGARIA
Timok
region
MONTENEGRO
Sofia
MACEDONIA
ITALY
Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region
(Late Cretaceous-Paleocene)
ALBANIA
GREECE
Srednogorie
region
Black
Sea
TURKEY
40
Figure 1. Location of three regions (the Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region, the Apuseni Mountains, and the central
Slovakian volcanic field) where porphyry copper deposits occur in central Europe. Modified from Borco (1994) and Fodor
and others (1999).
subjective basis heavily weighted in expert judgment (qualitative) toward a more objective basis (quantitative).
Tosdal and Richards (2001) provide a useful compilation and
summary describing the tectonic setting of porphyry copper deposits. Their results provide a broad framework for viewing porphyry
deposits within convergent margin settings ranging from orthogonal compression to extension and the more common intermediate
stress conditions of transpression to transtension. They argue that
conditions are favorable for the development of porphyry copper
deposits in certain ranges or phases of transpression to transtension. When compressive stress is locally relaxed, magmatic stocks
are emplaced. They also noted that fault jogs may generate areas
of extension that could serve as optimum loci for the ascent of
magma and potential development of porphyry copper mineralization. These ideas are similar to those developed and expanded on
by Berger and Drew (1997), Berger and others (1999), Drew and
others (1999a,b), and Drew and Berger (2001, 2002).
The Tectonic Deposit Occurrence

Model
The model presented here was initially developed and
first applied to assess the undiscovered porphyry copper and
polymetallic vein resources of northern Hungary (Berger and

Drew, 1997; Drew and others, 1999a). This model was derived
from the observation that porphyry copper and polymetallic
vein deposits are genetically related and occur in close spatial
and temporal association in the principal deformation zones
(PDZ) of strike-slip fault systems and, in particular, in fault
duplexes (fault jogs or stepovers; fig. 2). The model draws on
summaries of field-based observations (Seraphim and Hollister, 1976; Titley and Beane, 1981) and the empirical descriptive model of Cox (1986). It was expanded by incorporating
theoretical studies of the behavior of strike-slip fault systems
(Segall and Pollard, 1980) and studies of heat dissipation and
the mechanics associated with intrusive rocks (Norton, 1982;
Sonder and England, 1989).
Emplacement of a Porphyry Stock and

Deposition of Porphyry Mineralization
One of the most striking field observations concerning
porphyry stocks was made by Seraphim and Hollister (1976).
Mineralized porphyry stocks are relatively small, approximately 1 square kilometer, as compared with most plutonic
bodies, and are often nearly circular. In addition, these stocks
can rise to very shallow levels in the crust, having vertical
extents of as much as 7 kilometers (km).
The Tectonic Deposit Occurrence Model

S
Volcanic arc
A
S
Fault duplex
B
A
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
plate. .
. . Oceanic
.. . . . . . .. ... . ... . ... . . . .
. ..
. . .
.
. . . . . .. .
.. . .
. .. . . .
A
Continental plate
Figure 2. Location of strike-slip fault duplex structures along

an active tectonic-plate margin. Strike-slip fault is right lateral
and has left and right stopovers. A, Map view; B, Cross section.
Modified from Bally and Oldow (1985). 1, maximum principal
stress; 3, minimum principal stress.
Horsetail splay
of en echelon
synthetic faults
This presents a seeming contradiction. How can a long,

narrow cylinder of magma be maintained in the active tectonic
environment of a strike-slip fault system? When stress in the
far field is released in the PDZ of a strike-slip fault system,
a wide variety of strain features form and evolve (fig. 3).
These strain features include a complex array of reverse and
normal faults, fault duplexes, folds, and flower structures. As
magmas are generated above the subducting plate and rise
in the crust, these strain features form the necessary channelways through which magma can be focused into dikes
and stocks. An entire duplex (figs. 2, 3) may be filled with
a mixture of volcanic rocks and volcaniclastic sedimentary
rocks. Strain partitioning occurs because of the complex
relation between the brittle deformation in a strike-slip fault
duplex at the surface to the brittle-ductile transition at lower
depths (fig. 4). The initial phase of intrusion and development
of a mineralizing system begins in the crustal plate above the
subducting slab as far-field stress is dissipated in strike-slip
fault duplexes. A model study by Segall and Pollard (1980)
showed that as stress is transferred from one master fault tip
to another across a duplex, zones of tensional fracturing (areas
without shear) are created at the fault tips in compressional
and extensional duplexes (fig. 5A, B, respectively). In addition, in an extensional duplex, tensional fracturing occurs in an
annulus-shaped region (fig. 5B) located between the fault tips.
With emplacement of the magma in the duplex structure, the
surrounding wall rock temperature is elevated to mesothermal
levels thereby creating the conditions (locally ductile) for the
creation of a self-sealing chemical reaction containment vessel (Drew and Berger, 2002; Drew, 2003). The reaction containment vessel consists of the apical area of the stock and the
0
Fault duplex
(basin)
~7 kilometers
Negative flower
structure
PDZ
PDZ
Stress-strain ellipsoid
showing extensional
component
En echelon
antithetic faults
En echelon
normal
faults
Restraining Positive flower

bend and
structure
oblique fold
EXPLANATION
PDZ
PDZ
Normal faultBar and ball

on downthrown side
Reverse faultSawteeth on
upthrown side
Strike-slip faultArrows show
relative movement
Anticline
Figure 3. Some of the strain features developed in the principal deformation zone (PDZ) of a strike-slip
fault system. Modified from Harding and others (1985).
Basin
Surface
Brittle-ductile
transition
Figure 4. Possible relation between deformation at the surface, intermediate, and at the brittleductile transition in a strike-slip fault zone. Modified from Swanson (1989).
adjacent encapsulating wall rock and provides the necessary

conditions for carapace development, hydrofracturing, and
focusing of hydrothermal fluid flow. The far-field stress was
effectively neutralized during the deposition of most porphyry
copper deposits. In a few porphyry systems, however, most
noticeably at Chuquicamata, Chile, much of the porphyry
ore body is trapped in an extensional-shear mesh as veins
inside the body of a duplex (Sibson, 1987).
When new magma is no longer being emplaced into the
magma chamber and heat dissipates in the stock and surrounding wall rock, the likelihood of throughgoing brittle fracturing in the duplex and in the vicinity of the cooling porphyry
increases as the far-field stress regains structural dominance.
Polymetallic veins often crosscut and are often found with

porphyry copper deposits and are deposited in a network of
tension and shear fractures that develops in this retrograde
thermal environment as brittle fracturing destroys the integrity
of the reaction containment vessel (fig. 6AC). The breaching
of the containment vessel is accompanied by changes in the
hydrothermal fluid system from being largely magmatic to a
mixed magmatic-meteoric phase of hydrothermal fluid flow.
Burnhams (1979) classic geochemical model for the formation of porphyry copper deposits can be placed within the
tectonic framework discussed above. In his model the magma
in the cylinder goes through stages of hydration during the
process of its solidification (fig. 6). As the magma solidifies,
S
S
S
S
Area of tensional
fracturing
Area of shear
fracturing
Area of shear
fracturing
Area of shear
fracturing
Area of tensional
and shear fracturing
B
EXPLANATION
Shear fracture
Tensional fracture
Figure 5. Areas of tensional and shear fracturing between the tips of two interacting master strike-slip
faults in a right-lateral system. A, Compressional duplex; B, Extensional duplex. Modified from Segall and
Pollard (1980). 1, maximum principal stress; 3, minimum principal stress.
1.5
6
7
8
0
1.5
1
2
3
Distance, in kilometers
0.0
0
1
2.0
8
0
2.0
1.0
100
1000 C
0.5
1000
1.0
Pressure, in kilobars
1
Depth, in kilometers
0.5
1000 C
1
2
0.0
0.0
1.0
4
5
6
7
8
0
0.5
1.5
1000 C
2.0
1
2
3
EXPLANATION
Volcanic remnant
Solidified granodiorite
Host rock
H2O-saturated crystalline
carapace of granodiorite
Mineralized stockwork
1000 C
Granodioritic magma
Figure 6. Schematic cross section through a hypothetical granodiorite porphyry stock and associated dikes at three
progressive stages of their solidification. Modified from Burnham (1979).
the melt becomes more hydrous, pressure rises in the magma,
and boiling occurs (fig. 6A). These processes are accompanied
by volume changes that cause fracturing of the recently solidified carapace and associated deposition of quartz, potassium
feldspar, and copper and iron sulfides (fig. 6B). After release
of the pressure, the system is resealed by the deposition of
quartz and feldspar. With further solidification, the hydration
cycle repeats, the newly deposited carapace is fractured, and
an additional assemblage of gangue and sulfide minerals is
deposited (fig. 6C). All of these reactions occur during the
period when the column of magma is in a stable tectonic configuration as discussed above.
We can gain additional insight into the location of these
porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits within a
duplex from model studies by Rogers (1980), Segall and Pollard (1980), and Connolly and Cosgrove (1999). Empirically,
in extensional duplexes the corners and edges appear to be the
preferred sites of porphyry emplacement.
In the initial stage of an extensional duplexs development (fig. 5B), the tips of the master faults do not overlap. In
the compressional duplex, the area where tensional fracturing
can occur is limited to a relatively small area at the tips of the
two master faults (fig. 5A). Although a compressional duplex
(fig. 5A) can be favorable for porphyry emplacement, we
usually find porphyry copper deposits in extensional duplexes
(fig. 5B). This is most likely a consequence of the fact that in
well-documented strike-slip fault systems the sense of stepping is predominantly releasing and, therefore, favorable for
the formation of extensional duplexes (Parkinson and Dooley,
1996).
The results of the modeling of extensional duplexes
suggest that tensional fracturing occurs within a much larger
area than that occurring in compressional duplexes because it
is associated with shear (fig. 5B). These results of Segall and
Pollard (1980) suggest that even with no fault overlap there
may be many sites in the intra-tip area that are favorable for
the emplacement of porphyry stocks. Rogers (1980) modeled the evolution of extensional fault duplexes and pull-apart
basins at various degrees of overlap (fig. 7). As the degree of
overlap increases, the area of tensional fracturing (the intra-tip
area), where sedimentary basins occur, is subsequently rotated
and separated into two basins that migrate spatially. The areas
of normal faulting are under extension, volcanic rocks and
magmatic stocks are emplaced, and volcaniclastic and other
sediments are deposited. Multiple sites may exist in the duplex
for porphyry copper systems to form during the progressive
evolution of strike-slip fault duplexes.
More recently, Connolly and Cosgrove (1999) have
expanded the earlier research of Rogers (1980) and have
included a brief discussion of the application of their study to
the occurrence of mineral deposits. Their principal focus, like
that of Rogers, was on building a model to aid in petroleum
exploration. Their study shows that when the overstep is twice
the distance between the master strike-slip faults (fig. 7D;
Rogers, 1980), tensional fracturing is pervasive (fig. 8). This
area has the map pattern of an annulus whose outer bound-
A
N
B
N
N
N
EXPLANATION
Strike-slip faultArrows
show relative movement
Figure 7. Diagram showing the possible evolution of an

extensional fault duplex (pull-apart basin) where the overstep
increases from neutral to twice the vertical distance between
the master faults. Areas labeled N are areas of normal faulting
(extensional areas) where sedimentary basins have occurred.
Modified from Rogers (1980).
ary is defined by the fault boundaries of the duplex (fig. 9).

Connolly and Cosgrove (1999) also show the locations of
maximum fluid flow in the duplex, which are focused at two
relatively small areas on the corners of the duplex.
The possible distribution of tensional fracturing inside the
annulus-shaped region may be discontinuous (Connolly and
Cosgrove, 1999). Thus, the annulus-shaped region is, in general,
more favorable than the middle of the duplex for the intrusion of a
porphyry stock and the development of porphyry mineralization.
Their model also suggests that tensional fracturing is rare at sites
of neutral overlap and that fracturing increases as the degree of
overstep increases. This is a very useful concept when making a
resource assessment, for it creates a basis to evaluate, by the degree
of overlap, the favorability of a group of duplexes in a strike-slip
fault system. This model also provides information needed to
identify areas within a duplex that have higher probabilities for
stock emplacement. The author speculates that faults in the area
of the annulus (fig. 9) are an interconnected mosaic of extensional
duplexes and positive and negative flower structures (fig. 10).
Deposition of Polymetallic Veins

The tectonic model describing the porphyry copper system must include how closely associated epithermal polyme-
A
EXPLANATION
Shear fracture
Tensional fracture
Figure 8. Tensional and shear fracturing in and near a strike-slip

fault duplex. Modified from Connolly and Cosgrove (1999).
B
Lateral margin favorable for the
emplacement of porphyry deposits
Area of
maximum
fluid flow
Area of maximum
fluid flow
EXPLANATION
Shear fracture
Tensional fracture
Figure 9. A strike-slip fault duplex showing the region most

favorable for the tensional fracturing with maximum fluid flow.
This area would be favored for the intrusion of porphyry stocks
and the occurrence of porphyry copper deposits. Modified from
Connolly and Cosgrove (1999). Positive and negative flower
structures can occur in the area of the annulus.
tallic veins form. These veins usually contain low tonnages of

high-grade ore comprising copper, gold, lead, silver, and zinc.
In some mining districts these veins have high commercial
value (Bliss and Cox, 1986).
The physical proximity of polymetallic veins and porphyry copper deposits has been considered, for the most part,
Figure 10. Diagrams showing cross sections through (A)

positive and (B) negative flower structures. A, movement
is away from viewer; T, movement is toward viewer.
to be coincidental. Here, this association is genetic. Porphyry

copper and polymetallic vein deposits form a family of mineral deposits initially of magmatic origin (porphyry copper)
that systematically progresses over time and space toward
mineral deposits of mixed magmatic-meteoric origin (polymetallic veins) (Berger and others, 1999; Drew and others, 1999a;
Drew and Berger, 2001; Drew, 2003).
The tectonic model developed here must explain the
connection between the spatial and temporal occurrence
of the porphyry stock (and its primary mineralization) and
polymetallic vein mineralization. An understanding of how the
structural regime changes within the duplex from one suitable
for the emplacement of a porphyry stock to one suitable for
the deposition of vein mineralization is critical. The overall
tectonic model must account for the quiet tectonic phase
within the duplex, when the integrity of the reaction containment vessel is maintained and single or multiple intrusions can
solidify, and the porphyry mineralization can occur (fig. 6).
Crosscutting relations seen in the field often indicate that
polymetallic veins formed after emplacement of the porphyry
stock and associated mineralization (fig. 11). The type of ore
in the polymetallic veins can vary widely from high to low sulfidization. The veins contain complex suites of ore and gangue
minerals and have isotopic fluid signatures that range from
nearly magmatic to predominantly meteoric.
Deposition of porphyry mineralization requires local
areas of extension without shear. The deposition of polymetallic veins requires active shear and tensional fracturing in an
EXPLANATION
Molasse
Ophiolite
Volcanic rocks of
Paleocene age
++
Andesite
Sedimentary rocks
of Mesozoic age
Porphyry copper
Hanes polymetallic
vein deposit
.. . .
. .
.. . .. . +
.
+
. +
+
.
+
+
.
+
+
.
.
.
+
+
+
. .. .. + +
+ +
.. ..
+
+
+
+
.
. . + +
+
Veins
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Larga
porphyry
copper
deposit
Figure 11. Cross section through the Larga porphyry copper deposit, Apuseni Mountains, Romania,
showing the crosscutting and other spatially associated polymetallic veins. Modified from Borco (1994).
extensional-shear mesh (fig. 12). Berger and others (1999),

Drew and others (1999a), Drew and Berger (2001, 2002), and
Drew (2003) have shown that deposition of polymetallic veins
occurs in a duplex after the far-field stress becomes predominant and the reaction containment vessel is ruptured. Within
the later polymetallic vein segment of mineralization, the composition of the veins generally evolves from an earlier phase
of high sulfidization, when the hydrothermal fluids are from a
magmatic source, to a later phase of low sulfidization reflecting a mixed magmatic-meteoric or meteoric fluid source.
The mechanical details of how zones of extension and
shear fractures change or form into a functioning extensional-shear mesh are not well understood. There is, however,
extensive literature that illustrates how the mesh functions
(McKinstry, 1948; Hill, 1977; Sibson, 1986, 1987, 1989).
McKinstry (1948) assembled descriptions of the behavior of
a large number of mineralized and barren veins and fractures
in polymetallic metal mines in the Western United States,
Mexico, Peru, Australia, and elsewhere. He noted that a single
fracture can change along its course from tension to shear and
end at a sharp point. Tension fractures often occur in closely
spaced parallel sets. McKinstry (1948) described the polymetallic vein deposits at Oatman, Ariz., as consisting of two
parallel veins that join and then separate and become parallel again in a manner similar to the design of a chicken-wire
mesh. He also recognized the collection of parallel veins in the
structure that we call today a strike-slip fault duplex. McKinstry (1948) labeled the structure a cymoid loop and connected
it to a set of horsetail veins that are common terminations of a
duplex structure.
McKinstry (1948) modeled a fault that had right-lateral
and right-stepping movement that changed its strike in a
clockwise manner and then reoriented itself back to the main
strike direction (fig. 13A). This type of slip along a fault creates a favorable opening for the deposition of ore minerals,
whereas the opposite movement is unfavorable for ore deposition (fig. 13B). McKinstry came very close to recognizing the
alternating tensional and shear segments of the extensionalshear mesh that was later developed by Hill (1977) as the
mechanism that localizes dikes in dike swarms and by Sibson
(1986, 1987, 1989) as the mechanism that traps the ore shoots
in polymetallic veins. Additionally, McKinstry anticipated
later models of the mechanical behavior of the mesh. For
example, areas of favorable permeability (fig. 13B) correlate
with the fault duplex basin and negative flower structures
(figs. 3, 10B), and areas of unfavorable permeability (fig. 13B)
correlate with compressional structures and positive flower
structures (figs. 3, 10A).
Our current understanding of the mechanics of the
extensional-shear mesh had its origin in the study of earthquakes associated with strike-slip fault duplexes (Hill, 1977).
Swarms of dikes are commonly found in the eroded volcanic
A
S
B
Favorable
Unfavorable
EXPLANATION
S
Potential fracture
Zone of extension (ore shoot)
EXPLANATION
on downthrown side
Zone of extension
Shear fracture
Zone of compression
Figure 13. Schematic diagram showing movement on a

strike-slip fault. A, Fault with alternating segments of shear and
extension; B, Comparison of a favorable movement for vein
deposition (right-stepping fault segment) with an unfavorable
(left-stepping fault segment) in a strike-slip fault. Modified from
McKinstry (1948).
1 kilometer
Figure 12. The extensional-shear mesh of a brittle fracture

within a strike-slip duplex (Sibson, 1985). Polymetallic veins are
deposited along zones of extension connected by shear fractures.
1, maximum principal stress; 3, minimum principal stress.
Kilauea
Volcano
S
S
Ea
fields whose emplacement can be related to the release of

tectonic stress inside an extensional fault duplex. The dikes
were deposited in extensional voids (fig. 14) created when
earthquake energy was absorbed in the duplex. At the summit of the Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii, an inferred swarm of
dikes is aligned with the maximum principal stress (s1), and
focal mechanism studies indicate that strike-slip faulting was
the main mode of failure (Hill, 1977). Using an earlier model
study by Pollard (1973), Hill created the schematic diagram
(fig. 15) that would later be known as the extensional-shear
mesh (Sibson, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1989). As used to describe
the earthquake and magmatic behavior at Kilauea, the mesh
is activated when the seismic energy from an earthquake
originating somewhere along the master northwest-trending strike-slip fault system enters the duplex (figs. 14, 15).
Once the energy has entered the duplex, the rocks rupture by
strike-slip faulting, the mesh opens, and magma flows into
the extensional segments. After the energy has been absorbed,
st R
1923' N.
ault
ae f
zon
ift
zo
ne
S
S
Ko
15515' W.
EXPLANATION
Dike
Normal faultBall and bar on downthrown side
Unspecified fault
Figure 14. Map of the summit region of Kilauea Volcano,

Hawaii, showing inferred dike distribution. Modified from
Hill (1977). 1, maximum principal stress; 3, minimum
principal stress.
10 A Tectonic Model for Porphyry Copper and Polymetallic Vein Deposits in Central Europe
S
S
S
EXPLANATION
Zone of extension
Shear fracture
S
Figure 15. Schematic representation of shear fractures and

zones of extension filled by basaltic dikes. Modified from Hill
(1977). 1, maximum principal stress; 3, minimum principal stress.
the mesh closes and traps the magma as dikes. When the next
earthquake occurs, this cycle is repeated.
In summary, once the reaction containment vessel
(fig. 6) is breached by throughgoing brittle fracturing in an
extensional-shear mesh, the hydrothermal system is open to
nonmagmatic sources of zinc, lead, and other components
that have been leached by incoming meteoric waters from the
rocks surrounding the porphyry stock. The hydrothermal fluid
is trapped in the extensional-shear mesh as vein ore during
repeated cycling of the seismic pumping system triggered by
earthquakes. To be effective at trapping ore, the mesh must
be sealed except during those brief moments of geologic time
when energy from an earthquake has opened it and allowed
hydrothermal fluid to enter.
Sibson (1987) used two deposits to demonstrate the
important role that the extensional-shear mesh has played
in hosting ore bodies. The first is the Chuquicamata copper
deposit in Chile (fig. 16A), which is usually considered to be
the worlds largest porphyry copper deposit. Instead of being
hosted in the normal porphyry setting (fig. 6), the granodiorite
and quartz porphyry stock and porphyry ore at Chuquicamata fill the entire fault duplex (fig. 16A). This is a variation
of the tectonic occurrence model where only the corners and
edges are the preferred sites for the porphyry deposits. Hollister (1974, 1978) noted that Chuquicamata is an excellent
example of a porphyry copper stockwork developed in a set
of conjugate fractures (an extensional-shear mesh) between

major strike-slip faults. He further noted the strong evidence
that the regional strike-slip fault system had controlled the
emplacement of the porphyry stock and the hydrothermal
deposition of quartz and sulfides. As the magmatic system
crystallized and retreated, the mineral deposit was not trapped
in a stockwork created by the repeated fracturing of the carapace (fig. 6). This conclusion also is supported by Guilbert
and Park (1986, p. 420422) who described Chuquicamata as
a stockwork developed in the shear couple between two shear
zones (master strike-slip faults). Lindsay and others (1995)
similarly noted that this mesh was functioning at shallower
levels in a divatoric stress field (shear forces) trapping the ore
above the retreating magma.
Sibsons (1987) second example is the Martha lode system, Waihi, New Zealand, where an extensional-shear mesh
hosts gold-bearing veins. The ore shoots trapped in tensional
segments of the extensional-shear mesh are clearly visible
in plan and cross sectional views of the mine (fig. 16B). The
extensional-shear mesh, activated by seismic energy, traps
hydrothermal fluid in ore shoots as a three-dimensional network of tensional and shear fractures.
Association Between Strike-Slip Faulting and

Magmatism in Convergent-Margin Magmatic
Arcs
Oldow and others (1990) proposed that strike-slip faults
that cut through the continental crust into the mantle are
present in virtually all orogenic belts and, in most, are at least
partly coeval with contractional deformation (thrust faults and
nappe stacks). Furthermore, at convergent margins and during
continental collisions, oblique convergence is the main source
of the energy necessary for the simultaneous development of
thrust and strike-slip faults. Additionally, Oldow and others (1990) proposed that during subduction, the synchronous
displacement along the thrust and strike-slip faults is linked to
a basal detachment fault upon which the lithosphere and, conceivably, the upper mantle float directly above the subducting plate in the forearc and up to several hundred kilometers
above the backarc.
Glazner (1991) argued that plutonism and volcanism may
be decoupled, and the presence of a volcanic arc may not indicate a batholith at depth. Furthermore, plutonism can be facilitated by strike-slip faulting that helps solve the well-known
room problem by allowing plutons to be emplaced passively
at releasing bends (extensional fault duplexes) in strike-slip
fault systems. Grocott and others (1994) accepted Glazners
hypothesis for contractional subduction settings, when the convergence rate exceeds the subduction rate. Conversely, when
the arc is under extension, room for emplacement of plutons
is created by extension on normal faults and within duplexes
in transtensional strike-slip fault systems. Grocott and others
(1994) showed that the Andean plate boundary, an extensional
The Tectonic Deposit Occurrence Model 11
A
?
Ore zone
500 meters
SE
NW
EXPLANATION
Strike-slip faultArrows show relative
movement; dashed where inferred;
queried where uncertain
A'
Extensional-shear fault showing ore

shoot
Normal faultBar and ball on
downthrown side
Fault network that contains ore shoots
(Chuquicamata)
A'
0
300 meters
Figure 16. Examples of mineralized strike-slip fault duplexes. A, Map view of Chuquicamata, Chile;
B, Martha lode system on the #9 level, Waihi, New Zealand. Modified from Sibson (1987).
arc, has plutonism when the extensional fault systems are

active and volcanism when they are dormant.
De Saint Blanquat and others (1998) noted that motion
on strike-slip faults in magmatic arcs is linked to the angle
of plate convergence. In the absence of magmatism, they
noted strike-slip faulting occurs most effectively at low angles
(<20) of plate convergence. However, in many magmatic
arcs the angle of convergence ranges from 50 to 85, and
a substantial proportion of the contraction is partitioned
by strike-slip faulting. In fact, strike-slip faulting occurs in
magmatic arcs even at or near orthogonal convergence angles.
Clearly, in transpressional magmatic arcs, fault kinematics and
magmatism are intricately linked. As magma rises in an arc,
strike-slip faulting is more easily accommodated and more
space occurs for ascending magma. Magmas rise in magmatic
arcs through a combination of buoyancy forces related to density contrasts and tectonic overpressuring induced by tectonic
deformation. This tectonic overpressuring occurs when the
horizontal tectonic load is partially converted into a vertical
driving force (de Saint Blanquat and others, 1998).
They concluded that the overpressuring of the magma
initiates the strike-slip movement and, therefore, causes the
pull-apart regime in the magmatic arc. In addition, deforma-
tion in the upper crust of the magmatic arc is best represented

as a double wedge prism with the classic geometry of a flower
structure; in other words, thrust faults emerge from a central
strike-slip fault and verge in opposite directions (fig. 17).
Strike-slip and thrust faulting are linked together by basal
detachment faults and a vertical thermally weakened deformed
zone in the lithosphere. In this zone the ascent of magma is
linked with strike-slip faulting.
Orogenic Collapse, Strike-Slip Faulting, and

Basin Development
Certain fault duplexes that develop in magmatic arcs and
orogenic belts can be confused with the fault duplexes that are
permissive for porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits. These include external pull-apart basins (terminology of
Willingshofer and others, 1999, and Willingshofer, 2000) in the
Alps and central Europe that are associated initially with lowangle detachment faults. Subsequently they occur with strikeslip faulting developed during the extensional collapse of an
orogen (Ratschbacher and others, 1993; Neubauer and others,
1995; Willingshofer and others, 1999). These so-called external
Forearc
Arc
Backarc
UC
LC
UM
FMS
EXPLANATION
Deformed zone
Direction of subduction
Thermally weakened
deformed zone
Thrust faultSawteeth on
upper plate
Rising magma in dike
Figure 17. Model for kinematics and heat distribution in a contractional

magmatic arc. UC, upper crust, a zone of strike-slip partitioning and distributed
shearing; LC, lower crust, a zone of distributed shearing; UM, upper mantle,
a zone of localized shearing; FMS, forearc mantle sliver, a zone of orogenparallel translation of the lithospheric mantle below the forearc. Modified from
de Saint Blanquat and others (1998).
pull-apart basins generally are not permissive for the occurrence

of porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits because
they are rooted in the nappes and, therefore, do not provide
an effective channelway for the ascent of subduction-related
magma. These external basins are filled with a fining upward
clastic sedimentary sequence, conglomerate to turbidite, with
occasional marly limestone, limestone, and coal beds (Willingshofer and others, 1999). According to Willingshofer and others
(1999), these basins form on the top of nappe sequences facing
the actively subducting oceanic plate in the forearc.
Internal pull-apart basins, a second group of fault
duplexes delineated by Willingshofer and others (1999),
form on previously thickened crust in the central parts of
orogens and may contain volcanic and intrusive rocks. These
basins can be permissive for the occurrence of deposits in the
porphyry copper and polymetallic vein family. These more
centrally located basins are equivalent to the extensional
duplexes (figs. 2, 5B, 79) located in the thermally weakened
deformed zone (fig. 17).
The strike-slip faults associated with basin development
during orogenic collapse and the subsequent orogen-parallel
extension must be carefully examined during resource assessments. Strike-slip fault systems associated with the development of external basins should be classified as nonpermissive
for the occurrence of porphyry copper and polymetallic vein
deposits.
Application of the Model to Certain

Ore Fields in Central Europe
Late Cretaceous OrogenBanat-TimokSrednogorie Region
The Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region extends over 750
km from southern Romania, through eastern Serbia, and across
the length of Bulgaria (fig. 18). This region is known in the
literature by many names, including the Banatitic Magmatic
and Metallogenic Belt (Berza and others, 1998). However,
this report will retain the label associated with the geographic
names of the areas being discussed. The Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region contains seven significant porphyry copper deposits, five of which are in production today (table 1). Additionally, there are many polymetallic vein deposits, of which a few
are in production today, and many porphyry copper, polymetallic vein, and skarn prospects (Ciobanu and others, 2002).
The subduction-related magmatism associated with the various
porphyry and hydrothermal deposits was calc-alkaline and
spanned the period 90 to 60 Ma (Ciobanu and others, 2002).
The tectonic history of the Carpatho-Balkan region during the Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary is complex because
Application of the Model to Certain Ore Fields in Central Europe 13

25 E.
Area of
figure 30
0
50 kilometers
45 N.
ROMANIA
Bucharest
Area of
figure 27
BULGARIA
Area of
figures 2426
SERBIA
Black
Sea
Sofia
MACEDONIA
GREECE
TURKEY
Figure 18. Location of study areas in the Banat region (Romania), the Timok magmatic zone (Serbia), and a part
of the central Srednogorie region (Bulgaria). See figure 1 for location. Compiled and modified from Codarcea and
Rileanu (1968), Yugoslavia Federal Geological Institute (1970), Bulgarian Institute of Academy of Sciences (1973),
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (1977), Bogdanov (1983), and Jankovi (1990).
Table 1. Tonnages and grades of porphyry copper deposits of the Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region.
[Data from Singer and others (2002)]
Name of deposit
Banat region, Romania
Moldova Nou
Timok magmatic zone, Serbia
Majdanpek
Velki Krivelj
Bor
Srednogorie region, Bulgaria
Elatsite
Assarel
Medet
Tonnage,
in million metric tons
Copper,
in percent
500
0.35
1,000
750
450
0.60
0.44
0.60
550
360
260
0.32
0.44
0.37
of the number of tectonic plates involved, their associated

trajectories, and the multiplicity of contractional and extensional events (Dimitrijevi and Grubi, 1977; Burchfiel, 1980;
Bergerat and others, 1998). The structural complexity of the
region increased in the Tertiary when escape tectonics resulted
in extension, rotation, and collision of plates and microplates
(Horvth, 1988; Csontos and others, 1992; Csontos and Nagymarosy, 1998; Willingshofer, 2000; Neubauer, 2002).
The present-day geometry of the region (fig. 18) resulted

from post-collision tectonics during the Tertiary and has been
illustrated by using a block diagram by Csontos and Nagymarosy (1998; fig. 19). Willingshofer (2000) removed the
Tertiary structural overprint, resulting in a configuration that
suggests an east-west-trending orogen related to the northward
subduction of the Vardar oceanic plate under the Tisza-DaciaRhodopian block during the Late Cretaceous (fig. 20).
East European Platform
Bohemian promontory
Tisz
a
Alcapa block
ne
Li
Moesian promontory
Dacia blo
ck
-H
id
ia
ar
ng
bloc
Rhodo
pian b
lock
EXPLANATION
Direction of tectonic transport
Extensional basinBar and
ball on downthrown side
Figure 19. Tectonic model for the late Tertiary evolution of the Carpathian-Pannonian
area. Extensional basins and thinned crust shown diagrammatically with tectonic blocks
dissected and exploded at the Mid-Hungarian Line, a major transcurrent fault. The
Alcapa block is composed of the eastern Alps (Austria), northern and central Carpathian
Mountains (Slovakia and northern Hungary), and the northern Pannonian basin (Hungary).
The Tisza block is located in southern Hungary; the Dacia block is located in Romania; and
the Rhodopian block is located in Bulgaria. Modified from Csontos and Nagymarosy (1998).
Tisza
block
Moesian promontory
Dacia block
Banat region
(present-day
Romania)
Area of
figure
30
Area of
figure 27
Timok region
(present-day
Serbia)
Area of
figure 24
Srednogorie region
(present-day
Bulgaria)
Black
Sea
Vardar
oceanic plate
Rhodopian
block
EXPLANATION
Strike-slip faultArrow, where shown, indicates
relative movement; dashed where inferred
Direction of block movement
SubductionSawteeth on upper plate
Figure 20. Schematic reconstruction of subduction of the Vardar Ocean under the Rhodopian-Dacia blocks and docking with
the Tisza block during the Campanian-Maastrichtian (8070 Ma). Modified from Willingshofer (2000) and Ciobanu and others
(2002). The Banat-Timok-Srednogorie regions and the Black Sea are shown in their relative positions. Geology of the study
areas compiled and modified from Codarcea and Rileanu (1968), Yugoslavia Federal Geological Institute (1970), Bulgarian
Institute of Academy of Sciences (1973), Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (1977), Bogdanov (1983), and Jankovi (1990).
Establishing the Sense of Shear in the Orogen

Before the proposed tectonic deposit occurrence model
could be applied in the Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region,
the regional shear couple that created the strike-slip faulting
associated with the eruption of calc-alkaline volcanic rocks
and emplacement of coeval porphyry stocks had to be identified. This shear couple is the cause of the local extension and
contraction within the strike-slip corridor.
Early researchers in Serbia interpreted a right sense
(dextral) of movement in zones of transform and transcurrent
faulting in connection with the postulated arrangement and
movement of plates and microplates in the Banat-TimokSrednogorie region during the Late Cretaceous (Dimitrijevi,
1974). A right sense of shear was interpreted by Burchfiel
(1980) for the collision of the Dacia (present-day Albania, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Macedonia, and Greece) and Rhodopian (present-day Bulgaria) blocks when the Vardar Ocean was
consumed (see fig. 20). Recently, Ivanov and others (2002)
in their study of the central Srednogorie region, Bulgaria,
also interpret a right sense of shear thats associated with the
emplacement of Late Cretaceous magmas.
detailed descriptions of the Late Cretaceous faulting, basin

development, sedimentation, volcanism, and intrusion in the
rift. The boundaries of the Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region
are defined for the most part by straight fault segments (fig.
21). The rift thickens and thins along its trend suggesting
that a number of extensional duplexes developed in it. Popov
(1987) described the formation of grabens by tangential extension and transcurrent faulting along the rift. These extensional events were followed by intense calc-alkaline magmatism as the transcurrent faults intersected the site of magma
supply. In the areas of magmatic activity, grabens formed with
volcanic-plutonic rocks in their interiors. This extensional
phase of deformation was followed by a compressional phase
during which volcanic activity was nearly absent except for
some continued magmatic activity in the northwestern part of
the rift. Although Antonijevi and others (1974) and Popov
(1987) favored a rift environment, the geology they described
is much more likely the result of the tectonism and magmatism
developed during orogenic transpression within a major strikeslip fault system related to oblique subduction as described
above by Oldow and others (1990), Glazner (1991), Grocott
and others (1994), and de Saint Blanquat and others (1998).
The Rift Model for the Orogen
Application of the Model
Although their model of a continental rift environment

is now out of favor, Antonijevi and others (1974) and Popov
(1987) provide important geologic information for the application of the tectonic deposit occurrence model through their
In the Banat-Timok-Srednogorie region, the surface

expression of strike-slip faulting on maps is associated with
the location of known porphyry copper deposits, and to a
lesser degree because of data availability, with polymetal-
Majdampek
50 kilometers
ROMANIA
Bor
SERBIA
BULGARIA
EXPLANATION
Late Cretaceous volcanic
and sedimentary rocks
Sofia
Black
Sea
Late Cretaceous plutonic

stocks
Boundary faults for paleorift
system
City or town
TURKEY
Figure 21. Sketch map showing the Timok-Srednogorie paleorift system in the Serbian and Bulgarian part of the BanatTimok-Srednogorie region. Modified from Antonijevi and others (1974).
lic vein deposits. In addition, where possible, Landsat and
ASTER satellite images were used to identify structural features and sites of hydrothermal alteration. The satellite images
also were used as a base for compiling tectonic, geologic, and
mineral deposit occurrence data from a variety of sources.
Most of the maps for the region show many faults but rarely
indicate the sense of movement. As mentioned above, the
right-lateral sense of movement on the strike-slip faults was
generally predicted based on the overall right sense of shear
in the orogen. In 1998 and 1999, when this compilation was
completed, no database existed with the latitudes and longitudes of the known mineral deposits and occurrences.
The west-central Srednogorie area, Bulgaria, is used
here to illustrate how this compilation was conducted (figs.
2224). On this composite image (fig. 22), northwest-trending
linear features are interpreted as faults that are associated with
green to pink changes in color. Elliptically shaped sedimentary
basins range in color from pink to blue. In figure 23, the locations of the three largest porphyry copper deposits in Bulgaria
are shown in relation to strike-slip faults transferred from the
1:1,000,000-scale map published by the Bulgarian Institute of
Academy of Sciences (1973). The sense of movement on the

faults (right lateral) is from Ivanov and others (2002). Open
pits were used to confirm the locations of the three major
porphyry copper deposits (Elatsite, Medet, and Assarel) (fig.
23). In addition, the locations of three smaller porphyry copper
deposits (not shown) were determined using enlarged sections
of the composite image, while three of the seven porphyry
occurrences and three of the six epithermal vein deposits were
tentatively identified on the satellite image by ground disturbance.
The geologic map shown in figure 24 contains much
of the basic information that has been used for more than 25
years by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) geologists to assess
tracts of land for undiscovered mineral resources. This map
includes information on the location of discovered deposits by
type (for example, porphyry copper and polymetallic vein),
the types of rocks associated with these mineral deposits (for
example, coeval volcanic rocks and intrusive granitoids),
and the more recent sedimentary cover that may obscure the
rocks associated with the occurrence of undiscovered deposits
(Singer, 1993). The addition of structural features (fig. 25)
Moesian promontory
Srednogorie
region
Area of
figure
Sofia
Rhodopian
block
Area of
figure 23
Fault
Sedimentary
basin
20 kilometers
Figure 22. Landsat Thematic Mapper 7 composite image of the west-central Srednogorie region, Bulgaria.
Spectral bands are red (band 7), green (band 4), and blue (band 2).
Elatsite
Medet
Assarel
Figure 23. Satellite image showing the locations of the three largest porphyry copper deposits in Bulgaria (table 1) and their
relation to the strike-slip faults in the region. Faults are transferred from the 1:1,000,000-scale geologic map of Bulgaria (Bulgarian
Institute of Academy of Sciences, 1973). The sense of movement on the faults (right lateral) is from Ivanov and others (2002).
shows a close spatial association between the larger deposits

and the inferred strike-slip fault duplexes (fig. 26). The Medet
deposit (table 1) occurs in the northern corner of duplex 1a.
The Elatsite deposit occurs in the northeastern corner of
duplex 1, and the Assarel deposit occurs in the southeastern
corner of duplex 1. Each of these porphyry copper deposits

is located in or near granodiorite-quartz monzodiorite stocks
in associated volcanics (Strashimirov and others, 2002). The
Assarel deposit was emplaced at a shallow crustal level in a
stock intruded into the superstructure of a volcano, whereas
EXPLANATION
Tertiary basin fill
Late Cretaceous volcanic rocks
Late Cretaceous intrusive rocks
Mid-Cretaceous to Archean rocks
Sofia
Major porphyry copper deposit

Minor porphyry copper deposit
Porphyry copper occurrence
Polymetallic vein deposit
City or town
20 kilometers
Figure 24. Geologic map showing rock types and known porphyry copper deposits in the west-central Srednogorie region, Bulgaria.
Modified from Bulgarian Institute of Academy of Sciences (1973), Bogdanov (1983), Bayraktarov (1994), and Strashimirov and others (2002).
EXPLANATION
Tertiary basin fill
Late Cretaceous volcanic rocks
Late Cretaceous intrusive rocks
Mid-Cretaceous to Archean rocks
Sofia

Iskar
-Ya
shea voritsa
r zon
e
Strike-slip faultArrow shows relative

movement; dashed where covered or inferred
City or town
20 kilometers
Figure 25. Geologic map showing rock types, known porphyry copper deposits, and strike-slip faults in the central Srednogorie region,
Bulgaria. The major porphyry copper deposits are associated with small Late Cretaceous intrusive stocks (not shown) whereas most of the
minor porphyry copper deposits and occurrences are associated with larger intrusive bodies (shown). Modified from Bulgarian Institute of
Academy of Sciences (1973), Bogdanov (1983), Bayraktarov (1994), Ivanov and others (2002), and Strashimirov and others (2002).
EXPLANATION
Strike-slip faultArrow shows
relative movement; dashed
where covered or inferred
Elatsite

Chelopech
Medet
Assarel
?
Stoudenetz
Isk
she ar-Yav
ar z ori
one tsa
1a
5
4a
Vlaykoro
Mountains
4
0
Popovo
Dere
20 kilometers
Tsar
Assen
Higher prob
ability
of occurre
nce
Iskar-Yav
oritsa
shear zone
?
Lower prob
ability
of occurre
nce
Figure 26. Map showing relations between porphyry copper deposits and their hosting strike-slip fault duplexes (shaded gray) in the westcentral Srednogorie region, Bulgaria. Interpretation of additional faults based on geologic data from maps and satellite images. The numbered
duplexes are discussed in text. Inset map shows interpretation of strike-slip duplex formation and the relative probabilities of occurrence of
porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits relative to the location of the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone (see text for discussion).
the Medet and Elatsite deposits were emplaced at a somewhat

deeper level (Strashimirov and others, 2002). These three
deposits are located in zones of extensional fracturing.
The four minor porphyry copper deposits (Popovo Dere,
Tsar Assen, Vlaykoro Mountains, and Stoudenetz) individually produced no more than 10 million metric tons of ore
(Bogdanov, 1983; Ciobanu and others, 2002; Kouzmanov
and others, 2002). Popovo Dere, Tsar Assen, and Vlaykoro
Mountains occur along the edges of the strike-slip fault duplex
labeled 4a, which is within a larger duplex, labeled 4.
These minor deposits seem to occur on or near the boundary
faults (lateral margins of the duplex structure shown in figure
9), where tensional fractures developed and produced sites
favorable for the emplacement of porphyry stocks.
The Stoudenetz deposit and five porphyry copper occurrences are found in the proposed duplex structure labeled 3
(fig. 26). The faults that are shown on the 1:1,000,000-scale
map in the vicinity of this proposed duplex are compatible
with this interpretation (Bulgarian Institute of Academy of
Sciences, 1973). The Stoudenetz deposit and the five occurrences have been tentatively identified as ground disturbances
using the satellite images.
Relative Probability of Occurrence of

Undiscovered Resources in Porphyry Copper
and Polymetallic Vein Deposits
An important part in using the model in the assessment
of undiscovered mineral resources is the determination of the
levels of permissiveness of deposit occurrence in the region
under consideration. For more than 25 years, information on
rock type, deposit occurrence, and Tertiary sedimentary cover
(fig. 24) has formed the basic data used by the USGS for the
assessment of undiscovered mineral resources in tracts of
land permissive for the occurrence of various types of mineral
deposits (Singer, 1993). In addition, geophysical and exploration geochemical data have been used to identify the boundaries of land tracts permissive for undiscovered mineral deposits.
According to the definition and methods developed by Singer
(1993), the entire area shown in figure 24 would be classified as being permissive for the occurrence of undiscovered
porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits because the
tolerance probability level for permissiveness is set at 1 chance
in 100,000 or P = 0.00001.
Using the tectonic deposit occurrence model presented
here with additional tectonic analysis, the study area can
be divided into subareas with different levels of probability
for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry copper and
polymetallic vein deposits (fig. 26; Ivanov and others, 2002).
Duplexes near the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone seem to contain only minor porphyry copper deposits and occurrences.
The major porphyry copper deposits are associated with Late
Cretaceous intrusive stocks (not shown) that are very small in
areal extent (several square kilometers). The minor porphyry
copper deposits and occurrences are associated with large
plutons, for example, in the vicinity of duplex 3 (figs. 25, 26).
Near the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone in the vicinity of duplex
3, a large Late Cretaceous granitoid body is exposed that has
a long arching extension that terminates in the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone near the southern edge of duplex 4 (figs. 25,
26). This pattern of intrusion probably reflects emplacement
under the influence of a devitoric stress field; that is, 1
3. The development of porphyry copper deposits requires a
stable extensional stress field such as exists in the vicinity
of the corners and edges of duplexes where tensional fracturing occurs (lower mean stress) and where 1 = 3. Under these
conditions a porphyry stock repeatedly undergoes cycles of
crystallization, fracturing of the encapsulating silica carapace,
and emplacement of the ore minerals and silica and related
gange minerals to form a major porphyry copper deposit (fig.
6). Such stable conditions generally are not maintained in the
vicinity of a major shear zone.
The minor porphyry copper deposits (Popovo Dere, Tsar
Assen, and Vlaykoro Mountains) located in duplex 4a (fig. 26)
are associated with two northwest-trending granitoid bodies, suggestive of emplacement under devitoric stress. These
deposits are interspersed with polymetallic vein deposits and
concentrated along the edges of the duplex. If the model is
correct, then the vein systems were deposited after the minor
porphyry copper deposits. The porphyry copper deposits
would have been deposited in an earlier extensional environment when the far-field stress was temporally nullified. This
extensional environment would have been followed by an
extensional-shear environment when the stress in the far field
returned to being dominant. These polymetallic vein deposits
may crosscut the porphyry deposits and (or) be located in
an extensional-shear mesh between or outside the porphyry
deposits.
Duplex 5 (fig. 26) is bounded on the north and south by
strike-slip faults and probably contains a complex of smaller
duplexes. Two polymetallic vein deposits occur in the middle
of the duplex. No deposits or occurrences have been described
from within duplex 2. This basin is bounded to the south by
the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone making it doubtful that any
significant porphyry copper or polymetallic vein deposits were
formed. Even if deposits were formed, recent tectonic movement may have downdropped them into the basin, where they
would be covered by sediments.
With the exception of the Chelopech polymetallic vein
deposit (fig. 26), which is currently the largest gold-producing
vein deposit in Europe, maps of the polymetallic vein deposits

are undocumented in the published literature. The map for the
vein system at Chelopech (Popov and Kovachev, 1996) suggests that the vein system is hosted in a local cone-sheet-radial
dike subvariety (Park, 1983). This deposit is located near and
somewhat inward in the duplex from the major Elatsite porphyry copper deposit (fig. 26).
Porphyry Copper and Associated Deposits

in Serbia
Three major porphyry copper deposits have been discovered in the Timok magmatic zone, Serbia (fig. 27, table
1). Jankovi and others (1980) and Jankovi (1990) describe
the Timok magmatic zone as a graben-syncline associated
with a paleorift that has been filled by andesite, dacite, tuffs,
and other volcaniclastic rocks, shale, and sandstone. Between
90 and 60 Ma these rocks were intruded by small calc-alkaline igneous stocks ranging in composition from gabbro to
granodiorite, but most commonly monzonite (except for one,
too small to show). The intrusions were emplaced during the
reactivation of preexisting fractures.
The emplacement of the ore bodies at Majdanpek was
controlled by a 0.3- to 0.6-km-wide north-trending positive
flower structure (Jankovi and others, 1980; fig. 28). The
outcropping ore bodies are continuous in this fracture zone for
about 3 km and range in width from a maximum of 500 m to
less than 100 m. The sense of displacement along the fracture
zone is right lateral (fig. 28); faults in this zone have a downto-the-east sense of displacement (Jankovi and Petkovic,
1982). There are several north-trending, nearly vertical faults
in areas to the east and west of the Majdanpek deposit (Starostin, 1970; Jankovi and others, 1980; Jankovi and Petkovic,
1982).
Jankovi and Petkovic (1982) report that the individual
porphyry copper ore bodies in the Majdanpek deposit are
located in domes related to intrusions with the ore in apical
parts of the intrusions or in arches above the intrusions. Starostin (1970) reports that the andesite in the ore zone is intensely
brecciated and, locally, is sheared and hydrothermally altered.
The greatest concentration of copper ore minerals occurs in
the quartz-rich cores (fig. 28).
Closer examination of the ore bodies that comprise the
Majdanpek deposit (fig. 28) suggests that the bodies have been
emplaced in a positive flower structure (figs. 3, 10) within the
PDZ of a master strike-slip fault. Stress on this master fault
system appears to have been relayed across the northern part
of the Timok magmatic zone (duplex) to an inferred strike-slip
fault near the center of the duplex (fig. 29), thereby creating
an extensional duplex. Figure 28 shows the location of Late
Cretaceous andesite in which highly silicified bodies, referred
to as quartz-rich cores occur. These quartz-rich cores,
which have the highest copper grades, are the location of the
containment vessels where porphyry copper mineralization
occurred (fig. 6).
Application of the Model to Certain Ore Fields in Central Europe21

22 E.
Danube Riv
er
iver
EXPLANATION
Dan
ube
R
Unaltered andesite of Late Cretaceous

and Miocene age
Andesite to dacite, tuffs, volcaniclastic
rock, shale, and sandstone of Late
Cretaceous and Miocene age
Area of
figure 28
Monzonite and diorite of Late

Cretaceous and Miocene age
Majdanpek
Mid-Cretaceous and older rocks

Thrust faultSawteeth on upper plate
Strike-slip fault
SynclineDashed where inferred
Named major porphyry copper deposit
Veliki Krivelj

Dome cored
with Proterozoic
rocks

Bor
44 N.
10
20 kilometers
Figure 27. Porphyry copper deposits in the Timok magmatic zone (a strike-slip fault duplex) in Serbia. See figure 18 for location.
Modified from Yugoslavia Federal Geological Institute (1970), Jankovi (1990), and Karamata and others (1997). Porphyry copper and vein
deposit locations from Kozelj and Jelenkovic (2001).
EXPLANATION
Highly silicified bodies (quartz-rich cores) of Late
Cretaceous age associated with small intrusive
stocks with the highest grade copper
Andesite of Late Cretaceous age containing
porphyry copper mineralization
Volcanic breccia of Late Cretaceous age
A'
Andesite of Late Cretaceous age

Limestone of Lower Cretaceous age
Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic phyllite and gneiss
Contact
Strike-slip faultBar and ball on downthrown side;
arrow, where shown, indicates relative movement
0.5
1 kilometer
Figure 28. Map and schematic cross section illustrating a positive flower structure of the Majdanpek porphyry copper deposit.
Compiled and modified from Starostin (1970) and Jankovi and others (1980).
A'
Application of the Model to Certain Ore Fields in Central Europe23

22 E.
Danube
River
be
nu
Da
EXPLANATION
er
Riv
Andesite and volcaniclastic rocks of

Late Cretaceous and younger age
Sedimentary rocks of Late
Cretaceous and younger age
Majdanpek
Undifferentiated rocks of
Mid-Cretaceous and older age
Contact

Strike-slip faultArrow indicates
relative movement; dashed where
inferred
Inferred syncline
Veliki Krivelj
Valja Strz
Named major porphyry copper deposit
B
Bor

Dome cored by
Proterozoic rocks
44 N.
10
20 kilometers
Figure 29. Tectonic map of the Timok magmatic zone (strike-slip fault duplex modified from Milovanovic, 1968), Serbia. Mapped rock
units differ from those shown in figure 27 by the delineation of the Tertiary sediments and by not identifying the unaltered andesite. This
map is used here because it emphasizes the structural geology of the duplex. Areas of the duplex designated by the letters A, B, and C
(see text for discussion).
From the discussion above we conclude that the Timok
magmatic zone is an extensional strike-slip duplex with a
right-lateral, right-step sense of movement (figs. 27, 28).
Note that two of the three major porphyry copper deposits are
located along the eastern side of the duplex, while the four
porphyry copper occurrences are located toward either side of
the duplex (fig. 27). In contrast, the polymetallic vein deposits
appear concentrated in the interior of the duplex. This configuration is consistent with the tectonic deposit occurrence model
as described here (figs. 216).
The pattern of the faults in the duplex is best shown on a
map by Milovanovic (1968), to which has been added a few
additional faults proposed here by the author (fig. 29). The
resulting duplex is composite in character with successive segments interpreted to have developed in a southern and possibly
southwestern direction as stress was successively transferred
from the series of strike-slip faults (see figures 27, 29). The
initial opening of the Timok duplex was in the trough of a syncline where the rocks in the axial region had been weakened
during previous regional deformation (figs. 27, 29).
The initial extension in the Timok fault duplex was in
the small duplex in its northern part (area A in figure 29). The
master fault on the southwestern margin of this duplex has
been inferred by the author. The next duplexes to form may
have been near the Bor and Veliki Krivelj porphyry deposits
(areas B and C, respectively, in figure 29), although the order
and timing of the development of these individual duplexes
is not known. The Majdanpek deposit has been dated at 904
Ma, the Bor deposit at 794 Ma, and the Veliki Krivelj deposit
at 766 Ma (Ciobanu and others, 2002). These age dates support the idea that the duplex opened and magma ascended in at
least two stages progressing toward the south. The porphyry
copper occurrence at Valja Strz on the western side of the
Timok duplex has been dated at 784 Ma.
Porphyry Copper in the Banat Region, Romania

Porphyry copper and associated polymetallic vein
deposits in the Banat region, Romania, are, for the most
part, in a narrow, north-trending corridor on the western
edge of the Getic nappe near or at its contact with the
Supragetic nappe (fig. 30). The Getic nappe consists of
Permian to Upper Cretaceous rocks that contain a substantial amount of limestone. This nappe is one of at least five
nappes that were emplaced during the Early to Late Cretaceous (Vardar subduction) and were subsequently deformed
by steeply dipping, right-lateral strike-slip faults during the
Late Cretaceous and Paleocene (Ratschbacher and others, 1993; Willingshofer, 2000). The porphyry copper and
polymetallic vein deposits are associated with small stocks
and dikes of granitoid rocks of Late Cretaceous to Paleocene age (fig. 30). The limestone wall rock has been altered
to discontinuous pods of skarn along the edge of the northtrending Getic nappe. The four largest pods are elongate in
a north-south direction and are up to 8 km long and 1 to 2
km wide. The Moldova Nou porphyry copper deposit is in

the southern part of the southernmost skarn body (fig. 31A),
and it is the only major porphyry copper deposit in the
Banat region (fig. 30).
Gravitational Collapse and Escape Tectonics

These skarn bodies have map patterns consistent with
extensional duplexes showing a left-lateral sense of shear (figs.
30, 31A). However, right sense of shear on Late Cretaceous
to Paleocene faults in the Banat area was reported by Ratschbacher and others (1993), Schmid and others (1998), and
Willingshofer (2000). This right sense of shear is consistent
with the overall sense of shear during the closure of the Vardar
Ocean in Bulgaria and Serbia, as discussed earlier (Burchfiel,
1980; Jankovi and others, 1980; Ivanov and others, 2002;
Popov, 1987).
If the dominant sense of shear were right lateral during
Late Cretaceous orogenic compression in the SrednogorieTimok region, why does it appear to be left lateral in the
Banat region? These relations may have resulted from the
gravitational collapse of the nappe pile combined with tectonic
escape (Dewey, 1988; Ratschbacher and others, 1989; Malavieille, 1993; Willingshofer, 2000).
Gravitational collapse initiates in local areas of the nappe
pile when it becomes unstable because of its thickness and
high relief. In these areas, collapse begins with local extension
and the formation of low-angle normal faults. This extension
begins while the nappes are being emplaced (Malavieille,
1993). During later stages of orogenesis, extensional stresses
affect the entire orogen through strike-slip faulting and are
associated with orogen-parallel extension.
During the process of orogen-parallel extension, blocks
of continental crust may move laterally away from an orogen
through the process of tectonic escape as oceans (such as
the Vardar Ocean, shown in figure 20) are consumed. This
process is well documented for collisional orogens such as
the Alps and the Carpathians in Europe and the Himalayas
in Asia (Royden and others, 1983; Dewey, 1988; Horvth,
1988; Tapponnier and others, 1982, 1986). During the
process of tectonic escape the reversal of movement on
strike-slip faults has been proposed, modeled, and verified in
the field (Tapponnier and others, 1982, 1986; Ratschbacher
and others, 1989; Peresson and Decker, 1997; Matenco and
Schmid, 1999).
Perhaps the most complete analysis of the reversal of
motion on strike-slip faults applies to the tectonic escape
of the eastern Alps into the Pannonian region (Peresson
and Decker, 1997). The gravitational collapse of the Alpine
nappe pile and the resultant tectonic escape of the eastern
Alps resulted from the collision between the Apulian/African and European plates during the early Eocene (55 Ma) to
the early Miocene (17 Ma). During the middle Miocene, the
sense of shear was reversed on several of the strike-slip faults
that allowed tectonic escape of the eastern Alps. During the
Eocene and early Miocene, the movement on these faults was
Gravitational Collapse and Escape Tectonics25

22 E.
EXPLANATION
Sedimentary rocks of Neogene age
Granitoid rocks of Late Cretaceous to Paleocene
age
Getic nappePermian to Upper Cretaceous rocks
Supragetic nappePaleozoic and Neoproterozoic
rocks
Dubanian nappePaleozoic and Neoproterozoic
rocks
Skarn mineralization and alteration
Thrust faultDashed where inferred
Strike-slip fault
Dognecea
Sasca
Named porphyry copper deposit

Small granitoid stocks
City or town
5 kilometers
Orivita
Anina
45 N.
Orivita
Ciclova
Racajdia
Sasca
Area of
figure 31
Sopot
Moldova
Nou
Moldova
Nou
Bozovici
Figure 30. Geologic map of the Banat region, Romania. Modified from Codarcea (1967), Codarcea and Dimitrescu (1967),
Codarcea and Rileanu (1968), Nastaseanu and Maier (1972), Maier and others (1973), and Nastaseanu and others (1975). See
figure 18 for location.
EXPLANATION
Granitoid rocks of Late Cretaceous to
Paleocene age
Rocks of Cretaceous or older age
Skarn mineralization and alteration
Small granitoid stocks and dikes
movement
Normal faultBall and bar on downthrown

side
Anticline
Moldova Nou
porphyry copper
deposit
Moldova Nou
porphyry copper
deposit
2 kilometers
C
S3
PDZ
S3
S3
S2
S2
S1
S1
S2
S2
S3
S3
S3
Figure 31. Tectonic elements in the area of the Moldova Nou copper deposit in the Banat region, Romania. Modified
from Nastaseanu and Maier (1972). See figure 30 for location. 1, maximum principal stress; 2, intermediate principal
stress; 3, minimum principal stress; PDZ, principal deformation zone; R, synthetic shear fracture; P, antithetic shear
fracture. A, Map view of the duplex hosting the Moldova Nou porphyry copper deposit. B, Stress-strain ellipsoid
showing the sense of thrusting and folding during Upper Cretaceous transpression. C, Stress-strain ellipsoid showing
the sense of principal extension during orogenic collapse. D, Stress-strain ellipsoid showing reversal of the sense of
shear from right lateral to left lateral as a consequence of orogenic collapse. E, Interpretation of the Moldova Nou
duplex as a left-lateral extensional duplex.
right lateral; during the middle Miocene, the movement on

these faults was left lateral. Ratschbacher and others (1989)
postulated that this reversal of movement sense resulted from
the gravitational collapse of the Alpine nappe pile.
Near the boundary between the Getic and the Supragetic nappes in the Banat region, Romania (fig. 30), the author
interprets the map patterns associated with the skarn bodies,
granitoid stocks, and porphyry copper deposits to be the result
of a left-lateral sense of shear (fig. 31A). Intrusion of the granitoid stocks and emplacement of the porphyry copper deposit
and skarn bodies occurred after the reversal of the sense of
shear from a right-lateral sense during the main tectonic compression to a left-lateral sense during tectonic escape. During
this reversal, the thrust planes between the pairs of the Getic,
the Supragetic, and the other nappes rotated from shallowly

dipping thrusts to steeply dipping strike-slip faults (see cross
sections in Codarcea, 1967). Stress-strain ellipsoids can be
used to portray the sense of shear during orogenic transpression (fig. 31B), orogenic collapse and orogen-parallel extension (fig. 31C), and reversal of the sense of shear (fig. 31D).
Emplacement of the porphyry stocks and the mineralization
occurred during a left sense of shear (fig. 31E). The two northwest-trending, right-lateral faults are relics from the original
right-lateral system. These relic faults become favored locations (anisotropies) for the later left-lateral fault system.
The nature of the extensional duplexes and associated
skarn and porphyry copper mineralization in the Banat region
differs from that in the Srednogorie and Timok regions. In the

Banat region, the areal extent of the duplexes is a small fraction
of that in the Srednogorie and Timok regions, and no sedimentary basins formed. The entire volume of rock that was extended
is altered with skarn alteration which, in turn, hosts the porphyry
stocks and porphyry copper mineralization. For the purpose of
assessing undiscovered deposits, the Late Cretaceous ages of the
host rock, deformation, porphyry stocks and mineralization, and
position in orogen suggests that Banat mineralization should
be associated with a tectonic regime, intermediate between the
external and internal tectonic basins of Willingshofer (2000).
Middle Miocene Porphyry Copper and

Polymetallic Vein Deposits in Romania and
Slovakia
Apuseni Mountains, Romania
The opening of extensional duplexes (basins) and the
emplacement of andesitic volcanic and associated granitoid
rocks in the Apuseni Mountains, Romania, was coupled with
the eastward tectonic escape of and extension within the

Carpathian-Pannonian region during the Miocene (Royden and
others, 1983; fig. 32). From 17 to 15 Ma, extension and basin
development prevailed in the region (fig. 33; Fodor and others,
1999). The opening of the Brad-Sacaramb basin, and presumably the Zarand basin to the northwest (fig. 33), was facilitated
by the preexisting anisotropy that had been introduced into this
region by thrusting during the Jurassic. This anisotropy not
only determined the configurations of the basins but also controlled the positioning of the fault duplexes within the basins
when the far-field stress regime evolved from local rift-like
tectonics during Karpatian-earliest Badenian time (fig. 33) to
strike-slip tectonics during late Badenian-Sarmatian time (fig.
34). Fodor and others (1999) initially interpreted the sense of
motion during this latter stage as left lateral. Newly acquired
field data suggests, however, that the sense of shear of the
faults associated with the emplacement of the middle Miocene
porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits in the Apuseni
Mountains is not left lateral, but instead right lateral (Gary
OConnor, Gabriel Resources Ltd., written commun., 2004).
The fault duplexes important for creating the local environment for emplacement of porphyry copper and polymetallic
Folded Outer Carpathians
Central Slovakian volcanic field
tra ins
M unta
Mo
Eastern Alps
an
gari
un
id-H
Line
Apuseni
Mountains
EXPLANATION
Volcanic rocks of middle Miocene age
movement; dashed where inferred
Direction of tectonic transport
100 kilometers
Figure 32. Schematic diagram showing tectonic transport direction in the Carpathian-Pannonian
region during the middle Miocene and location of middle Miocene volcanic rocks. Modified from
Csontos and others (1992) and Rumpler and Horvth (1988).
EXPLANATION
Sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic to Holocene age
Basin deposits of middle Miocene age
Volcanic rocks of middle Miocene age
Strike-slip faultArrows show relative movement
Normal faultBar and ball on downthrown side
Mid-Hungarian Line
Borod
basin
Beius
basin
Bks
basin
A
M puse
ou ni
nta
Za
r
i
b and ns
asi
A
M pus
ou en
nt i
ai
ns
Brad-Sacaramb
basin
Apuseni
Mountains
Area of figure 34
0
50
100 kilometers
Figure 33. Map showing extension during the Karpatian-earliest Badenian (1715 Ma). Modified from Fodor and
others (1999).
Bor
EXPLANATION
od b
asin
Sedimentary rocks of
Paleozoic to Holocene age
Basin deposits of middle
Miocene age
Volcanic rocks of middle
Miocene age
Strike-slip faultArrow
shows relative movement
on downthrown side
Transylvania basin
Be
ius
bas
in
Apuseni
Mountains
Apuseni
Mountains
Area of figure 35
Apuseni
Mountains
0
25 kilometers
Brad-Sacaramb
basin
Figure 34. Strike-slip faults formed in the study area during the late Badenian-Sarmatian
(1411 Ma). Modified from Ghiulescu and Socolescu (1941) and Fodor and others (1999).
vein deposits can be created by either sense of stress. The

sense of shear used in the interpretation presented above as
taken from Fodor and others (1999) only needs to be reversed.
The general conclusions about the occurrence of these types of
deposits in various positions in the duplexes will be the same.
The sense of shear is not the important first order effect in the
emplacement; instead it is the creation of the duplex structure
itself.
During the late Badenian-Sarmatian, intrusive and related
volcanic rocks were emplaced in the Brad-Sacaramb and
Zlatna basins (fig. 35). Fifteen porphyry copper deposits and
occurrences have been mapped in these basins and adjacent areas, and at least ten polymetallic vein deposits were
emplaced in extensional-shear mesh structures. The Sacaramb-Hondol duplex (fig. 36) had a rotational component and
contains several smaller embedded duplexes. Therefore, it is
more complex than the other duplexes so far described in this
paper. This duplex contains the Bolcana-Troija and the Voia
porphyry copper deposits located near its margins (fig. 36).
Several of the embedded duplexes also contain polymetallic
vein deposits. Maps and cross sections of the Sacaramb and
Hondol polymetallic vein deposits show that the veins are in
meshes related to extensional and shear faults (Berbeleac and
others, 1995b), while the Hanes deposit (not shown) is in a
negative flower structure (Drew and others, 1999a). Many of
the veins have produced large tonnages of high-grade zinc,
copper, lead, and gold ore.
Central Slovakian Volcanic Field

In the central Slovakian volcanic field, the spatial and
kindred association between copper porphyry and polymetallic vein deposits is well defined (fig. 37; see figure 1 for
location). The Banksa Stiavnica graben, an extensional basin
(duplex), located to the west of the town of Banksa Stiavnica
contains polymetallic vein deposits and three porphyry copper
deposits. The main production has been from the polymetallic
vein system inside the extensional basin70,000 metric tons
(t) of Zn, 55,000 t of Pb, 8,000 t of Cu, 4,000 t of Ag, and 80
t of Au (Lexa and others, 1999). The Kremnica graben, the
extensional basin (duplex) to the north of the Banksa Stiavnica
graben (fig. 37), also has been productive208 t of Ag and
46 t of Au. It contains reserves of 230 t of Ag and 30 t of Au
(Lexa and others, 1999).
Within the Banksa Stiavnica graben, three porphyry copper deposits are located near the margins of the duplex and
close to three of its corners. The productive and nonproductive
veins have the meshlike form predicted by the extensionalshear model (fig. 12). Equally important, the porphyry copper
deposits that formed between 16.4 and 16.0 Ma are older than
the polymetallic vein deposits that formed between 13.5 and
10.5 Ma; this timing is consistent with the tenets of the model
for the porphyry copper-polymetallic vein deposit system.
Polymetallic veins also occur within an extensional-shear
mesh in the Kremnica graben, to the west and northwest of
EXPLANATION
Andesite of middle Miocene age
Hydrothermally altered rocks of middle Miocene age
Rocks of Mesozoic and Paleozoic age
Porphyry copper deposit or occurrence
Polymetallic vein deposit in an extensional-shear mesh
Granitoid stock and related volcanic rocks
City or town
Brad
Zlatna
Zlatna basin
Area of
figure 36
Mures River
Brad-Sacaramb basin
5 kilometers
Deva
Figure 35. Map showing porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits, andesitic volcanic rocks, granitoid stocks,
alteration, and Tertiary sediments in the Brad-Sacaramb and Zlatna basins, Apuseni Mountains, Romania. Modified from
Ghiulescu and Socolescu (1941), Borco (1994), and Berbeleac and others (1995b). See figure 34 for location.
the town of Kremnica (fig. 37). This vein system has been
localized in the corner of the graben where the mesh expands
out into the basin. A slightly altered igneous stock containing low-grade sulfide minerals has been intersected in drill
holes near these veins (Jaroslav Lexa, Geological Survey of
Slovak Republic, oral commun., 2001). This weakly mineral-
ized stock is the porphyry associated with the polymetallic

veins. Note that the volume of metal deposited in the mesh
is also small. To deposit large tonnages of high-grade ores in
veins, a mesh must remain essentially closed, opening only
occasionally during intermittent seismic activity to receive
new hydrothermal fluid. The extensional-shear mesh func-
Gravitational Collapse and Escape Tectonics 31

EXPLANATION

Rocks of Mesozoic and Paleozoic age
Strike-slip faultArrow, where shown,
indicates relative movement
Polymetallic vein deposit in an extensionalshear mesh
C
A
Granitoid stock and related volcanic rocks

Porphyry copper deposit
Mures Ri
City or town
ver
E
Deva
5 kilometers
Figure 36. Porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits in the Sacaramb-Hondol duplex in the Apuseni
Mountains, Romania. Deposits are Sacaramb (A), Hondol (B), Bolcana-Troija (C), Voia (D) , and Deva (E). Modified
from Ghiulescu and Socolescu (1941) and Berbeleac and others (1995a,b). See figure 35 for location.
EXPLANATION
Strike-slip faultArrow, where shown,
indicates relative movement
Porphyry copper deposit (16.416 Ma)
Kremnica
Polymetallic vein deposits in the tensional

segments of the extensional-shear
mesh (13.510.5 Ma)
Shear faults in the extensional- shear mesh
City or town
Kremnica
graben
Zvolen
Banksa Stiavnica graben
Banksa Stiavnica
5 kilometers
Figure 37. Map showing the pull-apart basins created by strike-slip faulting and the location of porphyry copper
and polymetallic vein deposits in the central Slovakian volcanic field near Kremnica and Banksa Stiavnica, Slovakia.
Modified from Marsina (1995) and Lexa and others (1999). See figure 1 for location.
tions by repeatedly opening and closing. This is documented
by comparing the vein systems in the Banska Stiavnica and
the Kremnica grabens. The mesh has opened outward into the
basin in a fanlike manner in the Kremnica graben, whereas it
is more closed in the Banksa Stiavnica graben (fig. 37).
Conclusions
A tectonic model useful for estimating the occurrence of
undiscovered deposits in the porphyry copper-polymetallic
vein family developed recently by Berger and Drew (1997),
Drew and others (1999a), Drew and Berger (2001, 2002), and
Drew (2003) has been expanded by using data associated with
such deposits in central Europe.
The model expands the regions favorable for extensional
and shear fracturing in strike-slip fault duplexes. Additionally, the new model can be used to isolate the potentially
mineralized duplexes (internal extensional basins) from the
many duplexes (external extensional basins) developed during
orogenic compression and collapse and in other extensional
tectonic regimes.
The model explains the occurrence of porphyry copper
and polymetallic vein deposits in the Late Cretaceous BanatTimok-Srednogorie orogen that extends for 1,500 km from
western Romania across Serbia and central Bulgaria. The
porphyry copper deposits discovered to date are located in the
corners and along the edges of the duplexes, and the polymetallic vein deposits are located nearby and more internal in the
duplexes from the porphyry deposits. Often the polymetallic
veins crosscut the porphyry stockwork.
Elsewhere in central Europe, the expanded model
explains the location of the Miocene-age porphyry copper and
polymetallic vein deposits equally well. In the central Slovakian volcanic field, the porphyry deposits, which are located
toward the corners of the duplexes, have ages of about 16
Ma, and the polymetallic veins, which have been deposited
more centrally in the duplexes, are younger (13.510.5 Ma).
In the Brad-Sacaramb basin, Apuseni Mountains, Romania,
the porphyry copper and polymetallic vein deposits are also
Miocene in age. Although the tectonic history of this region is
more complex, the model can account for the distribution of
deposits.
Newly acquired ASTRA satellite data will add an important source of information as to the location of various types of
hydrothermal alteration, which when used in conjunction with
the tectonic data, should substantially enhance the process of
estimating the inventory of undiscovered resources.
providing many types of processed satellite images without

which this work could not have been done; C.L. Ciobanu and
N.J. Cook for providing otherwise unobtainable data on the
geology and porphyry copper deposits in the Banat (Romania) and Timok (Serbia) areas; Irena Peycheva for data for the
Srednogorie (Bulgaria) region; R.D. Hatcher for discussion of
the reversal of movement on strike-slip faults; Ion Berbeleac
for much useful discussion on the economic geology and for
leading two field trips in the Baia Mare and Brad-Sacaramb
areas of Romania; John Menzies, Radoslav Narkov, and Strashimir Strashimirov for providing the information used for the
cover photograph; and B.R. Berger for a long and productive
collegial association on the development of many of the ideas
expanded upon here in this paper.
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Lawrence J. DrewTectonic Model for Spatial Occurrence of Porphyry Copper in Central EuropeScientific Investigations Report 20055272

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