Lymphadenopathy

Shashi Sahai
Pediatrics in Review 2013;34;216
DOI: 10.1542/pir.34-5-216

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Article

blood disorders

Lymphadenopathy
Shashi Sahai, MD*

Practice Gaps

Author Disclosure
Dr Sahai has disclosed
she owns stocks/bonds
in Dr. Reddys

1. Diffuse lymphadenopathy should always be evaluated by careful history and physical

examination and perhaps laboratory investigation.
2. The absence of any palpable lymph nodes in the presence of symptoms suggesting
infection in that drainage area should raise suspicion for immunodeficiency diseases.
3. Supraclavicular adenopathy is always abnormal and the chances of malignancy are high.

Laboratories, Ltd., and

Roche Holding, A.G.
This commentary does
not contain discussion
of unapproved/
investigative use of
a commercial product/
device.

Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

After completing this article, readers should be able to:

Define lymphadenopathy
Know the differential diagnosis for localized and generalized lymphadenopathy
Know the etiology and evaluation of acute and chronic cervical lymphadenopathy
Know the age-dependent microbiology of acute cervical lymphadenitis
Recognize the red flags associated with noninfectious causes of lymphadenopathy

Introduction
Lymphadenopathy is dened as an abnormality in size and consistency of lymph nodes,
while the term lymphadenitis refers to lymphadenopathy that occurs from infectious
and other inammatory processes. Lymph node enlargement is a common nding on physical examinations of children. In fact, the absence of any palpable lymph node in the presence of symptoms that suggest infection in a drainage area should raise suspicion for an
immunodeciency disease. The presence of an enlarged lymph node may be a source of
anxiety in parents because of its association with malignancy. Although infections are
the most common cause of lymph node enlargement, clinicians must be aware of a broad
range of other disease processes that lead to lymph node enlargement.

Anatomy and Physiology

The lymphatic system is comprised of lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs. The lymphatic
vessels transport interstitial uid back to the circulating blood. Lymph is an ultraltrate of
blood. It is collected through the lymphatic capillaries that are present throughout the body.
The brain and heart are the only organs that are devoid of lymphatic capillaries. Lymph moves
with the help of the milking action of skeletal muscles and by peristalsis of lymphatic capillaries. Valves in the lymphatic vessels assure a unidirectional ow. Lymph gets into progressively larger lymphatic vessels and nally into the right lymphatic and thoracic duct.
The lymphoid organs contain lymphocytes and other cells that are responsible for the
bodys immunity. The bone marrow and thymus are called primary lymphoid organs because
they are the sites for generation of B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. Lymph nodes, spleen,
and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), including tonsils, the appendix, solitary lymphoid nodules, and Peyer patches of the ileum, are the secondary lymphoid organs. Lymph
nodes are present throughout the body and distributed along the path of the lymphatic vessels. They are bean shaped and encapsulated. Lymph nodes act as lters for the lymph.
The lymph enters on the convex surface of a lymph node through the afferent lymphatics.
The efferent lymphatics and veins exit through the hilum. The hilum also provides an entry
point for nerves and arteries. Connective tissue encapsulates the lymph node and some connective tissue enters the lymph node and forms trabeculae. The lymph courses through
*The Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hospital Medicine, Childrens Hospital of Michigan, Wayne State
University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI.

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blood disorders

unlined sinuses that are present along the capsule and trabeculae. During the passage of lymph from cortical to medullary sinuses, the lymph gets modied by the immune cells.
Efferent lymph is rich in newly synthesized antibodies.
Histologically, a lymph node consists of a cortex, paracortex, and medulla. The most common cells in lymph
nodes are lymphocytes, macrophages, plasma cells, follicular cells, and reticular cells.

Immune Responses Mediated by Lymph Nodes

There are approximately 600 lymph nodes in the body.
Lymph passes through at least one lymph node in the
body before getting back into the blood stream. Afferent
lymph contains antigens, including partly destroyed
microorganisms and antigens that are transported by
antigen-presenting cells. This lymph also may contain microorganisms and cytokines from areas of inammation
and infection. Microorganisms may get phagocytosed,
processed, and presented as antigens in the lymph node.
Lymphocytes proliferate in the lymph nodes. B cells
mature into plasma cells and secrete antibodies. Infection
and antigenic stimulation cause a lymph node to increase
in size. The lymph node enlarges as a result of cellular hyperplasia, lymphocyte inltration, and tissue edema. The
swollen lymph nodes have multiple germinal centers with
active cell proliferation. The symptoms associated with
acute lymphadenitis reect the pathophysiologic events
that occur in response to an infection. Malignant tumor
cells also reach lymph nodes and then get distributed to
other parts of the body. Inltration by malignant tumor
cells also will cause a lymph node to enlarge.
Understanding the anatomy of lymph node drainage
is important in identifying the site of a pathologic lesion
when a lymph node is enlarged. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate
the various drainage sites.

Normal Lymph Nodes

It is important to know the normal sizes of lymph nodes
at different sites in healthy children. A number of studies
have demonstrated enlarged and palpable lymph nodes in
up to one-half of healthy neonates, infants, and older children. (1,2) Because younger children are being exposed
constantly to newer antigens and inciting immune responses, lymph nodes in children usually are larger than
those found in adults. Older children and adolescents
have smaller lymph nodes than do younger children.
Lymph nodes in the axillary and cervical regions up to
1 cm in diameter, those in the inguinal region up to
1.5 cm in diameter, and those in the epitrochlear region
up to 0.5 cm in diameter are considered normal.

lymphadenopathy

The evaluation of lymph node enlargement begins with

a detailed history and physical examination that will assist
in reaching a differential diagnosis. Further laboratory and
radiologic evaluation will be decided according to the differential diagnosis developed through clinical evaluation.

History
Children usually present with the complaint of a lump in
the neck, axilla, or inguinal area. The lump may be an isolated nding. However, most often it is associated with
other systemic symptoms. It is important to recognize
that there are other swellings (listed in Table 1), especially
in the cervical area, that may be mistaken for a lymph
node,
Age is important in suggesting the likely cause of
lymph node enlargement. Children younger than 5 years
old are more likely to have an infectious cause for their
lymph node enlargement. Lymph node enlargement in
neonates may represent a congenital infection such as
Toxoplasma or cytomegalovirus (CMV). Although rare,
lymphadenopathy caused by histiocytosis can occur in children younger than 3 years old. (3) The likelihood of a malignancy such as lymphoma increases in adolescents.
Location of an enlarged lymph node is important in
evaluation. Cervical lymph node enlargement is a very
common nding associated with viral upper respiratory
infection. Supraclavicular lymphadenopathy is always
abnormal and the chances of malignancy are high. In
a series(3) of excisional biopsies of supraclavicular lymph
nodes, the nodes were found to be abnormal in 100% of
specimens and were associated with lymphoma, tuberculous or atypical mycobacterial infection, or sarcoidosis
of the mediastinum. Examination of the drainage area
for infectious lesions is essential. The presence of two
or more noncontiguous sites of lymph node enlargement
represents a generalized lymphadenopathy. Causes of
generalized and localized adenopathy are outlined in
Tables 2 and 3.
Time of onset and duration of lymph node enlargement should be noted. An acute enlargement is more
likely to represent an acute viral or bacterial infectious
process. Lymphadenopathy of longer than 4 weeks duration is considered to be chronic. Chronic lymphadenopathy is more likely to be caused by an underlying
malignant process or a chronic infection.
In order to identify a focus of infection leading to
lymphadenopathy, the clinician should look for infectious
lesions in the drainage area. The presence of sore throat,
nasal congestion, red eyes with discharge, oral ulcers,
dental caries, and gingival swelling should be looked
for in patients who have cervical lymphadenopathy.
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lymphadenopathy

Figure 1. Lymph nodes of the head and neck and their drainage areas. Reproduced with permission from: McClain, KL, Fletcher RH.
Causes of Peripheral Lymphadenopathy in Children. In: UpToDate, Basow DS (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA 2013. Copyright 2013.
UpToDate Inc. For more information, visit www.uptodate.com.

The presence of fevers, rash, generalized pain, joint

pain and swelling, petechiae, weight loss, failure to
thrive, night sweats, chronic cough, fatigue, red oral
mucosa, peeling of ngers, and eczema may point to
the cause of the lymphadenopathy. Symptoms of respiratory and pharyngeal compromise, such as drooling,
stridor, and breathing difculty, may mandate immediate attention. A history of recurrent infections associated with lymphadenopathy may point to a
phagocyte function disorder such as chronic granulomatous disease.
Zoonoses that may present with lymphadenopathy
are listed in Table 4. It is important also to obtain
a history of exposure to other sick individuals.

International travel to developing countries should

be inquired about because travel may raise the
possibility of diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) and
leishmaniasis.
Medications such as penicillin, cephalosporins,
phenytoin, and carbamazepine are known to cause
generalized lymphadenopathy. Vaccine-preventable
diseases such as measles, rubella, and diphtheria may
present with lymphadenopathy in an unimmunized
child.

Physical Examination
The presence of fever and other vital signs or pallor
should be noted. Anthropometry provides important

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lymphadenopathy

Examination of Lymph Node

and Lymphatic Organs
The size of the enlarged lymph node
aids in determining the need for further evaluation. Lymph nodes larger
than 2 cm are more likely to harbor
a more serious disease process. The
number of lymph nodes and the consistency, uctuance, tenderness, mobility, and presence of matting
should be noted. Lymphadenitis is
characterized by swelling of lymph
nodes in conjunction with pain, skin
changes in the form of erythema
and edema, and tenderness. All other
areas of potential lymph node enlargement should be examined. The
presence of liver and spleen enlargement should be evaluated.
It is important to examine the
drainage area in cases of localized
lymphadenopathy. A careful head,
neck, and oropharyngeal examination may reveal a primary focus of inFigure 2. Lymph node regions in the body. Reproduced with permission from: McClain, KL, Fletcher fection. The presence of rash and
RH. Causes of Peripheral Lymphadenopathy in Children. In: UpToDate, Basow DS (Ed), UpToDate, petechiae may help to make the diagWaltham, MA 2013. Copyright 2013. UpToDate Inc. For more information, visit www.uptodate.com.
nosis. Conjunctival injection without
exudates may be present in patients with Kawasaki disease.
clues in cases of chronic lymphadenopathy. Poor weight
Exudative conjunctivitis is present in infection with Bartogain may be present when the lymphadenopathy is
caused by infections such as TB or human immunodenella, adenovirus, and Francisella tularensis (tularemia).
ciency virus (HIV) or by lymphoma.
Bone and joint tenderness should be looked for.
Table 1.

Differential Diagnosis of Lymph Node Enlargement

Lesion

Description

Location

Cystic hygroma
(lymphangioma)

A compressible painless soft mass that

transilluminates; may increase in size
during upper respiratory infections

Branchial cleft cyst

Recurrent swelling that may be infected;

may have a sinus or pit

Thyroglossal duct cyst

May present with infection and moves

with tongue protrusion and swallowing

Cervical rib
Thyroid nodule
Sternocleidomastoid
fibroma

Hard, bony feel

Painless firm to hard
Soft mass in the sternocleidomastoid,
torticollis with chin pointing to the
opposite side of hematoma
Superficial, smooth

Supraclavicular and posterior to the

sternocleidomastoid on the left side, but
may extend to other areas such as the
floor of the mouth and axilla
Lateral neck with sinus along anterior
border of the lower 2/3 of the
sternocleidomastoid
Midline at the level of the thyrohyoid
membrane; communicates with the base
of the tongue. Occasionally may be felt
lateral to the midline
Supraclavicular
Midline in thyroid area
Inferior portion of sternocleidomastoid

Epidermoid cyst

Suprasternal

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Table 2.

lymphadenopathy

Differential Diagnosis of Systemic Generalized Lymphadenopathy

Infant
COMMON CAUSES
Syphilis
Toxoplasmosis
CMV
HIV
RARE CAUSES
Chagas disease (congenital)
Congenital leukemia
Congenital tuberculosis
Reticuloendotheliosis
Lymphoproliferative disease
Metabolic storage disease
Histiocytic disorders

Child

Adolescent

Viral infection
EBV
CMV
HIV
Toxoplasmosis

Viral infection
EBV
CMV
HIV
Toxoplasmosis
Syphilis

Serum sickness
SLE, JRA
Leukemia/lymphoma
Tuberculosis
Measles
Sarcoidosis
Fungal infection
Plague
Langerhans cell histiocytosis
Chronic granulomatous disease
Sinus histiocytosis
Drug reaction

Serum sickness
SLE, JRA
Leukemia/lymphoma/Hodgkin disease
Lymphoproliferative disease
Tuberculosis
Histoplasmosis
Sarcoidosis
Fungal infection
Plague
Drug reaction
Castleman disease

This table was published in Practical Strategies in Pediatric Diagnosis and Therapy. 2nd edition, by Kliegman RM, Greenbaum LA, Lye PS, p 863. Copyright
Elsevier, 2004.
Authors note: Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis may also be a cause of generalized lymphadenopathy.
CMVcytomegalovirus; EBVEpstein-Barr virus; HIVhuman immunodeciency virus; JRAjuvenile rheumatoid arthritis (Still disease); SLEsystemic
lupus erythematosus.

Investigations
After a careful history and physical examination, it is possible to narrow the differential diagnosis of lymphadenopathy. Laboratory evaluation may aid in narrowing the
diagnosis of both chronic and generalized lymphadenopathy. In the presence of an acute localized lymphadenopathy, when a focus of infection has not been identied and
the lymph nodes raise suspicion of a bacterial infection,
a trial of antibiotics may be given before embarking on
an extensive evaluation. The antibiotics chosen should provide coverage for both Staphylococcus aureus and group A
Streptococcus. When Bartonella is suspected, it is reasonable
to add azithromycin. Laboratory and imaging studies may
be necessary if a lymph node does not regress after treatment or after resolution of the associated acute symptoms.

Laboratory Evaluation
COMPLETE BLOOD CELL COUNT WITH DIFFERENTIAL.
Results may show a neutrophilic leukocytosis, which can
indicate an acute bacterial infection. A predominantly
lymphocytic leukocytosis may be associated with Ebstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. Leukocytosis with blasts
on peripheral smear is indicative of leukemia. Leukopenia
with depression of the hemoglobin level and platelet count

also may be indicative of bone marrow involvement with

malignancy. Lymphopenia may be indicative of HIV infection or congenital immunodeciency disorders. The erythrocyte sedimentation level (ESR) and C-reactive protein
level may be used as tools to look for inammation and
infection and also might help in assessing the patients response to treatment. Lactate dehydrogenase and uric acid
levels provide a screen for rapid cell turnover associated
with malignancy. High liver enzyme levels may indicate involvement of the liver due to a systemic infection or an inltrative process.
Serology may be obtained for evidence of infection
with EBV, HIV, CMV, and parvovirus. Bartonella serology and polymerase chain reaction studies may be needed
when there is more generalized involvement. The puried
protein derivative (PPD) test is a useful screen for mycobacterial infection. Interferon-gamma release assays also
may be used in place of the tuberculin skin test with
PPD. Specic atypical mycobacterial antigen may be used
when atypical mycobacterial lymphadenitis is suspected.

Radiologic Evaluation
Chest radiograph (CXR) is an essential test in the evaluation of chronic localized and generalized lymphadenopathy
and may reveal the presence of mediastinal widening due

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Table 3.

lymphadenopathy

Sites of Local Lymphadenopathy and Associated Diseases

Cervical
Oropharyngeal infection (viral, group A streptococcal, staphylococcal)
Scalp infection
Mycobacterial lymphadenitis (tuberculosis and nontuberculous mycobacteria)
Viral infection (EBV, CMV, HHV-6)
Cat scratch disease
Toxoplasmosis
Kawasaki disease
Thyroid disease
Kikuchi disease
Sinus histiocytosis
Autoimmune lymphoproliferative disease
Anterior auricular
Conjunctivitis
Other eye infection
Oculoglandular tularemia
Cat scratch disease
Facial cellulitis
Otitis media
Viral infection (especially rubella, parvovirus)
Supraclavicular
Malignancy or infection in the mediastinum (right)
Metastatic malignancy from the abdomen (left)
Lymphoma
Tuberculosis
Epitrochlear
Hand infection, arm infection*
Cat scratch disease
Lymphoma[]
Sarcoid
Syphilis
Inguinal
Urinary tract infection
Venereal disease (especially syphilis or lymphogranuloma venereum)
Other perineal infections
Lower extremity suppurative infection
Plague
Hilar (not palpable, found on chest radiograph or CT)
Tuberculosis[]
Histoplasmosis[]
Blastomycosis[]
Coccidioidomycosis[]
Leukemia/lymphoma[]
Hodgkin disease[]
Metastatic malignancy*
Sarcoidosis[]
Castleman disease
Axillary
Cat scratch disease
Arm or chest wall infection
Malignancy of chest wall
Leukemia/lymphoma
Brucellosis
Abdominal
Malignancies
Mesenteric adenitis (measles, tuberculosis, Yersinia, group A Streptococcus)
This table was published in Practical strategies in pediatric diagnosis and therapy, 2nd ed, by Kliegman RM, Greenbaum LA, Lye PS, p 864, Copyright Elsevier, 2004.
CMVcytomegalovirus; CTcomputed tomography; EBVEpstein-Barr virus; HHV-6human herpesvirus 6.
*Unilateral. Bilateral.
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lymphadenopathy

to lymphadenopathy from lymphoma and sarcoid. Up to

two-thirds of patients who have Hodgkin lymphoma
may show mediastinal widening on a CXR. Mediastinal
lymph node enlargement compressing the intrathoracic
airway may present with wheezing. It is important to obtain a CXR of a child who is wheezing for the rst time
before treating with corticosteroids. CXR also may show
hilar lymph node enlargement and calcication in TB
and histoplasmosis.

Radiographs of the Neck

In patients in whom airway compromise is evident, radiographs of the neck may indicate the extent of involvement
and can evaluate the retropharyngeal space. A lateral neck
radiograph should be obtained in inspiration, with the
mouth closed and neck extended. Retropharyngeal space involvement may appear as thickening of the retropharyngeal
soft tissues, with smooth, curved anterior displacement of
the cervical airway and loss of the normal step-off of the posterior hypopharyngeal wall and posterior wall of the trachea.

Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography (US) is a noninvasive and nonirradiating imaging procedure that may be helpful in looking
for a hypoechoic, suppurative center of a lymph node.
US is more specic but less sensitive than contrast computed tomography (CT) for diagnosis of an abscess. (4)
Color Doppler imaging may show the increased blood
ow pattern of inamed nodes. An experienced radiologist may be able to comment on certain specic patterns;
for example, in Kawasaki disease, the lymph nodes may
show a cluster of grapes pattern. When there is suspicion of a congenital lesion in the neck mimicking lymph
nodes, ultrasonography can be a helpful technique.

Computed Tomography
When more anatomic detail is required, CT may be necessary and might be advisable before undertaking a surgical procedure. Contrast-enhanced CT is a highly sensitive
modality for detecting an infection in a deep neck space
but it is not very specic for identifying frank pus because
the imaging ndings of a phlegmon are similar to that of
frank pus. CT of the neck can also be a useful test for conrming a retropharyngeal abscess.

Fine Needle Aspiration

Although ne needle aspiration might appear to be a good
option for decompressing a suppurative lymph node and
for obtaining a tissue specimen for histopathology, the
technique has its limitations. Children will always require
sedation or general anesthesia for such a procedure. Before

taking the risk of sedation, it is important to recognize the

limited therapeutic and diagnostic benets of this procedure, which has a high false-negative rate and is associated
with inadequate architectural detail. There is also the potential for a sinus tract formation, especially when the adenopathy is due to a mycobacterial infection.

Excisional Biopsy
An excisional biopsy will conrm the presence of malignancy
or disclose the granulomatous lesions of TB or sarcoid. It
is important to consider an early excisional biopsy when
there is a high suspicion for malignancy. The features that
make a malignancy highly likely are a supraclavicular location, hard consistency, absence of head and neck infection,
rubbery consistency, fevers lasting longer than 1 week,
night sweats, weight loss, mediastinal widening on chest
radiograph, an abnormal blood picture suggestive of
leukemia or lymphoma, and hepatosplenomegaly.
It is important for the excisional biopsy to be performed at a medical center where there is multidisciplinary support available for the diagnosis and treatment of
children with cancers. Adequate staining, preparation
of smears, and cultures for viruses and fungi should be
performed as required. When malignancy is suspected,
specimens for immunohistochemical, cytogenetic, and
molecular genetic tests should be obtained. The largest
accessible node should be biopsied.
The size, location, consistency, and associated clinical
features must be considered in a decision to perform a
lymph node biopsy. (5) See Table 5 for features that
may prompt a lymph node biopsy. Fifty percent of these
nodes usually turn out to be enlarged due to reactive hyperplasia. Approximately 30% are associated with a granulomatous process such as cat scratch disease, atypical
mycobacterial infection, TB, or a fungal infection. Malignancy is discovered in up to 13% of the patients, and
Hodgkin disease constitutes 67% of the malignancies. It
is important to monitor enlarged nodes. A pathologic process may be found on a repeat biopsy even in the presence
of an initial normal biopsy. In approximately one-half of all
patients with chronic lymphadenopathy, a denitive diagnosis may not be established despite extensive evaluation.

Treatment
The treatment of lymphadenopathy depends on the etiology. Therapy with glucocorticoids should be avoided
until a denitive diagnosis is made. Glucocorticoids will
mask and delay the diagnosis of leukemia and lymphomas. Patients also may become ineligible for certain treatment protocols for leukemia and lymphoma if they have
received glucocorticoids.

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Table 4.

lymphadenopathy

Zoonoses that Present as Lymphadenopathy

Disease

Animal/Bird

Inoculation

Cat scratch disease

Toxoplasmosis

Kittens
Cat

Tularemia

Multiple animals especially

rodents and insects
Sheep, cattle, goat, pigs

Through skin
Ingestion of material contaminated
with cat feces
Tick bite or skin and mucosal exposure to
infected animal tissue
Contact with animal fluid or consumption
of unpasteurized milk products
Bite of an infected flea

Brucellosis
Cutaneous anthrax

Rodents in southwestern
United States
Birds and bats

Histoplasmosis
Trypanosomiasis

Inhalation exposure in heavily contaminated

areas such as coops, caves, abandoned
buildings
Bite by tsetse fly

Antelope, goats vectored by

tsetse fly in Africa

Disorders Associated With Lymphadenopathy

The following is a brief description of the common disorders that present with lymphadenopathy.

Reactive Lymph Nodes

This cause of lymph node enlargement occurs as a result
of reactive hyperplasia secondary to an infection in the
drainage area. The reactivity occurs commonly in response to pharyngitis and upper respiratory infection.
A skin infection such as impetigo or cellulitis also can
cause reactive lymphadenopathy. The viruses that are associated commonly with a viral upper respiratory infection are rhinovirus, parainuenza virus, inuenza virus,
respiratory syncytial virus, coronavirus, adenovirus, and
reovirus. Other viral infections that may lead to generalized lymphadenopathy are CMV and EBV. Viruses that
cause lymphadenopathy less frequently are mumps, measles, rubella, varicella, coxsackie, and herpes simplex viruses as well as human herpesvirus 6 (roseola).
Both the anterior and posterior groups of lymph nodes in the cervical region are involved with pharyngitis
and tonsillitis. Preauricular lymph nodes are enlarged
with adenoviral keratoconjunctivitis. Hepatosplenomegaly may be associated with EBV and CMV. Rashes specic for viruses such as rubella and CMV may occur in
association with the lymphadenopathy. Virus-associated
lymphadenopathy resolves spontaneously with resolution of
the viral illness. Antiviral therapy is indicated in rare patients
aficted with immunosuppression or severe hepatitis.

Bacterial Lymphadenitis
Bacterial lymphadenitis usually results from an infectious
process in the cervical area. The presentation may be

acute or subacute. Table 6 lists the bacteria that can cause

lymphadenitis.
ACUTE PRESENTATION OF LYMPHADENITIS. Patients
who have acute lymphadenitis often experience fever, ear
pain, and sore throat. Other associated ndings are pharyngitis, tonsillitis, impetigo, and cellulitis in the drainage area.
The infected cervical lymph node is enlarged, tender, and
warm and may become uctuant with abscess formation. It
is important to recognize that retropharyngeal nodes serve
as a drainage path for the nasopharynx and tonsils; hence,
lymphadenitis occurs commonly in these nodes in 1- to 5year-olds. These nodes have the potential to compromise
the airway when signicantly enlarged. Suppuration and
perforation of retropharyngeal nodes may lead to retropharyngeal abscess formation.

When to Consider
Possible Lymph Node Biopsy

Table 5.

SIZE
Greater than 2 cm
Increasing over 2 weeks
No decrease in size of node after 4 weeks
LOCATION
Supraclavicular lymph node
CONSISTENCY
Hard
Matted
Rubbery
ASSOCIATED FEATURES
Abnormal chest radiograph suggestive of lymphoma
Fever
Weight loss
Hepatosplenomegaly

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lymphadenopathy

Atypical mycobacterial
lymphadenitis. In the United
States, 70% to 95% of mycobacterial
Bacteria
Clinical features
lymphadenitis is due to atypical myACUTE
cobacteria. Nontuberculous atypiStreptococcus pyogenes
Associate tonsillopharyngitis
cal mycobacteria are acquired from
Group B Streptococcus
Infants, unilateral facial or
submandibular swelling
environmental source; they exist as
May have associated dental and
Anaerobic such as Bacteroides species,
saprophytes in water and soil. Subgingival disease
Peptococcus species, Propionibacterium
mandibular lymphadenopathy is the
acnes, and Fusobacterium nucleatum
most common presentation. Fifty
Francisella tularensis
percent of patients who have nontuPasteurella multocida
May occur after animal bites or
scratch
berculous lymphadenitis develop an
Yersinia pestis
Flea bites on head and neck in
abscess. Sinus tract formation may
western United States
occur in 10% of these patients. IdenHaemophilus influenzae type B
tication of the bacteria along with
Rare gram-negative bacilli, pneumococcus,
a drug susceptibility prole is helpful
Group C streptococci, Yersinia
enterocolitica, Staphylococcus
in management. Atypical mycobacteepidermidis, alpha hemolytic
ria respond poorly to antibiotics and
streptococci
these infections require surgical exciSUBACUTE
sion. If surgery cannot be performed,
Rapid onset nodal enlargement,
Atypical mycobacterium species such as
a 3- to 6-month course of antibiotics
overlying skin becomes
avium-intracellulare (common),
erythematous, thin and
scrofulaceum, kansasii (common),
is recommended. Clarithromycin or
parchment like
fortuitum, haemophilum
erythromycin combined with rifabutin
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
High risk groups like immigrant
or ethambutol may be effective.
populations, travel or residence in
Tuberculous lymphadenitis. The
endemic areas
presence of 2 of the following 3 criBartonella henselae
History of contact with kittens, large
single lymph node enlargement,
teria has 92% sensitivity in identifying
systemic involvement
tuberculous lymphadenitis. The criteria are (1) a positive PPD skin test
result, (2) an abnormal chest radiograph, and (3) contact
Up to 80% of acute unilateral cervical lymphadenitis in
with a person who has infectious TB. The PPD may be poschildren younger than age 5 years are due to infections
with Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes. Anitive in atypical mycobacterial infection. Tuberculous
tibiotic therapy is directed at antibiotics that will cover
lymphadenitis requires treatment with multiple antituberculous antibiotics for 18 months. Surgical treatment is reS pyogenes and methicillin-resistant S aureus. Children
quired rarely.
older than age 5 years who have dental or periodontal disCat scratch disease. This infection results from entry of
ease will require coverage also for anaerobic bacteria. PaBartonella henselae through a scratch in the skin. Exposure
tients who have high fever, poor oral intake, pain, and the
to a kitten and the resultant skin papule may have been forpotential for airway compromise from retropharyngeal ingotten by the time lymphadenopathy develops 5 days to 2
volvement may require hospitalization. Identication of bacmonths later. Most lymphadenopathy occurs in the axillary
teria may be done through a culture from a primary site such
group (50%), followed by the cervical group. Constitutional
as the pharynx or skin. Antibiotics are administered for 10
symptoms such as low-grade fever, malaise, and anorexia
days or for 5 additional days after resolution of symptoms,
may be associated. This infection can be conrmed by serolwhichever is longer. Improvement may be noted in 2 to 3
ogy. The condition resolves spontaneously in 1 to 3 months.
days, although complete resolution may require a few weeks.
Although the benet of antibiotic therapy is questionable in
Lymphadenitis may be complicated by an abscess formalocalized
disease, azithromycin is known to cause a rapid restion in up to 25% of patients and surgical intervention with
olution of lymph node swelling. Systemic involvement can
incision and drainage may be necessary.
lead to hepatitis, encephalitis, endocarditis, and osteomyeliSUBACUTE AND CHRONIC PRESENTATIONS. The more
tis. Antibiotics used for systemic infection with Bartonella
are rifampin, ciprooxacin, gentamicin, trimethoprim, sulfacommon causes of subacute and chronic lymphadenopamethoxazole, clarithromycin, and azithromycin.
thy in children are as follows:
Table 6.

Lymphadenitis-Causing Bacteria

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blood disorders

Infectious Mononucleosis
This infection is caused by EBV, and the patient typically
develops fever, malaise, sore throat, anorexia, and lymphadenopathy. Other organisms that cause mononucleosis-like
illness are CMV, Toxoplasma gondii, adenovirus, HIV,
hepatitis viruses, and rubella. EBV is transmitted by sexual contact and contact with saliva, as occurs with sharing
of utensils and with kissing. The incubation period is 30
to 50 days. More than 95% of the world population is infected eventually. Most children younger than 4 years old
have asymptomatic infection. Older children and adolescents have physical ndings of generalized lymphadenopathy (90%), splenomegaly (50%), and hepatomegaly (10%).
Patients develop marked exudative tonsillitis and petechiae
over the hard palate. There may be edema of the eyelids
and rash.
Some patients may present with leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, and hemolytic anemia. The denitive diagnosis is made by serology. These patients may require a
bone marrow aspiration for cytology to eliminate the possibility of a malignancy. The widely used spot test is falsely
negative in patients younger than 4 years of age. The detection of immune globulin M antibody to viral capsid
antigen is the most specic serologic test for diagnosis.
There is no specic treatment for infectious mononucleosis, although corticosteroids may be used for airway
compromise, thrombocytopenia with bleeding, hemolytic anemia, seizures, and meningitis, but corticosteroids
should be used with caution because of the danger of immunosuppression in a patient infected with oncogenic virus. Corticosteroids also may mask signs of leukemia and
lymphoma temporarily. Contact sports are to be avoided
for 2 to 3 weeks until the splenic enlargement resolves.

lymphadenopathy

HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM, BLASTOMYCES

DERMATITIDIS, AND COCCIDIOIDES IMMITIS. These
fungal agents are soil saprophytes. They are endemic to
specic geographic regions in the United States. Patients
have pulmonary disease and secondary nodal involvement. Diagnosis is by serology. Most infections are
self-limited, but severe symptoms may require treatment.
HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS. HIV is a retrovirus transmitted by sexual contact, parenteral exposure to
blood, or vertical perinatal transmission. Presentation
may be in the form of fever, malaise, failure to thrive,
nontender lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, and
chronic diarrhea. Diagnosis is made by serology.

Other Causes of Lymphadenopathy

Kawasaki Disease
Nontender lymphadenopathy of the anterior cervical area
is an early manifestation of Kawasaki disease, an acute febrile vasculitic disorder that affects the medium-sized
vessels. Other manifestations are rash, swelling of hands
and feet, red oral mucosa, and nonexudative conjunctivitis. Coronary artery disease is a severe component of
Kawasaki disease in up to 25% of untreated children.

Leukemia
Approximately 50% of children who have leukemia will
have lymphadenopathy at presentation. Lymph nodes
usually are large and grow rapidly. Other clinical manifestations are pallor, fever, petechiae, generalized pains,
bruising, and hepatosplenomegaly. An associated nding
is pancytopenia. The white count may be high or normal.

Lymphoma

ACTINOMYCES. Actinomyces invades locally from the

oral ora and can cause brawny induration and secondary
lymph node enlargement when there is cervicofacial involvement. Diagnosis requires biopsy and histopathologic
examination that shows sulfur granules. The infection is
treated with a 3- to 12-month course of penicillin.

Hodgkin disease presents as cervical or supraclavicular

lymphadenopathy in the majority of patients. The lymphadenopathy usually develops over weeks and months.
The nodes are nontender, discrete, rm, mobile, large,
and rubbery. Approximately 30% of the children may
have systemic symptoms such as fever, anorexia, weight
loss, or pruritis. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma presents over
a shorter duration, and patients may lack systemic symptoms. Hodgkin lymphoma is unusual in children younger
than age 4 years, commonly occurring in older children
and adolescents. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is more common in children younger than age 10 years.

TOXOPLASMA. The intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma

gondii is acquired via the oral route from consumption of
meat or milk containing cysts and oocysts. Affected lymph
nodes are discrete and tender. Patients who have severe
symptoms need treatment with pyrimethamine.

Neuroblastoma arising in the high thoracic and cervical

sympathetic ganglia may manifest as supraclavicular lymphadenopathy and Horner syndrome. Cervical lymphadenopathy also may be a manifestation of secondary involvement

Other Infectious Agents

NOCARDIA. Infection with Nocardia occurs when skin
gets inoculated by contact with soil and decaying vegetable matter. The content of the pustule may be cultured
for diagnosis. The infection is treated with sulfonamides.

Other Malignancies

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blood disorders

lymphadenopathy

by rhabdomyosarcoma, thyroid carcinoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Autoimmune and Collagen Vascular Disorder

Serum sickness may present as lymphadenopathy with fever, arthritis, malaise, pruritis, and urticarial rash. Serum
sickness may occur in response to a viral illness and medications such as phenytoin, penicillins, cephalosporins, and
carbamazepine. Other autoimmune disorders that lead to
lymphadenopathy are juvenile idiopathic arthritis, systemic
lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, and sarcoidosis.

Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome

Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome is a genetic disorder of lymphocyte apoptosis leading to lymphadenopathy,
pancytopenia, and splenomegaly. Having the condition increases the risk of developing B-cell lymphoma. Diagnosis is
made according to revised diagnostic criteria from a 2009
National Institute of Health international workshop. Treatment involves the use of immunosuppressive agents.

Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis
Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a potentially fatal
hyperinammatory disease that occurs more commonly in
children younger than 4 years old. The condition presents
with fever, irritability, maculopapular or petechial rash,
hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, respiratory distress, and aseptic meningitis. The diagnosis can be made
in the presence of set criteria that include laboratory ndings such as hypertriglyceridemia, hyperferritinemia, cytopenia, low natural killer cell activity, hemophagocytosis in
bone marrow or lymph nodes, and elevated soluble CD-25
antibody levels. The condition may be associated with genetic mutation of perforin or the munc13-4 gene. The
treatment and prognosis depend on the underlying cause.

Kikuchi Disease
Kikuchi disease is known also as histiocytic necrotizing
lymphadenitis. The histologic changes that occur suggest a T-cell immune response to an infectious agent.
The condition presents with fever and localized cervical
lymphadenopathy in an older child. Associated ndings
are transient rash, weight loss, night sweats, nausea, and
diarrhea. The lymph nodes are rm, smooth, discrete,
tender, and mobile. There may be leukopenia and an elevated ESR. Lymph node biopsy is diagnostic. There is
usually spontaneous resolution of this disease.

Rosai-Dorfman Disease
Rosai-Dorfman disease is known also as sinus histiocytosis
with massive lymphadenopathy. The cervical lymph nodes
are large, discrete, soft, and mobile. Laboratory evaluation
shows neutrophilic leukocytosis, elevation of the ESR, and
hypergammaglobulinemia. A biopsy of the involved node
shows hyperplasia, histiocytosis, and plasmacytosis. Progressive disease may require chemotherapy.

Summary
Lymphadenopathy in children results from a benign
infectious process in the majority of patients;
however, a wide spectrum of infectious and
noninfectious conditions can cause both inflammatory
and noninflammatory lymph node enlargement.
It is important to recognize the signs of a malignant
process in order to initiate an early evaluation.
In the absence of any symptoms and signs directly
suggestive of a neoplastic process, close monitoring is
essential to look for resolution of an enlarged node. If
the node does not regress over a period of 4 weeks, it
is important to get a biopsy to exclude malignancy.

References
Periodic Fever, Aphthous Stomatitis,
Pharyngitis, and Cervical Adenitis Syndrome
This condition is an autoinammatory disease of unknown
etiology that cycles every 2 to 9 weeks and undergoes spontaneous resolution. One manifestation is tender cervical
lymphadenopathy. The condition usually presents in children who are younger than 5 years old and resolves by
10 years of age. There is no specic diagnostic test. The
children experience normal health and growth between episodes. Corticosteroids and nonsteroidal anti-inammatory
drugs are used to alleviate severe symptoms. A single dose
of corticosteroid is an effective agent for symptom alleviation when given at the onset of an episode. Tonsillectomy
is considered a controversial therapy to treat this disease that
may resolve spontaneously.

1. Herzog LW. Prevalence of lymphadenopathy of the head and neck

in infants and children. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1983;22(7):485487

2. Bamji M, Stone RK, Kaul A, Usmani G, Schachter FF, Wasserman

E. Palpable lymph nodes in healthy newborns and infants. Pediatrics.
1986;78(4):573575
3. Knight PJ, Mulne AF, Vassy LE. When is lymph node biopsy
indicated in children with enlarged peripheral nodes? Pediatrics.
1982;69(4):391396
4. Twist CJ, Link MP. Assessment of lymphadenopathy in children.
Pediatr Clin North Am. 2002;49(5):10091025
5. Gosche JR, Vick L. Acute, subacute, and chronic cervical
lymphadenitis in children. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2006;15(2):99106

Suggested Reading
1. Friedman ER, John SD. Imaging of pediatric neck masses.
Radiol Clin North Am. 2011;49(4):617632, v

2. Nield LS, Kamat D. Lymphadenopathy in children: when and

how to evaluate. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2004;43(1):2533

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lymphadenopathy

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1. A 15-year-old boy is brought into your office for evaluation of swollen neck glands. The patients mother is quite
concerned because her brother was diagnosed as having Hodgkin disease. You take a thorough history from the
patient. Of the following components of the history, which is most suggestive of a malignant rather than an
infectious cause of lymphadenopathy?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Aphthous stomatitis.
Chronic cough.
Lymph node enlargement for less than 4 weeks.
Patient younger than age 4 years.
Weight loss.

2. You proceed to perform a careful physical examination of the boy. You palpate each region of the body for lymph nodes.
An enlarged lymph node in which of the following locations would be most concerning for malignancy?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Anterior cervical.
Inguinal.
Posterior cervical.
Submandibular.
Supraclavicular.

3. A 4-year-old girl presents with a 10-day history of unilateral anterior cervical lymph node enlargement. She has
a temperature of 39.5oC. The node is approximately 2 cm in diameter, warm, and fluctuant. The only pertinent finding
on physical examination is mild pharyngeal erythema. You suspect acute bacterial lymphadenitis. Of the following,
which are the most likely infectious agents to cause lymphadenitis in a 5-year-old?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Bartonella and Staphylococcus.

Epstein-Barr virus and Staphylococcus.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Staphylococcus.
Staphylococcus and Streptococcus.
Toxoplasma and Nocardia.

4. An 8-year-old boy presents to your clinic with progressive enlargement of a right axillary node, now tender, and daily
fevers (up to 38.6oC). You discover that the boy has been playing frequently with his familys new kitten. You suspect
the child may have a specific bacterial infection and he is uncomfortable enough to treat. Of the following, which is
the preferred antibiotic?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Amoxicillin.
Azithromycin.
Cephalexin.
Doxycycline.
Penicillin.

5. A 16-year-old girl presents with 2 weeks of fatigue, fever, and sore throat. On examination, you identify enlarged
posterior and anterior cervical nodes, and a palpable spleen tip. She has mild thrombocytopenia (platelet count of 120 3
103/mL [120 3 109/L]). Of the following, which would be the most specific test to confirm the suspected diagnosis?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Bartonella henselae antibody titers.

Epstein-Barr virus antibody titers.
HIV antibody titers.
Throat culture for group A Streptococcus.
White blood cell count with differential.
Pediatrics in Review Vol.34 No.5 May 2013 227

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Lymphadenopathy
Shashi Sahai
Pediatrics in Review 2013;34;216
DOI: 10.1542/pir.34-5-216

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