Adventures in Rocket Science

Educational Guide
Grades
Educators
K–12
EG-2007-12-179-MSFC
Acknowledgements
Adventures in Rocket Science is an expansion of the NASA guidebook

Rockets by Deborah Shearer, Greg Vogt and Carla Rosenberg.
New and additional material was written and compiled by:
Vince Huegele, Marshall Space Flight Center Scientist and

National Association of Rocketry (NAR) Education Chair
Kristy Hill, Education Specialist for WILL Technology,

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
Brenda Terry, Executive Director, Alabama Mathematics,

Science and Technology Education Coalition (AMSTEC)
This document was produced through

The NASA Explorer Institute (NEI)
Funding for the development of this

rocketry guidebook for Informal Education
was provided by NASA Explorer Institute
and directed by the Marshall Space Flight Center
Academic Affairs Office 2008.
i
Table of Contents
Adventures in Rocket Science Activity Matrix........................................................................ v
Standards................................................................................................................................ vi
How to Use this Guide............................................................................................................ vii
Adventures in Rocket Science Introduction: Flight of a Model Rocket................................... 1
Practical Rocketry................................................................................................................... 7
A Brief History of Rockets....................................................................................................... 17
Rocket History Glossary......................................................................................................... 24
Constellation Program America’s Fleet of Next Generation Launch Vehicles........................ 27
Activities.................................................................................................................................. 31
1. Move It!..................................................................................................................... 32
2. Magic Marbles.......................................................................................................... 35
3. Shuttle Drag Parachute............................................................................................. 38
4. Paper Rockets.......................................................................................................... 43
5. Straw Rockets........................................................................................................... 49
6. Rocket Racer............................................................................................................ 50
7. 3-2-1 POP!................................................................................................................ 58
8. Newton Car............................................................................................................... 62
9. Pop Can Hero Engine............................................................................................... 68
10. Rocket Transportation.............................................................................................. 74
11. Parachute Area Versus Drop Time............................................................................ 77
12. Balloon Staging......................................................................................................... 83
13. Water Bottle Rocket Assembly................................................................................. 85
14. The Nose Cone Experts............................................................................................ 90
iii
15. Racing Against Friction............................................................................................. 95
16. The Parachuting Egg................................................................................................. 100
17. Egg Drop Lander....................................................................................................... 103
18. At the Drop of a Ball.................................................................................................. 105
19. Free Fall Rocket Ball Drop........................................................................................ 107
20. Altitude Tracking....................................................................................................... 109
21. The Scale of a Model Rocket.................................................................................... 117
22. Rocket Motion Video Studies................................................................................... 120
23. Rocket Parachute Flight Duration Study................................................................... 123
24. Predicting and Measuring Rocket Parachute Drift Rate........................................... 126
25. Project Enterprise..................................................................................................... 128
Glossary .................................................................................................................................. 143
Appendix A – Assembly Instructions....................................................................................... 145
Appendix B – Rocket Safety Code........................................................................................... 155
Appendix C – Rocket Principles............................................................................................... 159
Appendix D – Rocketry Resource Materials............................................................................ 165
iv
Adventures in Rocket Science Activity Matrix
Page Number
Acceleration
Grade Level Groups Activity
Velocity
Altitude
1-3 4-6 7-9 10-12
1 Move It! (balloon direction) X 32
2 Magic Marbles X 35
3 Shuttle Drag Parachute X 38
4 Paper Rockets X X 43
5 Straw Rockets X 49
6 Rocket Racer X 50
7 3-2-1 POP! X X X 58
8 Newton Car X 62
9 Pop Can Hero Engine 68
10 Rocket Transportation X 74
11 Parachute Area Versus Drop Time X 77
12 Balloon Staging X 83
13 Water Bottle Rocket Assembly X X X 85
14 The Nose Cone Experts X 90
15 Racing Against Friction X 95
16 The Parachuting Egg X 100
17 Egg Drop Lander 103
18 At the Drop of a Ball X X 105
19 Free Fall Rocket Ball Drop X 107
20 Altitude Tracking X 109
21 The Scale of a Model Rocket X X 117
22 Rocket Motion Video Studies X 120
23 Predicting and Measuring Rocket Parachute Drift Rate 123
24 Rocket Parachute Flight Duration X 126
25 Project Enterprise (2 weeks) X X X 128
Legend: X : Denotes the primary target word focus (altitude, velocity and/or acceleration).
: Denotes secondary target word.
: Denotes suggested grade level.
v
Standards
Science Standard
Change, Consistency and Measurement
Understanding Science and Technology

Properties of Objects and Materials
Evidence, Models and Explanation

Unifying Concepts and Processes
Abilities of Technological Design

Position and Motion of Objects
Science and Technology

Science as Inquiry
Physical Science
Activity
Move It! (balloon direction) X X X

Magic Marbles X X X X X X
Shuttle Drag Parachute X X X X
Paper Rockets X X X X X X X X
Straw Rockets X X X X X X X X
Rocket Racer X X X X X X
3-2-1 POP! X X X X X
Newton Car X X X X X X
Pop Can Hero Engine X X X X X X X
Rocket Transportation X X X X X
Parachute Area Versus Drop Time X X X X X X X X X
Balloon Staging X X X X X
Water Bottle Rocket Assembly X X X X
The Nose Cone Experts X X X X X
Racing Against Friction X X X X X X
The Parachuting Egg X X X X X X X X
Egg Drop Lander X X X X X X X X
At the Drop of a Ball X X X
Free Fall Rocket Ball Drop X X X
Altitude Tracking X X X X X
The Scale of a Model Rocket X X X X X X
Rocket Motion Video Studies X X X X X X X X
Predicting and Measuring Rocket Parachute Drift Rate X X X X X X
Rocket Parachute Flight Duration X X X X X X
Project Enterprise (2 weeks) X X X X X
vi
How to Use This Guide
Acknowledgements Examine the matrix for a grade level band

The excitement and thrill from experiencing (e.g., grades 1–3). Select a target word
the launch of rocket-powered vehicles ignites located in that grade level band (e.g.,
engagement and imagination in children as velocity). The activity, “Move It!” will address
well as adults. Constructing and launching the concept of velocity. Activities are
model rockets certainly provided a charge included within each grade level band to
of excitement among a group of National address the three target concepts. Some
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) activities can be used to address multiple
and higher education professionals as they target words. The length of time for each
planned an Exploration Systems Mission activity is approximately one or two hours
Directorate (ESMD) sponsored K-12 rocketry with the exception of the Project Enterprise
curriculum and mentor/coach workshop. activity which can take up to two weeks to
complete.
This guide was prepared as a tool useful
for informal education venues (4-H, Boys The guide includes a compilation of NASA-
and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, developed and originally developed activities
etc.), science clubs and related programs, that emphasize hands-on involvement,
and can be adopted for formal education prediction, data collection and interpretation,
settings. An exciting and productive study in teamwork, and problem solving. Project
rocket science can be implemented using the background and an edited, student-friendly
selected activities for the above-mentioned version of The History of Rocketry is
settings. The guide’s activities can be included. The guide includes an appendix
correlated to meet formal education’s core with construction directions for various
curriculum objectives or used for ancillary project activities, safety guidelines and a
enrichment and extension activities. glossary of terms.
The series of activities in this guide

require basic, inexpensive materials. They
demonstrate fundamental principles of
rocket science. The activities were selected
and organized around the target concepts
of altitude, velocity and acceleration (i.e.,
height, distance and speed). The Adventures
in Rocket Science Activity Matrix on page v
organizes the activities by suggested grade
level bands as well as target concepts.
vii
Adventures in Rocket Science
Introduction:
Flight of a Model Rocket
Guidebook Background of the scientific process and the engineering

The NASA Explorers Institute (NEI) funded the applications of real world challenges.
development of this model rocketry guide- Rocketry studies from high school can be
book for educators. Directed by the Marshall continued on a college level until the student
Space Flight Center (MSFC) Academic emerges from the pipeline into the job
Affairs Office, education specialists created market. This guidebook presents the flow of
the curriculum with knowledgeable amateur model rocket science activities that support
rocketeers who are members of the National the pipeline.
Association of Rocketry (NAR). The material
was tested in a workshop pairing NAR mem- The Marvel of Motion
bers with informal educators from science The study of motion is one of the funda-
centers, 4-H clubs, Girl Scout troops and mentals of physics that students should
after school programs. One purpose of the learn. The dynamic properties of an object
workshop was to introduce groups to the use are given by its altitude, velocity and accel-
of the guidebook with students in informal eration. From these properties come the
settings. The activities have been very suc- concepts of measurement and rate of
cessful in engaging and teaching students change, which are the foundation of physical
and are enjoyable for the teachers. science. Rocketry demonstrates these con-
cepts in a way that students on many grade
The Rocketry Education Pipeline levels can understand and remember.
The theme of this book is that rocketry can
be used to teach physical science beginning One way to explain motion is to think about
at any level. The subject has successive les- what is happening when you throw a ball.
sons, like a K through 12 pipeline course, The ball is accelerated as the arm moves until
that can lead a student to a technical career. the hand releases it; then, the ball appears to
Students begin an orientation to motion and travel at a constant velocity from the pitcher
velocity by launching air straw rockets and to the catcher, though in actuality the thrown
pump-up water bottle rockets. Then, they are baseball is decelerating slightly due to air
introduced to force and acceleration as dem- resistance, or drag, after the ball is released
onstrated in model rockets. In middle school, by the pitcher. When tossing a ball straight
students can apply their understanding in up, gravity immediately starts slowing the
design contests and move on in high school ball down, until it stops at the top of its flight
to launching payload experiments in larger path and then falls down at increasing speed,
models. Model rocketry is fully representative again due to the effect of gravity.
1
Instead of a ball, the rocket activities in this velocity and acceleration are actually derived
guide can be used to better illustrate this through calculus, so students progressing in
simple acceleration and free-fall motion. The math may get their first gentle exposure here.
first worksheet entitled The “Flight of a Water
Bottle Rocket,” page 3, shows the different Tell the students the flight profile of a model
points of change in the water bottle rocket rocket with a parachute is the same as for the
flight. As the students launch the rockets, Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB) on the Space
have them watch the flights and then answer Shuttle and the Ares V. The SRBs launch,
the questions on the worksheet on page 4. ascend, burn out, reach apogee, then deploy
You may prompt them before the flights to parachutes to land in order to be recovered
be observing for “When does the rocket go and reloaded. The main differences between
the fastest?” and “When is its speed chang- a NASA rocket and a model rocket is that a
ing the most?” After they choose answers, large rocket continuously controls its position
compare those to the worksheet answers and during ascent, using moveable engine
learn how altitude, velocity and acceleration nozzles and aerodynamic surfaces (such as
are related to each other in flight. fins); whereas, a model rocket does not. The
physics principles and even the flight phases
The model rocket flight chart is different from are the same. If students understand the
the water rocket in that instead of the rocket fundamentals of how a model rocket works,
free falling from apogee (its highest point), it they will understand how any rocket works.
pops a parachute or streamer to slow down
its descent. The “Flight of a Model Rocket” The first rockets ever built, the fire-arrows of
worksheet builds on the water rocket profile the Chinese, were not very reliable. Many just
to teach another kind of motion. exploded on launching. Others flew on erratic
courses and landed in the wrong place. Being
The rocket’s altitude, velocity and accel- a rocketeer in the days of the fire-arrows
eration and their relation in time can be must have been an exciting, but also a highly
illustrated in graphs. The plots of the rela- dangerous activity.
tion of altitude, velocity and acceleration of
a rocket on page 6 show how the values of
the respective aspects change from ascent
to apogee and on to landing. A model rocket
simulation program will give a similar plot for
the rocket being tested. The plots of altitude,
2
3
4
Flight of the Water Bottle Rocket
Worksheet Answers
Altitude = maximum
Apogee (c) Velocity = zero
Acceleration = constant, negative
INTERCEPTOR
R
PTO Altitude = increasing
RCE
Velocity = decreasing up
INT
INTE
ER
CE
PT
Emptyout (b)
OR
Altitude = decreasing
Velocity = increasing, down
Altitude = increasing
INTERCEPTOR
Velocity = increasing up
Acceleration = constant, positive
Launch (a) Landing (d)
Flight of the Model Rocket

Worksheet Answers
Altitude = maximum
Velocity = zero
Velocity = decreasing up
Apogee
Coasting Ejection
Flight Charge
Burnout
Powered
Ascent Parachute
Descent
Velocity = increasing, up
Acceleration = constant, positive Altitude = decreasing
Velocity = constant, down
Acceleration = zero
Launch
Recovery
5
Relation of x, v, a for the water bottle rocket
emptyout (b) apogee (c)
0
Launch (a) landing (d)
Key a=acceleration; v=velocity; x=altitude
Relation of x, v, a for model rocket

burnout apogee
deployment at apogee
X
0
Ignition landing
Key a=acceleration; v=velocity; x=altitude
6
Practical Rocketry
Today, rockets are much more reliable. They motor is a simple device that converts stored
fly on precise courses and are capable of rocket propellant into hot gases to produce
going fast enough to escape the gravita- thrust, such as a solid rocket motor. A rocket
tional pull of the Earth. Modern rockets are engine is a more complicated machine with
also more efficient today because we have moving parts that converts stored rocket
an understanding of the scientific principles propellants into hot gases to produce thrust.
behind rocketry. Our understanding has led An example of a rocket engine is a liquid-
us to develop a wide variety of advanced propellant engine, which is a machine with
rocket hardware and devise new propellants valves and often pumps that performs the
that can be used for longer trips and more energy conversion to generate thrust.
powerful take offs.
Solid rocket propellants, which are dry to
Rocket Engines and Their Propellants the touch, contain both the fuel and oxidizer
Most rockets today operate with either solid combined together in the chemical mix-
or liquid propellants. The word propellant ture itself. Usually the fuel is a mixture of
does not mean simply fuel, as you might hydrogen compounds and carbon, and the
think; it means both fuel and oxidizer. The oxidizer is made up of oxygen compounds.
fuel is the chemical the rocket burns but, for
burning to take place, an oxidizer (typically Liquid propellants are kept in separate con-
oxygen) must be present. Jet engines draw tainers, one for the fuel and the other for
oxygen into their engines from the surround- the oxidizer. The fuel and oxidizer are mixed
ing air. Rockets do not have the luxury that together in the engine to produce thrust.
jet planes have; they must carry the oxidizer
with them into space where there is no air. A rocket with a liquid propulsion system
can be very complex, but a rocket with a
In the following discussion about rocket solid motor is much simpler because the
propulsion, several terms appear to be used solid motor propulsion system consists of
synonymously, but actually have distinct a nozzle, a case, insulation, propellant and
meanings. These terms are rocket, rocket an igniter. The case of the engine is usu-
motor and rocket engine. In simple terms, ally a relatively thin metal that is lined with
a rocket is a vehicle that contains every- insulation to keep the propellant from burn-
thing needed to place a payload into space. ing through. The propellant itself is packed
Rocket motors and rocket engines are inside the insulation layer, which is packed
propulsion devices that produce the thrust inside the motor casing.
necessary to lift a rocket into space. A rocket
7
Many solid-propellant rocket motors feature a The nozzle in a solid-propellant motor is an
hollow core that runs through the propellant. opening at the back of the rocket that per-
Motors that do not have the hollow core must mits the hot expanding gases to escape.
be ignited at the lower end of the propellant, The narrow part of the nozzle is the throat.
and burning proceeds from one end of the Just beyond the throat is the exit cone.
motor to the other. In all cases, only the sur-
face of the propellant burns. However, to get The purpose of the nozzle is to increase
higher thrust, the hollow core is used. This the acceleration of the gases as they leave
increases the surface area of the propellants the rocket and thereby maximize the thrust.
available for burning. The propellants burn It does this by cutting down the opening
from the inside out at a much higher rate, through which the gases can escape. To see
sending mass out the nozzle at a higher rate how this works, you can experiment with a
and speed. This typically results in greater garden hose that has a spray nozzle attach-
thrust. Some propellant cores are star shaped ment. This kind of nozzle does not have an
to increase the burning surface even more. exit cone, but that does not matter in the
Typical solid motor propellants are com- experiment. The important point about the
pressed black powder (used in Estes model nozzle is that the size of the opening can be
rocket motors) and ammonium perchlorate varied to change the thrust.
composite propellant (used in the Space
Shuttle SRBs and higher end model rocket Start with the opening at its widest point.
motors). Watch how far the water squirts and feel
the thrust produced by the departing water.
To ignite solid propellants, many kinds of Now reduce the diameter of the opening,
igniters can be used. Fuses were used to and again note the distance the water squirts
ignite fire-arrows, but sometimes these ignited and feel the thrust. Rocket nozzles work the
too quickly and burned the rocketeer. A far same way.
safer and more reliable form of ignition used
today in model rockets is one that employs As with the inside of the rocket motor
electricity. An electric current, coming through case, insulation is often needed to protect
wires from some distance away, heats up the nozzle from the hot gases. The usual
a special wire inside the rocket. The igniter insulation is one that gradually erodes as
raises the temperature of the propellant to the gas passes through. Small pieces of the
the combustion point. Often, there is another insulation get very hot and break away from
pyrogenic mixture on the hotwire to more the nozzle. As they are blown away, heat is
quickly reach the combustion temperature of carried away with them. As will be discussed
the propellant. later, there are other methods of protecting
the nozzle and combustion chamber
Other igniters, especially those for large rock- materials from excess heat.
ets, are often small rocket motors themselves.
The small motor inside the hollow core blasts One of these methods is to use one of
a stream of flames through the propellant core the propellants to cool the nozzle and
to ignite the inner surface area very quickly. combustion chamber by sending the
8
easier said than done when you consider that
combustion temperatures may reach 6,000°F
Payload (3,315.56 °C), which exceeds the melting point
of most metals that are suitable for use in
rocket engines and motors. Fuel must often
Igniter be sprayed directly onto the inner wall of the
combustion chamber to help cool the cham-
ber wall. Spraying fuel onto the chamber wall
to keep the temperature of the chamber wall
lower may seem counterintuitive, but it works
because the fuel evaporates on the chamber
Casing
(body tube) wall, pulling heat out of the metal before the
fuel itself is burned.
Core The other main kind of rocket engine is one

that uses liquid propellants that may be either
pumped or fed into the engine by pressure.
Propellant
(grain) This is a much more complicated engine, as is
evidenced by the fact that solid rocket engines
were used for at least 700 years before the
first successful liquid engine was tested.
Contrasted with a relatively simple solid rocket

Combustion
Chamber motor, a liquid propellant engine requires a
complicated propulsion system. This propul-
sion system must have propellant tanks (one
Fins for the fuel and one for the oxidizer), pres-
surant tanks to push the liquid propellant out
of the tanks and into the engine, and valves
to control the flow of the propellant to the
Throat
engines. The liquid engine itself has valves and
Nozzle
sometimes a pump, in addition to the combus-
Solid Propellant Rocket tion chamber and nozzle that you would see in
a solid rocket motor.
propellant through small passages within the
nozzle and chamber wall before sending the The fuel of a liquid-propellant rocket is usu-
propellant into the combustion chamber. This ally kerosene or liquid hydrogen; the oxidizer
is called regenerative cooling. is usually liquid oxygen. They are combined
inside a cavity called the combustion cham-
Another method to protect the chamber and ber. Here, the propellants burn and build up
nozzle from the heat of combustion is to high temperatures and pressures, and the
use materials that can survive the heat for expanding gas escapes through the nozzle at
the life of the rocket. However, this is much the lower end.
9
Because the combustion operates best under
high pressures, the propellants need to be
forced into the thrust chamber. Modern liquid
Payload rockets often use powerful, lightweight tur-
bine pumps to take care of this job. Another
method to increase the pressure within
the combustion chamber is to use a high-
pressure gas (typically, helium or nitrogen)
Oxidizer to pressurize the propellants before they are
injected into the engine.
With any rocket, and especially with liquid-

propellant rockets, weight is an important
factor. In general, the heavier the rocket, the
more thrust is needed to get it off the ground.
However, getting a rocket into space is a bal-
ancing act. You must balance the mass of the
Fuel rocket and payload to be lifted into space,
the efficiency of the propellant and engines,
and the overall complexity of the propulsion
system.
Pumps
One especially good method of reducing the
weight of rocket engines is to make the exit
cone of the nozzle out of very lightweight
metals. However, the extremely hot, fast-
Injectors
moving gases that pass through the cone
would quickly melt thin metal. Therefore, a
Combustion cooling system is needed. A highly effective,
Chamber
though complex, cooling system that is used
Fins with some liquid engines takes advantage
of the low temperature of liquid hydrogen.
Hydrogen becomes a liquid when it is chilled
Nozzle to –423.4 °F (–253 °C). Before injecting the
hydrogen into the combustion chamber, it
Liquid Propellant Rocket
is first circulated through small tubes that
lace the walls of the exit cone. In a cutaway
To get the most power from the propellants, view, the exit cone wall looks like the edge
they must be mixed as completely as pos- of corrugated cardboard. The hydrogen in
sible. Small injectors (nozzles) on the roof of the tubes absorbs the excess heat entering
the chamber spray and mix the propellants at the cone walls and prevents it from melting
the same time. the walls away. It also makes the hydrogen
more energetic because of the heat it picks
10
up from the combustion chamber wall. We Sometimes fire extinguishers are built
call this kind of cooling system regenerative into the engine to stop the rocket in flight.
cooling. Typically, a regeneratively cooled However, using them is a tricky procedure
rocket engine uses the fuel propellant to take and does not always work. Some solid-fuel
the excess heat out of the combustion cham- engines have hatches on their sides that can
ber wall before the fuel itself is consumed in be cut loose by remote control to release
combustion. the chamber pressure and terminate thrust.
Engine Thrust Control The burn rate of solid propellants is care-

Controlling the thrust of an engine is very fully planned in advance. The hollow core
important for launching payloads (cargoes) running the length of the propellants can be
into space. Thrusting for too short or too long made into a star shape. At first, there is a
of a period of time will cause a satellite to be very large surface available for burning, but
placed in the wrong orbit. This could cause as the points of the star burn away, the sur-
it to go too far into space to be useful or face area is reduced. For a time, less of the
make the satellite fall back to Earth too soon. propellant burns, and this reduces thrust.
Thrusting in the wrong direction or at the The Space Shuttle uses this technique to
wrong time will result in a similar situation. reduce vibrations early in its flight into orbit.
A computer in the rocket’s guidance system Note: Although most rockets used by gov-
determines when thrust is needed and turns ernments and research organizations are
the engine on or off appropriately. Liquid very reliable, there is still great danger asso-
engines do this by simply starting or stopping ciated with the building and firing of rocket
the flow of propellants into the combustion engines. Individuals interested in rocketry
chamber. On more complicated flights, such should never attempt to build their own
as going to the Moon, the engines must be engines unless supervised by a propulsion
started and stopped several times, and mul- expert. Even the simplest-looking rocket
tiple sets of engines are required to escape engines are very complex. Case-wall burst-
Earth’s gravity. ing strength, propellant packing density,
nozzle design and propellant chemistry are
Some liquid-propellant engines control all design problems beyond the scope of
the amount of engine thrust by varying the most amateurs. Many home-built rocket
amount of propellant that enters the com- engines have exploded in the faces of their
bustion chamber. Typically, the engine builders with tragic consequences.
thrust varies for controlling the acceleration
experienced by astronauts or to limit the Stability and Control Systems
aerodynamic forces on a vehicle. Building an efficient rocket engine is only
part of the problem in producing a success-
Solid-propellant rockets are not as easy ful rocket. The rocket must also be stable
to control as liquid rockets. Typically, once in flight. A stable rocket is one that flies in
started, the propellants burn until they are a smooth, uniform direction. An unstable
gone. They are very difficult to stop or slow rocket flies along an erratic path, sometimes
down after the solid motor has ignited. tumbling or changing direction. Unstable
11
The CM is important in rocket flight because
it is around this point that an unstable rocket
Roll tumbles. As a matter of fact, any object in
flight tends to tumble. Throw a stick, and it
tumbles end over end. Throw a ball, and it
spins in flight. The act of spinning or tum-
Yaw bling is a way of becoming stabilized in flight.
Pitch A Frisbee will go where you want it to only
if you throw it with a deliberate spin. Try
throwing a Frisbee without spinning it. If you
succeed, you will see that the Frisbee flies in
an erratic path and falls far short of its mark.
Likewise, a knuckleball, which has little or no
spin, follows an erratic flight from the pitcher
to the catcher, making it very difficult for the
rockets are dangerous because it is not pos- batter to hit the ball.
sible to predict where they will go. They may
even turn upside down and suddenly head In flight, spinning or tumbling takes place
back directly to the launch pad or at the around one or more of three axes. They are
spectators. called roll, pitch and yaw. The point where all
three of these axes intersect is the CM. For
Making a rocket stable requires some form of rocket flight, the pitch and yaw axes are the
control system. Controls can be either active most important because any movement in
or passive. The difference between these and either of these two directions can cause the
how they work will be explained later. It is first rocket to go off course. The roll axis is the
important to understand what makes a rocket least important because movement along
stable or unstable. this axis will not affect the flight path. In fact,
a rolling motion will help stabilize the rocket
All matter, regardless of size, mass or shape, in the same way a properly passed football
has a point inside called the center of mass is stabilized by rolling (spiraling) it in flight.
(CM). The CM is the exact spot where all of Although a poorly passed football may still
the mass of that object is perfectly balanced. fly to its mark even if it tumbles rather than
You can easily find the CM of an object such rolls, a rocket will not. The action-reaction
as a ruler by balancing the object on your fin- energy of a football pass will be completely
ger. If the material used to make the ruler is of expended by the thrower the moment the
uniform thickness and density, the CM should ball leaves the hand. With rockets, thrust
be at the halfway point between one end of from the engine is still being produced while
the stick and the other. If the ruler was made the rocket is in flight. Unstable motions about
of wood and a heavy nail was driven into one the pitch and yaw axes will cause the rocket
of its ends, the CM would no longer be in to leave the planned course. To prevent this,
the middle. The balance point would then be a control system is needed to prevent or at
nearer the end with the nail. least minimize unstable motions.
12
In addition to CM, there is another impor- It is extremely important that the CP in a
tant center inside the rocket that affects its rocket be located toward the tail and the CM
flight. This is the center of pressure (CP). mass be located toward the nose. If they are
The CP exists only when air is flowing past in the same place or very near each other,
the moving rocket. This flowing air, rubbing then the rocket will be unstable in flight. The
and pushing against the outer surface of the rocket would then try to rotate about the
rocket, can cause it to begin moving around CM in the pitch and yaw axes, producing an
one of its three axes. Think for a moment of erratic flight path. With the CP behind the
a weather vane. A weather vane is an arrow- center of gravity, the rocket will maintain a
like stick that is mounted on a rooftop and stable trajectory, or flight path.
used for telling wind direction. The arrow is
attached to a vertical rod that acts as a pivot Control systems for rockets are intended to
point. The arrow is balanced so that the CM keep a rocket stable in flight and to steer it.
is right at the pivot point. When the wind Small rockets usually require only a stabilizing
blows, the arrow turns, and the head of the control system. A large rocket, such as the
arrow points into the oncoming wind. The tail ones that launch satellites into orbit, requires
of the arrow points in the downwind direction. a system that not only stabilizes the rocket,
but also enables it to change course while
The reason that the weather vane arrow in flight.
points into the wind is that the tail of the
arrow has a much larger surface area than Controls on rockets can either be passive or
the arrowhead. The flowing air imparts a active. Passive controls are fixed devices that
greater force to the tail than the head, and keep rockets stabilized by their very presence
therefore the tail is pushed away. There is a on the rocket’s exterior. Active controls can
point on the arrow where the surface area is be moved while the rocket is in flight to stabi-
the same on one side as the other. This spot lize and steer the craft.
is called the CP. The CP is not in the same
place as the CM. If it was, the wind would The simplest of all passive controls is a stick.
favor neither end of the arrow, and the arrow The Chinese fire-arrows were simple rockets
would not point. The CP must be between mounted on the ends of sticks. The stick kept
the CM and the tail end of the arrow for the the CP behind the CM. In spite of this, fire-
weather vane to point into the wind. This arrows were notoriously inaccurate. Before
means that the tail end has more surface the CP could take effect, air had to be flowing
area than the head end. past the rocket. While still on the ground and
immobile, the arrow might lurch and fire the
Center Center
of of wrong way.
Pressure Mass
Years later, the accuracy of fire-arrows was
improved considerably by mounting them in
a trough aimed in the proper direction. The
trough guided the arrow in the right direction
until it was moving fast enough to be stable
on its own.
13
rocket stability and at the same time reduce
t
Ro ha ctio
c ke ges overall rocket weight. The answer to this was
n
Ro han ctio
C ire
ck nge n
the development of active controls. Active
D
et s
C ir e
D control systems included vanes, movable fins,
canards, gimbaled nozzles, vernier rockets,
fuel injection and attitude-control rockets. Tilt-
Air Stream
Air Stream
ing fins and canards are quite similar to each

other in appearance. The only real difference
between them is their location on the rocket.
Canards are mounted on the front end of the
rocket, while the tilting fins are at the rear. In
flight, the fins and canards tilt like rudders to
deflect the air flow and cause the rocket to
change course. Motion sensors on the rocket
detect directional changes, and corrections
can be made by slightly tilting the fins and
Moveable canards. The advantage of these two devices
Fins
is size and weight. They are smaller and lighter
and produce less drag than large fins. Move-
As will be explained in the next section, the able fins also provide better pointing accuracy
weight of the rocket is a critical factor in of the rocket than do fixed, immoveable fins.
performance and range. The fire-arrow stick
added too much dead weight to the rocket Other active control systems can eliminate fins
and, therefore, limited its range considerably. and canards altogether. By tilting the angle
at which the exhaust gas leaves the rocket
An important improvement in rocketry came engine, course changes can be made in flight.
with the replacement of sticks by clusters of Several techniques can be used for changing
lightweight fins mounted around the lower exhaust direction.
end near the nozzle. Fins could be made out
of lightweight materials and be streamlined in Vanes are small finlike devices that are placed
shape. They gave rockets a dart-like appear- inside the exhaust of the rocket engine. Tilting
ance. The large surface area of the fins easily the vanes deflects the exhaust, and, by action-
kept the CP behind the CM. Some experi- reaction, the rocket responds by pointing the
menters even bent the lower tips of the fins opposite way.
in a pinwheel fashion to promote rapid spin-
ning in flight. With these “spin fins,” rockets Another method for changing the exhaust
become much more stable in flight. However, direction is to gimbal the nozzle. A gimbaled
the increased drag created by the spin fins nozzle is one that is able to sway while exhaust
reduced the rocket’s range. gases are passing through it. By tilting the
engine nozzle in the proper direction, the
With the start of modern rocketry in the 20th rocket responds by rotating about the center
century, new ways were sought to improve of gravity to change course.
14
Mass
t
ke ges Mass is another important factor affecting
Ro a ctio
c n
Ro han ctio
Ch ire
ck nge n
the performance of a rocket. The mass of a
D
et s
C ir e
D rocket can make the difference between a
successful flight and just wallowing around
on the launch pad. As a basic principle of
rocket flight, it can be said that for a rocket to
leave the ground, the engine must produce a
thrust that is greater than the total mass of the
vehicle. It is obvious that a rocket with a lot of
unnecessary mass will not be as efficient as
one that is trimmed to just the bare essentials.
For an ideal rocket, the total mass of the vehi-

cle should be distributed following this general
formula: of the total mass, 91 percent should
Gimbaled be propellants; 3 percent should be tanks,
Nozzle engines, fins, etc.; and 6 percent can be the
payload.
Vernier rockets can also be used to change
direction. These are small rockets mounted Payloads may be satellites, astronauts, or
on the outside of the large engine. When spacecraft that will travel to other planets or
fired, they also produce a desired course moons. In determining the effectiveness of a
change. rocket design, rocketeers speak in terms of
mass fraction (MF). The mass of the propel-
In space, only by spinning the rocket along lants of the rocket divided by the total mass
the roll axis or by using active controls involv- of the rocket gives MF.
ing the engine exhaust can the rocket be
stabilized or have its direction changed. With- The MF of the ideal rocket given above is 0.91.
out air, fins and canards have nothing to work From the MF formula, one might think that an
upon. (Science fiction movies showing rock- MF of 1.0 is perfect, but then the entire rocket
ets in space with wings and fins are long on would be nothing more than a lump of propel-
fiction and short on science.) While coasting lants that would simply ignite into a fireball.
in space, the most common kinds of active The larger the MF number, the smaller pay-
controls used are attitude-control rockets. load the rocket can carry; the smaller the MF
Small clusters of engines are mounted all number, the less its range becomes. An MF
around the vehicle. By firing the right com- number of 0.91 is a good balance between
bination of these small rockets, the vehicle payload-carrying capability and range. The
can be turned in any direction. As soon as Space Shuttle has an MF of approximately
the spacecraft is aimed properly, the main 0.82. The MF varies between the different
engines fire, sending the rocket off in the orbiters in the Space Shuttle fleet and with
new direction. the different payload weights of each mission.
15
Large rockets, able to carry a spacecraft into
space, have serious weight problems. To
reach space and proper orbital velocities, a
great deal of propellant is needed; therefore,
the tanks, engines and associated hardware
become larger. Up to a point, bigger rockets
can carry more payload than smaller rockets,
but when they become too large, their struc-
tures weigh them down too much, and the MF
is reduced to an impossible number.
A solution to the problem of giant rockets

weighing too much can be credited to the
16th-century fireworks maker Johann Schmid-
lap. Schmidlap attached small rockets to the
top of big ones. When the large rocket was
exhausted, the rocket casing was dropped
behind, and the remaining rocket fired. Much
higher altitudes were achieved by this method.
The rockets used by Schmidlap were called
step rockets. (The Space Shuttle follows the
step rocket principle by dropping off its SRBs
and external tank when they are exhausted of
propellants.) Today this technique of building
a rocket is called staging. Thanks to staging, it
has become possible not only to reach outer
space, but the Moon and other planets too.
16
A Brief History of Rockets
Isaac Newton came up with three laws that be zero) will remain traveling at that velocity as
govern our world. These laws are the Laws long as there are no forces acting on it. That
of Motion. They deal with position, velocity makes sense, since our shoes do not start
and acceleration. Position is an explanation moving across the floor by themselves. They
of where something is, based on a certain only move if we push them or pick them up.
origin (or starting place). For instance, you
could say your teacher is in front of you in the Newton’s second law states that an object
classroom, but it is also true that he/she is in will experience acceleration if a force is
front of the chalkboard. We used you as the applied to this object and that the accelera-
origin in the first position and the chalkboard tion is in the direction of the applied force.
in the second. As you can see, a descrip- Furthermore, the equation Force = mass ×
tion of location is always based on the origin. acceleration (F = m × a) governs this accelera-
Now, velocity is the speed and direction tion from an applied force. If you push your
something is moving. If I said your teacher is shoes with a constant force, they will acceler-
walking at 3 mph (4.83 kmph), I have given ate according to the formula. Note that mass
you his/her speed, but not velocity because is not the same as weight. Mass is how much
I have not told you the direction in which material a body has, usually measured in
he/she is traveling. Now, if I said that your kilograms. Weight is the force a mass experi-
teacher is moving towards the chalkboard at ences in a certain gravity like that of Earth or
3 mph (4.83 kmph) that would be a velocity on the Moon. Your weight on the Moon is less,
because I have given you her speed, 3 mph but your mass is the same.
(4.83 kmph), and her direction, towards the
board. Acceleration is how velocity changes Newton’s third law is that every action has an
with time. For instance, if I said he/she was equal and opposite reaction. When we push
2
accelerating across the room at 3 mph against a wall, the wall pushes the exact same
(4.83 kmph2), then that would mean that amount against our hands. Otherwise, one of
for every hour he/she was traveling, his/her us would begin moving according to the sec-
velocity would increase by another 3 mph ond law. Since it is equal and opposite, the
(4.83 kmph). So, if his/her initial velocity was net force is zero, so there is no acceleration.
2
3 mph, her acceleration was 3 mph (4.83 This law explains why it hurts when we fall
kmph2), and she traveled for 2 hours, what down. Our body hits the ground with a force
would her new velocity be? equal to our weight, which on Earth is approx-
imately 10 times our mass. When we hit the
Newton’s first law states that an object ground, the ground hits us back, and that is
traveling at a certain velocity (velocity can why it hurts so badly.
17
the sphere allowed the steam to escape and,
in doing so, gave a thrust to the sphere that
caused it to rotate. The aeolipile used the
action-reaction principle that was not to be
stated as a scientific law, by Newton, until the
17th century.
Newton’s laws can be applied to our every-

day lives and experiences. They govern
anything we do and cannot do for that mat-
ter. Rockets make use of Newton’s Laws in
order to carry out the tasks they are designed
to do. Can you think of other examples that
demonstrate the three Laws of Motion?
Rockets have been around for centuries.

These rockets started off in a very simple Would you believe the Chinese made
form, like our fireworks, to become the rock- rockets out of bamboo?
ets that we use for warfare and traveling
into outer space. Much of rocketry science Although we know that inventions that used
has been discovered within the last century, ideas related to rocketry were around for many
including new fuels, ways of controlling rock- centuries, we are uncertain as to when true
ets, and new uses for rockets. rockets came into existence. One idea is that
the Chinese invented the first rockets. The Chi-
We will start our discussion of rocketry far nese made a simple form of gunpowder from
back in time with the Greeks and continue saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal dust that they put
until we reach modern day rocketry. inside bamboo tubes and tossed into a fire for
religious or celebration purposes. Some of the
A Greek by the name of Hero invented a bamboo tubes may not have fully exploded,
rocket-like device called an aeolipile. It used but instead shot out of the fire. Whatever the
steam as a propulsive gas. Hero mounted a case, we do know that the Chinese began to
sphere on top of a water kettle. A fire below shoot arrows with rockets attached in order
the kettle turned the water into steam, and to go longer distances, and they soon learned
the gas traveled through pipes to the sphere. that the rockets would launch the arrows by
Two L-shaped tubes on opposite sides of themselves without bows.
18
These rockets were first used in warfare Between the 13th and 15th centuries, many
against the Mongols in 1232 during the Battle rocket experiments were conducted in Europe. In
of Kai-Keng. The Mongols referred to these England, Roger Bacon, a monk, improved gun-
weapons as “arrows of flying fire.” The fire- powder in order to increase the range of rockets.
arrows were a simple form of solid-propellant In France, Jean Froissart discovered that accu-
rocket. They used a bamboo tube filled with racy greatly increased by using tubes to launch
gunpowder and capped at one end. The rockets. Modern day bazookas are a result of this
other end was left open, and the tube was discovery. Joanes de Fontana of Italy designed a
attached to an arrow. When the gunpowder type of torpedo, or surface-running rocket, that
was ignited, fire, smoke, and gas all escaped sped across the top of the water and would set
out the open end, which propelled the arrow enemy ships on fire. By the time the 16th century
towards the enemy. The stick of the arrow rolled around, rockets fell out of use as weapons,
provided a guidance system to shoot it a but still remained in use as fireworks. Around this
general direction as it flew through the air. time, Johann Schmidlap, a German, invented
There is no way of knowing how many arrows the step rocket, which enabled fireworks to fly to
hit their target, but the idea of “fire arrows” higher altitudes. Basically, this multistage rocket
flying towards the Mongols must have dis- was a large rocket that carried a smaller rocket
turbed them greatly. Soon after the Battle of inside. When the large rocket burned out, the
Kai-Keng, the Mongols produced their own smaller one continued flying before exploding
rockets and may have spread this valuable and sending the beautiful shower of sparks we
new invention to the European continent. are accustomed to seeing. This idea of multi-
stage rockets is the basic design for all rockets
that go into outer space today.
The 17th century brought about scientific inquiry

that laid the foundations for modern rocketry.
The scientist Sir Isaac Newton made these
discoveries between 1642 and 1727. Newton dis-
covered the Three Laws of Motion. These laws
explain why rockets work and how they are able
to work in a vacuum, like outer space.
19
power or accuracy of those rockets. Rockets
were continuously used in warfare with great
outcomes all over Europe; however, Austria
came up against a Prussian weapon that
surpassed the effectiveness of other rockets.
The Prussians had breech-loading cannons

with rifled barrels and exploding warheads.
After everyone realized that rockets were not
the most effective weapons, their primary use
once again became peacetime occurrences.
Newton’s laws gave scientists new ideas on

rocket design. Scientists experimenting with
rockets began to shoot rockets that were
more than 100 lb (45.36 kg). Some of these
rockets were even so powerful that they bore
deep holes into the ground at lift-off.
Around 1898, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
At the end of the 18th century and beginning (1857–1935), a Russian schoolteacher, sug-
of the 19th century, rockets soon began to gested the idea of space travel by rocket.
be used as weapons of war once again. The He published a report in 1903 where he
people of India repelled the British in 1792 suggested liquid propellant instead of solid
and in 1799 by using rockets. Colonel William propellant to achieve greater height. He
Congreve, a British artillery expert in the stated that the speed and height of a rocket
battle, set out to design rockets for the British were only limited by the exhaust velocity of
military as a result of fighting against India. the escaping gases. Because of his ideas,
research and vision, Tsiolkovsky is known
Congreve’s rockets were very successful as the Father of Modern Astronautics.
in battle. You may have even heard of their
reputation. The rockets were used by British In the early 1900s, Robert H. Goddard
ships against Fort McHenry in the War of (1882–1945), an American, conducted experi-
1812, where they inspired Francis Scott ments with rockets. He was trying to reach
Key to write “the rockets’ red glare” words heights even greater than lighter-than-air
in a poem, which later became “The Star- balloons. He produced a pamphlet in 1919
Spangled Banner.” Still, the rockets had not entitled “A Method of Reaching Extreme
improved in accuracy. Their devastating Altitudes.” It was a mathematical analysis,
nature in warfare was the fact that thousands which today is called the meteorological
of rockets could be fired at the enemy, not the sounding rocket.
20
Goddard made several important conclu-
sions. Two of these were that rockets operate
better in a vacuum than in air, and that multi-
stage or step rockets would be the best way
to achieve the altitude and velocity needed to
escape Earth’s gravity. Many did not believe
Goddard on the basis that they thought pro- Although it does not compare to today’s
pellants needed air to push against, which is standards, Goddard’s gasoline rocket was
not true. the beginning of a whole new era in rocketry.
Goddard continued his experiments for many
Goddard first worked with solid-propellant years. His rockets got bigger and flew higher.
rockets. In 1915, he experimented with dif- He developed a gyroscope system for flight
ferent types of solid fuels and measured the control, a compartment to put scientific instru-
exhaust velocities of the burning gases. While ments in, and a parachute recovery system to
working with these rockets, he became con- return rocket and instruments safely to Earth.
vinced that a liquid propellant would be much For these achievements, Goddard is known as
better; however, no one had successfully the Father of Modern Rocketry.
used a liquid-propellant rocket before.
Herman Oberth (1894–1989) of Germany pub-
The task of building a liquid-propellant rocket lished a book about rocket travel into outer
was very difficult due to the need for fuel space in 1923. Because of this book, many
and oxygen tanks, turbines, and combustion rocket societies sprang up all around the
chambers. Still, Goddard built the first suc- world. In Germany, a rocket society by the
cessful liquid-propellant rocket on March 16, name of Verein fur Raumschiffahrt (Society
1926. The rocket was fueled by oxygen and for Space Travel) created the V-2 rocket that
gasoline, flew for only 2.5 s, and went only was used against London in World War II. In
41.01 ft (12.5 m) up, and out 183.73 ft (56 m) 1937, German rocket scientists and engineers
away into a cabbage patch. assembled on the shores of the Baltic Sea.
21
space program. Missiles from this program,
such as the Redstone, Atlas and Titan, would
launch astronauts into space.
Would you believe that Russian astronauts

are called Cosmonauts?
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union

launched the first Earth-orbiting artificial sat-
ellite called Sputnik I. This satellite was the
first successful entry in the race for space
between the superpower nations. Less than
a month later, the Soviets launched a satel-
They built and flew the most advanced lite with a dog, named Laika, on board. Laika
rocket of its time under the leadership of lived for seven days in outer space before
Wernher von Braun. being put to sleep before oxygen ran out.
The V-2 rocket was small by comparison to

today’s rockets. It burned a mixture of liquid
oxygen and alcohol at a rate of about 1 ton
(907.18 kg) every 7 s. Once launched, the
V-2 could destroy whole city blocks. The V-2
was too late to change the outcome of the
war. We found out after the war had ended
that the Germans had already laid plans
for advanced missiles that could span the
Atlantic Ocean and land in the United States
(U.S.). However, these rockets would have
had small payload capacities, not causing
as much destruction as those for closer
range fighting. After the war, many German On January 31, 1958, the U.S. finally launched
rocket scientists moved to the U.S. and the a satellite of its own, Explorer I. In October of
Soviet Union. 1958, the U.S. organized the space program
by officially creating the National Aeronautics
The U.S. and the Soviet Union realized the and Space Administration (NASA). NASA’s
potential of rocketry as a military weapon goal was the peaceful exploration of space for
and began large-scale experimental pro- the benefit of all humankind.
grams. The U.S. started with high-altitude
atmospheric sounding rockets, one of As of today, many people and machines
Goddard’s early ideas. Afterwards, many have been launched into space. Astronauts
different kinds of medium- and long-range have orbited Earth and landed on the Moon
intercontinental ballistic missiles were and robot spacecrafts have traveled to other
created. This was the beginning of the U.S. planets to explore their surfaces.
22
Space is now open to exploration and com- As you can see, our universe has been
mercialization. Satellites have enabled opened up for exploration by our growing
scientists to run experiments to investigate understanding of rocketry. If it were not for
our world, forecast weather and communi- those who experimented with the gunpowder
cate quickly and efficiently around the world. rockets centuries ago and those who can take
As our needs grow, so do the payloads that modern day rockets and apply new ideas, we
are taken out to space. As a result, a wide would not be able to explore the universe and
array of powerful and versatile rockets have all its glory.
been and will be built.
23
Rocket History Glossary
Congreve, Colonel William (1772–1828):

Artillery expert who developed rockets
after a battle with India; led the attack that
inspired Francis Scott Key.
Exhaust velocity: The average actual velocity
at which exhaust material leaves the open
end of a rocket engine.
Explorer I: First satellite the U.S. successfully
sent into orbit around the Earth.
Fontana, Joanes de: Inventor from Italy who
designed the surface running rocket or
torpedo.
Fort McHenry: Located in Baltimore,
Maryland, it is best known for its role in the
War of 1812, when it successfully defended
Baltimore Harbor from the British navy. It
Aeolipile: An apparatus consisting of a was during this bombardment of the fort
closed globe with one or more project- that Francis Scott Key was inspired to write
ing bent tubes through which steam is the Star-Spangled Banner.
made to pass from the globe, causing it Froissart, Jean: Inventor who discovered that
to revolve. by using tubes you could greatly increase
Bacon, Roger: An English monk who the accuracy of fired rockets.
improved gunpowder, which increased Goddard, Robert H. (1882–1945): A pioneer in
the range of rockets. the field of rocketry, during his time he was
Battle of Kai-Keng: A battle between the ridiculed for his ideas, which were ahead of
Chinese and Mongolians in 1232 A.D. his time. After his death, he would become
where rockets were first used for military known as the “Father of Modern Rocketry.”
purposes. Gyroscope: A mounted wheel that spins so
Breech-loading cannons: A type of cannon that it resists movement or change of
in which warheads are loaded into the direction.
backside instead of the front. Key, Francis Scott: Wrote the poem that
Combustion chamber: An enclosure in later became “The Star-Spangled Banner”
which combustion, especially of a fuel or during the War of 1812 while Congreve was
propellant, is initiated and controlled. bombarding Fort McHenry with rockets.
24
Laika: One of the Russian space dogs and explosives, matches, rocket propellants
the first living passenger in orbit around and fertilizers.
Earth. Schmidlap, Johann: German fireworks maker
Liquid-propellant rocket: A rocket that is who was the first to use step rockets to
fueled by liquid propellant such as liquid achieve greater heights.
oxygen and gasoline. Solid-propellant rocket: A rocket that is fueled
Mongols: An ethnic group that originated by solids, such as gunpowder or ammonium
from modern day Mongolia and parts of perchlorate.
Russia and China. For more information, Sputnik I: First Earth-orbiting artificial
read about Genghis Khan. satellite launched by the Soviet Union
NASA: National Aeronautics and Space on October 4, 1957.
Administration created by the U.S. Solid Rocket Booster (SRB): A motor
Government in 1958, responsible for composed of a segmented motor case
the U.S. space program and aerospace loaded with solid propellants, an ignition
research. It is a civilian organization that system, a movable nozzle and the
does both civilian and military aerospace necessary instrumentation and integration
research. hardware.
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727): English Staged rocket: A rocket that fires several
mathematician and physicist remembered different engines or sets of engines in
for developing calculus, his law of stages, where the first stage lifts the rocket
gravitation and his three laws of motion. off the pad, then that stage falls away as
Oberth, Herman (1894–1989): Scientist who the second stage engines ignite to carry the
wrote about the possibility of space travel remaining rocket to an even higher altitude.
via rockets that inspired many rocket More stages may be used to achieve an
societies to spring up all over the world. objective. For example, the Saturn V Moon
Rifled barrel: A barrel that has internal spiral Rocket used five stages to place astronauts
grooves that cause the ammunition to on the Moon and an additional two stages
spin as it leaves, making its path more to return back to Earth.
controlled. Step rocket: A rocket that uses multiple rocket
Rocket: A vehicle or device propelled by one engines, also called a step engine. When
or more engines or motors. one rocket extinguishes, the other ignites
Rocket engine: A machine with moving parts sending the rocket even further. This is the
that converts stored propellant into hot basic set up of modern day rockets that go
gases to produce thrust, such as liquid into outer space.
engines with valves and pumps. Sulfur: A yellow nonmetallic element that is
Rocket motor: A simple device that converts used in gunpowder.
stored propellant into hot gases to Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin (1857–1935): A
produce thrust, such as a solid rocket Russian school teacher who was the first
motor. to conceive of space travel by rockets,
Saltpeter (KNO3): A transparent white suggested the use of liquid propellant
crystalline compound used to pickle meat instead of solid. He is known as the Father
and in the manufacture of pyrotechnics, of Modern Astronautics.
25
Turbine: Rotary engine in which the kinetic Engine mount: This is how the force from
energy of a moving fluid is converted into the engine is transmitted to the rocket
mechanical energy by causing a bladed body to make it move.
rotor to rotate. Fins: These are on the back end or bottom
V-2 rocket: An early ballistic missile used by of the rocket and help provide stability
Germany during the later stages of World during flight.
War II against mostly British and Belgian Launch lug: These are small “straw-like”
targets. attachments to the rocket body through
Vacuum: An absence of matter, a void, or a which a rod is placed in order to increase
state of emptiness. stability during launch.
Verein fur Raumschiffahrt: An association Nose cone payload: The nose cone is at the
of amateur rocket enthusiasts in Germany top or front end of the rocket. It can either
(1927–1933) that consisted of engineers be empty or carry something such as
who would contribute to early spaceflight. weights or instruments (on larger models).
von Braun, Wernher: A German scientist Parachute: This is a piece of material that
and one of the leading figures of rocket helps the rocket slowly descend back to
technology in Germany and the U.S. the Earth in order for a safe recovery to
He led the V-1 and V-2 rocket effort in take place.
Germany, worked in the U.S. after WWII Parachute lines: How the parachute
through the secret effort called Operation is connected to the rocket, usually
Paperclip and later worked for NASA, and connected to the nose cone.
is known as the “Father of the U.S. Space Recovery wadding: A piece of cloth
Program.” placed between the engine mount and
Warhead: The front part of a guided missile or the parachute in order to protect the
rocket or torpedo that carries the nuclear parachute from being burned up when
or explosive charge. the ejection charge is ignited.
War of 1812: A war (1812–1814) between the Shock cord: Connects the nose cone to the
U.S. and England where England was rocket body in order to keep the rocket
trying to interfere with American trade with together during recovery.
France. Solid rocket engine: The method of
Body tube: The main body of the rocket that propellant for most model rockets. The
contains parachute and engine and to engine is used once and is disposable.
which the nose cone and fins are affixed. It can be purchased from hobby stores,
Solid
is very stable at room temperature, and
Launch Lug Parachute Rocket Engine only ignites when exposed to high heat. It
Parachute Fins produces an exhaust gas that will shoot
Lines
out of one end (the one facing the back of
B6–4
Body
the rocket), propelling it forward
Nose Cone Tube
Payload
Shock Recovery Engine
Cord Wadding Mount
26
Constellation Program
America’s Fleet of Next-Generation
Launch Vehicles
The Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle
Ares I
NASA is developing hardware and systems
for the Ares I rocket that will send future
astronauts into orbit. Built on cutting-edge
launch technologies, evolved powerful Apollo
and Space Shuttle propulsion elements, and
decades of NASA space flight experience,
Ares I is the essential core of a safe, reliable,
and cost-effective space transportation
system; one that will carry crewed missions
back to the Moon, on to Mars, and out to
other destinations in the solar system.
Ares I has an in-line, two-stage rocket

configuration topped by the Orion crew
vehicle and its launch abort system. In
addition to the vehicle’s primary mission,
carrying crews of four astronauts in Orion to
rendezvous with the Ares V Earth Departure
Stage (EDS) and Altair lunar lander for
missions to the Moon, Ares I may also use
its 26-ton (23,586.8-kg) payload capacity
to deliver six astronauts or supplies to
the International Space Station or to park
payloads in orbit for retrieval by other
spacecraft bound for the Moon or other
destinations.
During launch, the first-stage booster powers

the vehicle toward low-Earth orbit. In mid-
flight, the booster separates and the upper
stage’s J-2X engine ignites, putting the vehicle
into a circular orbit.
Ares I Ares V
27
The first flight test of Ares I, called Ares I-X, A newly designed forward adapter called
will launch in 2009. The first crewed mission a frustum and an interstage will mate the
of Orion will be launched aboard Ares I in vehicle’s first stage to the upper stage, and will
2013. Crew transportation to the International be equipped with booster separation motors
Space Station is planned to begin no later to disconnect the stages during ascent.
than 2015. The first lunar excursion is
scheduled for the 2020 timeframe. Ares I Upper Stage/Upper Stage Engine
The Ares I second or upper stage is propelled
Ares I First Stage by a J-2X main engine fueled with liquid
The Ares I first stage is a single, five-segment oxygen and liquid hydrogen.
reusable solid rocket booster (SRB) derived
from the Space Shuttle program’s reusable The J-2X is an evolved variation of two historic
solid rocket motor that burns a specially predecessors: the powerful J-2 engine that
formulated and shaped solid propellant. propelled the Apollo-era Saturn IB and Saturn
28
The cargo vehicle’s propulsion system can
lift heavy structures and hardware to orbit or
fire its engines for translunar injection, a tra-
jectory designed to intersect with the Moon.
Such lift capabilities will enable NASA to
carry a variety of robust science and explo-
ration payloads to space and could possibly
take future crews to Mars and beyond.
The first launch of Ares V is scheduled for

2018. The first crewed mission to the Moon
is scheduled to occur by 2020.
Ares V First Stage

The first stage of the Ares V vehicle com-
prises two, five-segment SRBs for liftoff.
Derived from the space shuttle SRBs, they
are similar to the single booster that serves
as the first stage for the cargo vehicle’s
sister craft, Ares I.
Ares V Core Stage/Core Stage Engine

The first stage twin SRBs flank a single,
liquid-fueled central booster element. With
a diameter as wide as the Saturn V first
stage, the central booster tank delivers
V rockets, and the J-2S, a simplified version liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen fuel to five
of the J-2 developed and tested in the early RS-68 rocket engines. The RS-68s used
1970s, but never flown. on Ares V will be a modified version of the
The Ares V Cargo Launch Vehicle

Ares V
NASA is planning and designing hardware
and propulsion systems for the Ares V cargo
launch vehicle, the heavy lifter of America’s
next-generation space fleet.
During launch, the Ares V first stage and

core propulsion stage power it upward
toward Earth orbit. After separation from the
spent core stage, the upper stage EDS takes
over, and its J-2X engine puts the vehicle into
a circular orbit.
29
ones currently used in the U.S. Air Force’s with the Orion crew module, the departure
Delta IV evolved expendable launch vehicle stage fires its engine to achieve escape
program and commercial launch applications. velocity, the speed necessary to break free
The RS-68 engines serve as the core stage of Earth’s gravity, and the new lunar vessel
propulsion for Ares V. begins its journey to the Moon.
An interstage cylinder is atop the central The EDS is then jettisoned, leaving Orion
booster element. It includes booster and the lunar lander mated. Once the four
separation motors and a newly designed astronauts arrive in lunar orbit, they transfer to
forward adapter that mates the first stage the lunar lander and descend to the Moon’s
with the EDS. surface. Orion remains in lunar orbit until the
astronauts depart from the Moon in the lunar
Ares V Earth Departure Stage/Engine vessel, rendezvous with the crew module in
Like the Ares I upper stage, the Ares V EDS is orbit and return to Earth.
propelled by a J-2X main engine fueled with
liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. Lunar Lander
Anchored atop the EDS is a composite
The EDS separates from the core stage and shroud protecting the Altair lunar lander.
its J-2X engine ignites midflight.
This module includes the descent stage that
Once in orbit, the Orion, delivered to orbit by will carry explorers to the Moon’s surface
Ares I, docks with the orbiting EDS carrying and the ascent stage that will return them to
the Altair lander, which will ferry astronauts lunar orbit to rendezvous with Orion, their ride
to and from the Moon’s surface. Once mated home to Earth.
30
Activities
31
Move It!
Note: Excellent activity to be used prior to
Balloon Staging and/or Rocket Transportation.
Objective
Learn how an airplane, rocket or shuttle
moves forward.
• Target concept: Velocity

• Preparation time: 10 min
• Duration of activity: 45 min
• Student group size: Pairs
Materials and Tools Procedure

• Balloons 1. Ask students:
• Student Sheets a. Why is an airplane able to move
forward?
Background Information b. Possible answers might be:
Aircraft engines provide a constant source i. Air coming out the back end
of thrust to provide the vehicle forward pushes it forward.
movement. Thrust is the force that moves an ii. The engines make it go.
aircraft through the air. It is used to overcome 2. Tell students that they are going to get
the drag of an airplane and to overcome the to experiment to see how a jet or plane
weight of a rocket. Thrust is generated by the moves forward.
engines of the aircraft through some kind of 3. Distribute the student sheets and
propulsion system. balloons.
4. Explain to the students that some of
After introducing the scientific method, the the steps have been done for them.
teacher can walk the students through this They will complete the steps that
simple experiment to help them become have not been done. Read over each
accustomed to using the Scientific Method. completed step.
5. As students follow the procedures,
The balloon moves in the opposite direction remind them to use all of their senses.
of the flow of the released air because every
action has an opposite and equal reaction Discussion/Wrap-up
(Newton’s Third Law). Since the air is released • After completion and cleanup, discuss
from one small hole, the release of the air is the activity.
focused in one direction.
32
Move It! Data Sheet
Name:
Balloon Thrust Experiment Log Answer Sheet
1. State the problem.

Question: What do I want to know?
2. Form a hypothesis. Air comes out the back end and pushes
it forward. Air blows out one way, and the
aircraft moves the other way.
3. Design an experiment. Materials

• Balloon
Materials and Procedures • Student Sheet
• Pencil
• What steps will I take to do this
experiment? Procedure:
• What things do I need? 1. Collect materials.
2. Fill the balloon with air. do not tie a
knot—hold it so that no air gets out.
3. Hold the balloon up with the opening
facing left.
4. Let go of balloon. Write what happens.

5. Repeat steps 2–4, with the opening of the
balloon facing to the right.
6. Repeat steps 2–4, with the opening of the

balloon facing up.
7. Repeat steps 2–4, with the opeining of the

balloon facing the ground.
33
Move It! Data Sheet
Name:
Balloon Thrust Experiment Log Answer Sheet
4. Perform the experiment. Observe and Left:

record the data
What did I learn during this experiment? Right:
Up:
Down:
5. Organize and analyze data.
In general, describe what happens when

you release the balloon.
6. Draw conclusions.
What did I learn?
Was my hypothesis right or wrong?
Can I tell why?
34
Magic Marbles
Objective
Observe Newton’s First Law of Motion.
• Target concept: Acceleration
• Student group size: Teams of two
or three
Materials
(per group)
• Two rulers
• Several marbles
• Tape
Management
You may set up test stations for younger
students before beginning this lesson. Newton’s First Law states that every object
will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a
Background Information straight line unless compelled to change its
It may be the most famous physics experi- state by the action of an external force. This is
ment ever done. Four hundred years ago, normally taken as the definition of inertia. The
Galileo Galilei started dropping things off key point here is that if there is no net force
the Leaning Tower of Pisa and timing their acting on an object (if all the external forces
falls. In those days, it was widely thought cancel each other out), then the object will
that heavy objects fell faster than light ones, maintain a constant velocity. If that velocity
but he found that everything hit the ground is zero, then the object remains at rest. If
at the same time. For cannon balls, musket an external force is applied, the velocity will
balls, gold, silver and wood, gravity acceler- change because of the force.
ated each item downward at the same rate,
regardless of mass or composition. There are many excellent examples of New-
ton’s First Law involving aerodynamics. The
Today, this is called “universality of free fall” first law describes the motion of an airplane
or the “equivalence principle,” and it is a cor- when the pilot changes the throttle setting of
nerstone of modern physics. Isaac Newton the engine. The motion of a ball falling down
made his own tests of the principle using through the atmosphere and a model rocket
pendulums. Satisfied, he devised his famous being launched up into the atmosphere are
laws of motion. Later, Einstein crafted his both examples of Newton’s First Law. The first
Theory of General Relativity, assuming the law also describes the motion of a kite when
principle was true. the wind changes.
35
In this lesson, students will use marbles and Reading Selection:
rulers to observe Newton’s First Law (See page 1. Read the corresponding NASA explores
160 of this guide) using marbles and rulers. K-4 article, “Was Galileo Wrong” orally.
2. Discuss the current NASA project, Magic
Guidelines Marbles, and what students discovered.
1. Distribute the rulers, marbles and tape to 3. Discuss Galileo’s work and how it influ-
each group. Show students how to tape enced other famous scientists. Reread the
the rulers to a flat surface, parallel, about definitions of the laws of motion.
a half-inch apart. Have them place the 4. Tell the students, “Newton took Galileo’s
two marbles a few inches from each other work and performed his own tests. From
between the two rulers. Have students take our experiment we saw what Newton
turns gently tapping one marble so that it discovered.”
rolls and hits the second one. 5. Relate to Newton’s First Law (refer to
2. After the students have had a chance to Newton’s laws in appendix C).
perform this activity several times, have
them put two marbles together, and then a
third several inches away. Have them take
turns gently tapping the single marble so
that it hits the other two.
3. Allow students to experiment with other
combinations.
Discussion
Ask the students the following questions:
• What happened in the first trial? (The
marble that had been rolling stopped.
The one that it hit started rolling.
Explain to them that the force of the
rolling marble moves to the stationary
one. The stationary marble stops the
first one, and then starts rolling.)
• What happened as you added more
marbles? (The rolling marble stopped,
the middle one stayed still and the third
one rolled. Tell them that the movement
of the first marble went through the
second marble into the third.)
• What did you find out when using your
own combinations? (The number of
marbles pushed is how many were
moved when hit.)
36
Was Galileo
Wrong?
Galileo was a scientist who lived 400 years
ago. In his time, people thought that heavy
things fell faster than light ones. Galileo
wanted to test this. So, he dropped different
kinds of balls off a tall tower and found that
mass did not matter. It did not matter what
things were made of either. They all fell at the
same speed.
Lots of scientists have used what Galileo

found. Isaac Newton used it to write his laws It is a new kind of tower experiment. Balls are
of motion, and Einstein used it to write sci- not dropped, however. Instead, the team will
ence laws. But, what if Galileo’s science was watch as the Earth and Moon drop toward
wrong? It would not be the first time it hap- the Sun. The Earth and Moon are made of
pened, and it will not be the last. Science different things. They are not the same size.
is always changing. We keep learning new Are they moving toward the Sun at the same
things. We find that old laws are not always speed? We might have the answer soon. But
right. People used to think that things in will it be the answer we want? This is one
space moved around the Earth. Now we know case where being wrong may be a good thing.
that the Sun is the center of our universe. The
more we know, the more we learn. That is
why we explore, and space is one of the best
places to do that.
A group at NASA is testing Galileo’s ideas.

They are using laser beams. The beams are
shot toward the Moon. The crews that went to
the Moon left mirrors there years ago. These
were made to catch the beams. Then, they
bounce them back to Earth. Lasers are used
because their beams stay together as they go
through space.
Courtesy of NASA’s ESMD
Published by NASA explores: September 23, 2004
37
Shuttle Drag
Parachute
Objective
• Test the effects of a drag parachute on
a Shuttle model and to calculate the
speed variances.
• Preparation time: 10–30 min
• Duration of activity: 50–60 min
• Student group size: Teams of three craft lands by gliding to the ground. The
to five students Shuttle is equipped with a special feature
called a speed brake to help slow it down. It
Materials and Tools is really not a brake, but it increases drag to
(Per group) slow the craft. This drag would be like driving
• Small shoebox or a clean half-gallon- down a road in a car and opening both
size milk carton doors. The increased resistance drops the
• Round balloon speed quickly.
• One piece of black construction paper
• Two pieces of white construction paper When the Shuttle decreases its speed to
• String or yarn about 185 knots (343 km) per hour, it deploys
• One small plastic shopping bag with a drag parachute to help slow it at an even
handles faster rate. This type of drag parachute is
• Tape also used on some high-performance jets.
• Scissors
• Stopwatch or watch with a second In this lesson, students will build a Shuttle
hand model and test how a drag parachute affects
• Yardstick, rulers or meter stick its speed.
Management Guidelines
This lesson is designed as a group project. 1. Explain that drag is very important in
For younger grades, the teacher will need to slowing down the Shuttle. The best way
build the model and demonstrate the activity. to increase drag is to add space that air
has to flow over. A parachute will slow
Background Information down an object because the air fills it up,
Drag is the resistance to motion through the and it pulls back in the opposite direc-
air. When the Space Shuttle comes back to tion from the air that is filling it. Then, the
Earth, it has no power once it comes into the parachute pulls back on the object to
atmosphere. This 178,000-lb (80,739.44-kg) which it is attached.
38
2. Model the following directions for each c. Make a nose cone for the Shuttle
group while they build their Shuttle model. using the black construction paper.
For older students, hand out the student See the pattern below.
sheets, and allow them to follow the direc- d. Form the cone as shown in the fol-
tions while you observe their progress. lowing figure.
a. Take a small shoebox or a half-gallon-
size milk carton, and punch a hole in
one end with a pencil.
b. Place a balloon inside the shoebox or
carton, and pull the open end through
the hole. See the diagram below. This Tape
will be the back of the Shuttle.
Balloon
e. Attach the cone to the opposite end

of the box or carton from the balloon.
This will be the front of the Shuttle.
f. Make wings to attach to the sides of
the Shuttle by drawing two large trian-
gles on the white construction paper,
Milk Carton and tape one to each side of the box
with the larger end of the triangle posi-
tioned at the back of the Shuttle. See
the following figure.
Balloon
Cone
Cone Pattern Wings
O for
ve m
to
r la c
Milk Carton
p on
th e
is
Cones can be
ed
any size!
ge
g. Find an area at least 10 ft (3.05 m) in

length for the Shuttle to travel on a
smooth tile floor (a hallway or a clear
area in the classroom).
h. Place a piece of tape on the floor for
the starting line.
39
i. Line the path you want the Shuttle to time. Brainstorm with the class for other
travel with books to help keep it in a variables or things that could change
straight line. the results.
j. Carefully blow up the balloon as full 6. Explain to the class that they are going
as you can, and hold the end until to add a parachute. Ask them what
ready to release it. this should do. They should respond
k. Place the Shuttle on the floor at the that it would slow the Shuttle down by
starting line. increasing drag.
l. As soon as you release the balloon, 7. Add a parachute to the back of the
start the stopwatch or check the Shuttle, and repeat the tests again. Attach
watch with the second hand. Record a small plastic shopping bag to the back
the amount of time the Shuttle of the Shuttle with string or yarn. See the
moves. diagram below.
m. Mark where the Shuttle stops and 8. Write the information each time on the
measure the distance traveled. board, and calculate the speed.
3. Write the following formula on the board.
Speed (in/s) = Distance (in) ÷ Time (s). Discussion/Wrap-up
If using metric rulers, substitute • Compare the speeds for the Shuttle
centimeters for inches. with and without the parachute. Have
4. Fill in the numbers and complete the the older students share their group
formula for calculating speed. Show the charts with the class.
class the math, and record the speed • Ask the class if the parachute made a
on the board. difference in the speed.
5. Repeat the test several times. Ask the • Discuss how speed brakes would slow
class why you are testing the Shuttle the Shuttle down.
more than once. Explain that an experi-
ment should be tested more than one Extensions
time to check or verify the results. Many Have the class design speed brakes for the
variables can change the outcome. For Shuttle model. Test their designs. Record
instance, the balloon may not have been information and calculate the speed with
blown up to the exact size it was the first speed brakes and a parachute. Discuss the
class findings.
Balloon
Cone
Parachute
Milk Carton
Wings
40
Space Shuttle Test Chart
(Speed (in/s) = Distance (in) ÷ Time (s))
Equipment Average Speed

Configuration Parameter Test #1 Test #2 Test #3 (Test 1 + Test 2 + Test 3)/3
Distance (in)
Shuttle Time (s)
Speed (in/s)
Distance (in)
Shuttle with
Time (s)
Parachute
Speed (in/s)
41
Coming in for a Landing
Weather plays a large role when the Shuttle
comes home. The Shuttle cannot land in rainy
weather. The Shuttle cannot land in rainy
weather because the coating that protects the
tiles from water burns off when it launches
and comes back to Earth. If water were to get
under the tiles while coming back to Earth,
problems could occur.
When pilots land a Space Shuttle, they face

a special problem. Their bodies have not
had time to adjust to gravity. They are light
headed, and their bodies feel very heavy. The
Can you land the Space Shuttle like you land pilots have to work hard to land the Shuttle
a jet airplane? When the Space Shuttle comes safely due to this sensation.
back into Earth’s atmosphere, it has no power.
It flies like a plane with no engine.
The Shuttle lands by gliding. It uses flight con-

trols that let it roll, pitch and yaw. This lets the
pilot land the Shuttle with more control.
To slow down the 178,000-lb (80,739.44-kg)

Shuttle, the pilot uses a special brake. It is
a speed brake. It increases drag to help the
Shuttle slow down. You can feel drag when
you stick your hand out the window while the
car is moving.
When the Shuttle slows, it releases a drag

parachute to help slow it down even more.
Then, it rolls to a stop.
The pilot has to land right the first time. With-

out power, the Shuttle cannot circle around
and try again. NASA likes to have a lot of
room for the Shuttle to land. That is why they
made the landing strips extra long.
42
Paper Rockets
Objective
In this activity, students construct small flying
rockets out of paper and propel them by
blowing air through a straw.

• Student group size: Individually
or in pairs
Materials and Tools

• Scrap bond paper
• Cellophane tape
• Scissors an alternative, lay out the planetary target
• Sharpened fat pencil range as shown on page 45.
• Milkshake straw (slightly thinner
than pencil) Have students launch from planet Earth, and
• Eye protection tell them to determine the farthest planet they
• Standard or metric ruler are able to reach with their rocket. Use the
• Masking tape or altitude trackers planetary arrangement shown on page 45 for
• Pictures of the Sun and planets laying out the launch range. Pictures for the
planets are found on page 46. Enlarge these
Management pictures as desired.
After demonstrating a completed paper rocket
to the students, have them construct their Record data from each launch on the Paper
own paper rockets and decorate them. See Rocket Test Report form. The form includes
diagram on page 44. spaces for data from three different rockets.
CAUTION: Because the rockets are projec- After the first launches, students should con-
tiles, make sure students wear eye protection. struct new and improved paper rockets and
attempt a longer journey through the solar
When students complete the rockets, dis- system. Encourage the students to try dif-
tribute straws. Select a location for flying the ferent sized rockets and different shapes and
rockets. A room with open floor space or a number of fins. For younger students, create
hallway is preferable. Prepare the floor by a chart listing how far each planet target
marking a 32.81-ft (10-m) test range with tape is from Earth. Older students can measure
measures or meter sticks laid end to end. As these distances for themselves.
43
How to Build a Paper Rocket
Follow the arrows to build your rocket.
Roll paper strip around

pencil.
h
c
4
st by 2
n
rip 8
of ce
u
pa nti
pe me
a
r te
L
r
Blow through
Tape tube in 3 places. straw to launch.
Fold over upper end

and tape shut. Insert straw.
Cut out fins in any

shape you like.
Remove the pencil.
Cut off ends.
Fold out tabs and

tape fins to tube.
44
Background Information 3. Tell students to predict how far their
Although the activity uses a solar system rocket will fly and record their estimates
target range, the Paper Rockets activity in the test report sheet. After test flying
demonstrates how rockets fly through the the rocket and measuring the distance
atmosphere. A rocket with no fins is much it reached, students should record
more difficult to control than a rocket with the actual distance and the difference
fins. The placement and size of the fins is between predicted and actual distances
critical to achieve adequate stability while on the Paper Rocket Test Report form.
not adding too much weight. More informa- 4. Following the flight of the first rocket,
tion on rocket fins can be found on page 14 students should construct and test two
of this guide. additional rockets of different sizes and
fin designs.
Making and Launching Paper Rockets
1. Distribute the materials and construction Suggested Target Range Layout
tools to each student. Arrange pictures of the Sun and the planets
2. Students should each construct a rocket on a clear floor space as shown below. Refer
as shown in the instructions on the to an encyclopedia or other reference for a
student sheet. chart on the actual distances to each planet.
Pluto
Neptune
Jupiter Saturn
Mercury
Uranus
Sun
Mars
Venus
Earth
45
Planet Targets
(Not Drawn to Scale) Enlarge these pictures on a copy machine or sketch
copies of the pictures on separate paper. Place these
pictures on the floor according to the arrangement on the
previous page. If you wish to make the planets to scale,
refer to the numbers beside the names indicating the
relative sizes of each body. Earth's diameter is given as
one and all the other bodies are given as multiples of one.
Mercury
0.38×
Venus
0.95×
Sun
108×
Earth
1×
Mars
0.53×
Saturn
9.4×
Jupiter
11.2×
Uranus Neptune Pluto

4× 3.9× 0.9×
46
Discussion For example, if students held the rocket
1. What makes one rocket perform better 4.92 ft (1.5 m) from the floor to launch it,
than another? (Do not forget to examine and it reached 13.12 ft (4 m) above the
the weight of each rocket. Rockets floor, the actual altitude change was 8.20 ft
made with extra tape and larger fins (2.5 m). Refer to the Altitude Tracker activity
weigh more.) starting on page 109 for details on a second
2. How small can the fins be and still method for measuring the height the paper
stabilize the rocket? rockets reach.
3. How many fins does a rocket need to
stabilize it? Assessment
4. What would happen if you placed the Students will complete test reports that
rocket fins near the rocket’s nose? will describe the rockets they constructed
5. What will happen to the rocket if you bend and how those rockets performed. Ask the
the lower tips of the fins pinwheel fashion? students to create bar graphs on a blank
6. Are rocket fins necessary in outer space? sheet of paper that show how far each of the
three rockets they constructed flew. Have
Extensions students write a summarizing paragraph in
Try to determine how high the rockets fly. To which they choose which rocket performed
do so, place masking tape markers on a wall the best and explain their ideas for why it
at measured distances from the floor to the performed as it did.
ceiling. While one student launches the rocket
along the wall, another student compares
the height the rocket reached with the tape
markers. Be sure to have the students
subtract the height from where the rocket
was launched from the altitude reached.
47
Paper Rocket Test Report
Names:
1. Launch your rocket three times. How far did it fly each time? What is the average
distance your rocket flew? Write your answer in the spaces below.
2. Build and fly a rocket of a new design. Before flying it, predict how far it will go.
Fly the rocket three times and average the distances. What is the difference
between your prediction and actual average distance?
3. Build a third rocket and repeat step 2.
4. On the back of this paper, write a short paragraph describing each rocket you
built and how it flew. Draw pictures of the rockets you constructed.
Rocket 1 Make notes about the flights here.

How far did it fly in
inches (centimeters)? 1.
2.
3.
Average distance
in inches (centimeters)?
Predict how many inches
(centimeters) your rocket
wil fly.
How far did it fly in 1.

inches (centimeters) 2.
3.
Average distance?
Difference between your

prediction and the average
distance?
Predict how many inches
(centimeters) your rocket
wil fly.
How far did it fly in 1.

inches (centimeters) 2.
3.
Average distance?
Difference between your

prediction and the average
distance?
48
Straw Rockets
Objective
Students will be able to construct straw
rockets and determine the greatest height
and distance that can be reached.
• Target concept: Altitude

or in pairs
Straw Rocket Challenge
Material 1. Try launch angles between 10 and 90
• Straw rocket launcher from degrees to determine the launch angle
Appendix A that provides the greatest range.
• Straws (must fit with little space 2. Try launch angles between 10 and 90
remaining around the launcher rod) degrees to determine the launch angle
• Clay that provides the greatest altitude.
• Scissors 3. Build four rockets of different lengths. Use
• Tape the same nose cone shape and fin shape.
• Paper Launch the rockets at various angles
• Graph paper and launch rod marks and determine the
• Pencils rocket with the most range and the rocket
• Protractors with the greatest altitude.
• Rulers, yardstick, meter stick or 4. Build four rockets of different nose cone
measuring tapes styles or sizes. Keep the length and fins
the same to determine the effect of the
Assembly nose cone shape to range and altitude.
Make the nose cones by molding clay into 5. Build four rockets with different numbers
one end of the straw. On the other end of of fins. Keep the length and nose cone
the straw tube tape on paper shapes to style the same to determine the effect
make fins. of the number of fins on the range.
6. Using the information you gained in these
Management experiments, design a rocket that will
After demonstrating a completed straw travel as close to 236.22 in (600 cm) as
rocket to the students, have them construct possible. You will need to determine the
their own straw rockets and decorate them. launch angle and launch rod settings to
Participant groups design and build straw come as close as possible to the first
rockets, launch with a preset force, measure launch. See how many launches it takes
distance and altitude, record, and check. to achieve the 196.85 in (500 cm) range.
49
Rocket Racer
Objectives
• To construct a rocket propelled
vehicle.
• To experiment with ways of increasing
the distance the rocket racer travels.
or in pairs
Materials and Tools

• Four pins
• Styrofoam meat tray
• Styrofoam cups
• Masking tape
• Flexible straw
• Scissors
• Drawing compass*
• Marker pen Management
• Small round party balloon Students will construct a balloon-powered
• Ruler rocket racer from a styrofoam tray, pins,
• Student Sheets (one set per group) tape, and a flexible straw, and test it along
• 32.81 ft (10 m) tape measure or other a measured track on the floor. The activity
measuring markers for track (one for stresses technology education and provides
the whole class) students with the opportunity to modify their
• Graph paper racer designs to increase performance. The
optional second part of the activity directs
*If compasses are not available, students can students to design, construct and test a new
trace circular objects to make the wheels or rocket racer based on the results of the first
use the wheel and hubcap patterns printed racer. Refer to the materials list, and provide
on page 53. what is needed for making one rocket racer
for each group of two students. Styrofoam
Note: Styrofoam cup bottoms can also food trays are available from butchers in
be used as wheels. Putting hubcaps on supermarkets. They are usually sold for a few
both sides of the wheels may improve cents each or you may be able to get them
performance. donated. Students can also save trays at
home and bring them to class.
50
If using the second part of the activity, pro- Extensions
vide each group with an extra set of mate- Hold Rocket Racer races.
rials. Save scraps from the first styrofoam tray
to build the second racer. You may wish to • Tie a loop of string around the inflated
hold drag or distance races with the racers. balloon before releasing the racer.
The racers will work very well on tile floors Inflate the balloon inside the string loop
and carpeted floors with a short nap. Several each time you test the racers. This will
tables stretched end to end will also work, increase the accuracy of the tests by
but racers may roll off the edges. ensuring the balloon inflates the same
amount each time.
Although this activity provides one rocket • Make a balloon-powered pinwheel by
racer design, students can try any racer taping another balloon to a flexible
shape and any number, size and placement straw. Push a pin through the straw
of wheels they wish. Long racers often work and into the eraser of a pencil. Inflate
differently than short racers. the balloon and watch it go.
Background Information
The Rocket Racer is a simple way to observe
Newton’s Third Law of Motion. (Refer to page
162 of the rocket principles section of this
guide for a complete description.) While it is
possible to demonstrate Newton’s Third Law
with just a balloon (attached to fishing line
by a straw), constructing a rocket racer pro-
vides students with the opportunity to put the
action/reaction force to practical use. In this
case, the payload of the balloon rocket is the
racer. Wheels reduce friction with the floor
to help racers move. Because of individual
variations in the student racers, they will
travel different distances and many times in
unplanned directions. Through modifications,
the students can correct for undesirable
results and improve their racers’ efficiency.
51
How to Build a Rocket Racer
Hubcaps
1. Lay out your pattern Car Body
on a styrofoam tray.
You need 1 car body,
4 wheels and 4 hubcaps. Wheels
Use a compass to draw
the wheels.
2. Blow up the balloon and let the air out.

Tape the balloon to the short end of a
flexible straw and then tape the straw
to the rectangle.
3. Push pins through the

hubcaps into the wheels
and then into the edges
of the rectangle.
4. Blow up the balloon through the

straw. Squeeze the end of the
straw. Place the racer on floor
and let it go!
52
Wheel Patterns
(Crosses mark the centers.)
Hubcap Patterns
(Crosses mark the centers.)
53
Rocket Racer Test Report
Draw a picture of your rocket racer.
By
Date:
54
Rocket Racer Test Report
Place your rocket racer on the test track and measure hw far it travels.
1. Describe how your rocket racer ran during the first trial run.
(Did it run on a straight or curved path?)
How far did it go? inches (centimeters).
Color in one block on the graph for each 3.94 in (10 cm) your racer traveled.
2. Find a way to change and improve your rocket racer and test it again.
What did you do to improve the rocket racer for the second trial run?
How far did it go? inches (centimeters)

3. Find a way to change and imporve your rocket racer and test it again.
What did you do to improve the rocket racer for the third trial run?
How far did it go? inches (centimeters)

4. In which test did your racer go the farthest?
Why?
55
56
Rocket Racer Data Sheet
Rocket Racer Trial #1

Inches
0 39.37 78.74 118.11 157.48 196.85 236.22 275.59 314.96 354.33 393.70
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Centimeters

Inches
0 39.37 78.74 118.11 157.48 196.85 236.22 275.59 314.96 354.33 393.70
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Centimeters

Inches
0 39.37 78.74 118.11 157.48 196.85 236.22 275.59 314.96 354.33 393.70
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Centimeters
DESIGN SHEET
Front View
Design and build a new
rocket racer based on
your earlier experiments.
Side View
Top View
57
3-2-1 POP!
Objective
Students construct a rocket powered by the
pressure generated from an effervescing
antacid tablet reacting with water.
• Target concept: Altitude, velocity

and acceleration
• Preparation time: 10 minutes
• Duration of activity: 40–45 minutes
students
Materials and Tools

• Heavy paper (60–110 index stock or
construction paper)
• Plastic 35 mm film canister* The most common mistakes in constructing
• Student sheets the rocket are as follows:
• Cellophane tape
• Forgetting to tape the film canister to
• Scissors
the rocket body.
• Effervescing antacid tablet
• Failing to mount the canister with the
• Paper towels
lid end down.
• Water
• Not extending the canister far enough
• Eye protection
from the paper tube to make snapping
*The film canister must have an internal- the lid easy.
sealing lid. See management section for
more details. Some students may have difficulty in forming
the cone. To make a cone, cut out a pie shape
Management from a circle and curl it into a cone. See the
It may be helpful to make samples of rockets pattern on page 60. Cones can be any size.
in various stages of completion available
for students to study. This will help some Film canisters are available from camera
students visualize the construction steps. shops and stores where photographic pro-
cessing takes place. These businesses
A single sheet of paper is sufficient to make recycle the canisters and are often willing
a rocket. Be sure to tell the students to plan to donate them for educational use. Be sure
how they are going to use the paper. Let the to obtain canisters with the internal sealing
students decide whether to cut the paper lid. These are usually translucent canisters.
the short or long direction to make the body Canisters with the external lid (lid that wraps
tube of the rocket. This will lead to rockets of around the canister rim) will not work. These
different lengths for flight comparison. are usually opaque canisters.
58
Background Information Extensions
This activity is a simple, but exciting, demon- • Hold an altitude contest to see which
stration of Newton’s Laws of Motion. The rockets fly the highest. Launch the
rocket lifts off because an unbalanced force rockets near a wall in a room with a
acts upon it (First Law). This is the force high ceiling. Tape a tape measure to
produced when the lid blows off by the gas the wall. Stand back and observe how
formed in the canister. The amount of force high the rockets travel upward along
is directly proportional to the mass of water the wall. Let all students take turns
and gas expelled from the canister and how measuring rocket altitudes.
fast it accelerates (Second Law).The rocket • What geometric shapes are present in
travels upward with a force that is equal and a rocket?
opposite to the downward force propelling • Use the discussion questions to design
the water, gas and lid (Third Law). For a more experiments with the rockets. Graph
complete discussion of Newton’s Laws of your results.
Motion, see page 159 in this guide.
Procedure
Refer to the Student Sheet on page 61.
Discussion
• How does the amount of water placed
in the cylinder affect how high the
rocket will fly?
• How does the temperature of the
water affect how high the rocket will
fly?
• How does the amount of the tablet
used affect how high the rocket will
fly?
• How does the length or empty weight
of the rocket affect how high the
rocket will fly?
• How would it be possible to create a
two-stage rocket?
Assessment
Ask students to explain how Newton’s Laws
of Motion apply to this rocket. Compare the
rockets for skill in construction. Rockets that
use excessive paper and tape are likely to
be less efficient fliers because they carry
additional weight.
59
3-2-1 POP!
1 5
2
Ready for
flight.
3
4
Wrap and tape

a tube of
Lid
paper around
the film
canister. The
lid end of the
canister goes
down! Tape fins to
your rocket.
Cone Pattern
Roll a cone of paper
and tape it to the
O
rocket's upper end.

ve
rla
p
th
is
Cones can be
ed
ge
any size!
to
fo
rm
co
n
e
60
Rocketeer Names
COUNTDOWN:
1. Put on your eye protection.
2. Turn the rocket upside down
and fill the canister one-third
full of water.
Work quickly on the next steps!
3. Drop in 1/2 tablet.

4. Snap lid on tight.
5. Stand rocket on launch
platform.
6. Stand back.
LIFT-OFF!
What three ways can you improve

your rocket?
1.
2.
3.
61
Newton Car
Objective
In this activity, students will test a slingshot-
like device that throws a mass causing the car
to move in the opposite direction.

• Preparation time: More than 30 min
• Student group size: Teams of three
Materials and Tools Making the Newton Car involves cutting

• One wooden block about 3.94 × 7.87 × blocks of wood and driving three screws
0.98 in (10 × 20 × 2.5 cm) into each block. Refer to the diagram on this
• Three 3-in (7.62 cm) No. 10 wood page for the placement of the screws as
screws (round head) well as how the Newton Car is set up for the
• Twelve round pencils or short lengths experiment. Place the dowels in a row like
of similar dowel railroad ties and extend them to one side as
• Plastic film canister shown in the picture. If you have access to a
• Assorted materials for filling canister drill press, you can substitute short dowels
(washers, nuts, etc.) for the screws. It is important to drill the
• Three rubber bands holes for the dowels perpendicular into the
• Cotton string block with the drill press. Add a drop of glue
• Safety lighter to each hole.
• Eye protection for each student
• American Standard or metric beam The activity requires students to load their
balance (Primer Balance) slingshot by stretching the rubber bands
• Vise back to the third screw and holding them
• Screwdriver in place with the string. The simplest way
• Yardstick, meter stick or rulers of doing this is to tie the loop first and slide
• Graph paper the rubber bands through the loop before
placing the rubber bands over the two
Management screws. Loop the string over the third screw
Use a smooth testing surface such as a after stretching the rubber bands back.
long, level tabletop or uncarpeted floor. The
experiment has many variables that students Use a match or lighter to burn the string.
must control including the size of the string The small ends of string left over from the
loop they tie, the placement of the mass on knot acts as a fuse that permits the students
the car and the placement of the dowels. to remove the match before the string burns
Discuss the importance of controlling the through. Teachers may want to give student
variables in the experiment with your students. groups only a few matches at a time.
62
To completely conduct this experiment, used and on the x-axis for the distance the
student groups will need six matches. It car traveled. After plotting three tests with
may be necessary for a practice run before a particular mass, connect the dots with
starting the experiment. As an alternative to lines. The students should use a solid line for
the matches, students can use blunt nose Mass 1 and a line with large dashes for Mass
scissors to cut the string. This requires some 2. If the students have carefully controlled
fast movement on the part of the student their variables, they should observe that the
doing the cutting. The student needs to move car traveled the greatest distance using the
the scissors quickly out of the way after greatest mass and three rubber bands. This
cutting the string. conclusion will help them conceptualize
Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
Tell the students to tie all the string loops they
need before beginning the experiment. The Background Information
loops should be as close to the same size The Newton Car provides an excellent tool for
as possible. Refer to the diagram on the stu- investigating Newton’s Second Law of Motion,
dent pages for the actual size of the loops. which states that force equals mass times
Loops of different sizes will introduce a sig- acceleration. In rockets, the force is the action
nificant variable into the experiment, causing produced by gas expelled from the engines.
the rubber bands to be stretched different According to the law, the greater the mass of
amounts. This will lead to different accelera- gas that is expelled and the faster it acceler-
tions with the mass each time the experiment ates out of the engine, the greater the force or
is conducted. thrust. More details on this law can be found
on page 163 of this guide.
Use plastic 35-millimeter film canisters for
the mass in the experiments. Direct the stu- The Newton Car is a kind of a slingshot. A
dents to completely fill the canisters with wooden block with three screws driven into
various materials such as seeds, small nails, it forms the slingshot frame. Rubber bands
metal washers, sand, etc. This will enable stretch from two of the screws and hold to
them to vary the mass twice during the exper- the third by a string loop. A mass sits between
iment. Have the students weigh the canister the rubber bands. When the string is cut, the
after it is filled and record the mass on the rubber bands throw the block to produce an
student sheet. After using the canister three action force. The reaction force propels the
times, first with one rubber band and then two block in the opposite direction over some
and three rubber bands, students should refill dowels that act as rollers (Newton’s Third
the canister with new material for the next Law of Motion).
three tests.
This experiment directs students to launch
Refer to the sample graph for recording data. the car while varying the number of rubber
The bottom of the graph is the distance the bands and the quantity of mass thrown off.
car travels in each test. Students should plot They will measure how far the car travels in
a dot on the graph for the distance the car the opposite direction and plot the data on
traveled. The dot should fall on the y-axis a graph. Repeated runs of the experiment
line representing the number of rubber bands should show that the distance the car travels
63
depends on the number of rubber bands used
and the quantity of the mass being expelled.
Comparing the graph lines will lead students
to Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
Discussion
1. How is the Newton Car similar to rockets?
2. How do rocket engines increase their
thrust?
3. Why is it important to control variables in
an experiment?
Assessment:
Conduct a class discussion where students
share their findings about Newton’s Laws of
Motion. Ask them to compare their results
with those from other activities, such as
Pop Can Hero Engine. Collect and review
completed student pages.
Extensions
Obtain a toy water rocket from a toy store.
Try launching the rocket with only air and
then with water and air and observe how far
the rocket travels.
64
Newton Car
1. Tie six string loops this size.
2. Fill up your canister and weigh it in ounces (grams).

Record the weight (mass) in the Newton Car
Report.
3. Set up your Newton Car as shown in the

picture. Slip the rubber band through
the string loop. Stretch the rubber
band over the two screws and pull
the string back over the third
screw. Place the rods 2.5 in
0i
n(
(6.35 cm) apart. Use only
cm
s
rod
2.3
one rubber band the re n
)
mo ectio
6i
c e ir
Pla his d
first time.
n(
t
4.7
in
6c
2i
m)
n(
7.0
4. Put on your eye
12
9i
cm
n(
protection.
)
18
cm
)
5. Light the string with a match and stand

back. Record the distance the car traveled on the chart.
6. Reset the car and rods. Make sure that the rods are 2.5 in (6.35 cm)
apart. Use two rubber bands and record the distance the car travels.
7. Reset the car with three rubber bands and repeat the experiment.
Record the distance it travels.
8. Refill the canister, and record its new mass.
9. Test the car with the new canister and with one, two and three
rubber bands. Record the distances the car moves each time.
10. Plot your results on the graph. Use one line for the first set of
measurements and a different line for the second set.
65
Newton Car Report Team
Members
Rubber Bands Distance Traveled
in (cm)
MASS 1
in (cm)
oz (gms)
gr am s
in (cm)
Describe what happened when you tested the car with one, two and
three rubber bands.
Rubber Bands Distance Traveled
in (cm)
MASS 2
oz (gms) in (cm)
gr am s
in (cm)
Describe what happened when you tested the car with one, two and
three rubber bands.
Write a short statement explaining the relationship between the amount

of mass in the canister, the number of rubber bands and the distance
the car traveled.
66
Mass 1 = 1.06 oz (30 gms) oz (gm)
Mass 2 = 1.48 oz (42 gms) oz (gm)
Inches
0 19.69 39.37 59.06 78.74
3
Rubber bands
Sample Graph
1
78.74
200
0 50 100 150 200
Centimeters
59.06
150
oz (gm)
oz (gm)
Centimeters
Mass 1 =
Mass 2 =
Inches
39.37
100
19.69
50
Test Results
Newton Car
0
0
3
Rubber bands
67
Pop Can Hero
Engine
Objectives
• Part One: To demonstrate action and
reactions by using the force of falling
water to cause a soda pop can to spin.
• Part Two: To experiment with different
ways of increasing the spin of the can.
• Preparation time: Variable
or three
Part One
Management Materials and Tools
This activity is divided into two parts. In part • Empty soda can with the opener
one, the learners construct the engine and lever still attached (one per group
test it. Part two focuses on variables that of students)
affect the action of the engine. The experi- • Common nail (one per group of
ment stresses prediction, data collection and students)
analysis of results. Be sure to recycle the soda • Nylon fishing line (lightweight)
cans at the end of the activity. • Bucket or tub of water (several for
entire class)
Background Information • Paper towels for cleanup
Hero of Alexandria invented the Hero engine • Yard stick, ruler or meter stick
in the first century B.C. His engine operated • Scissors to cut fishing line
because of the propulsive force generated
by escaping steam. A boiler produced steam Making a Soda Can Hero Engine
that escaped to the outside through L-shaped 1. Distribute student pages, one soda can
tubes bent pinwheel fashion. The steam’s and one medium-size common nail to
escape produced an action-reaction force each group. Tell the students that you will
that caused the sphere to spin in the opposite demonstrate the procedure for making the
direction. Hero’s engine is an excellent dem- Hero engine.
onstration of Newton’s Third Law of Motion
(See page 18 for more information about 2. Lay the can on its side and use the nail
Hero’s engine and page 162 for details about to punch a single hole near its bottom.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion.). This activity Before removing the nail, push the nail to
substitutes the action force produced by one side to bend the metal, making the
falling water for the steam in Hero’s engine. hole slant in that direction.
68
How To Bend The Holes Part Two
Materials and Tools
Punch hole with nail. • Student Work Sheets
1 • Hero engines from part one

• Empty soda can with the opener lever
still attached (three per group
of students)
• Common nails: two different diameter
shafts (one each per group)
With nail still inserted, push • Nylon fishing line (lightweight)
upper end of nail to the side
to bend the hole.
• Bucket or tub of water (several for
2 entire class)
• Paper towels for cleanup
• Yard stick, rulers or meter stick
• Large round colored gum labels
or marker pens
• Scissors to cut fishing line
3. Remove the nail and rotate the can approx-
imately 90 degrees. Make a second hole Experimenting With Soda Can Hero
like the first one. Repeat this procedure Engines
two more times to produce four equally 1. Tell the students they are going to do an
spaced holes around the bottom of the experiment to find out if there is any rela-
can. All four holes should slant in the same tionship between the size of the holes
direction going around the can. punched in the Hero engine and how
many times it rotates. Ask students to
4. Bend the can’s opener lever straight up predict what they think might happen
and tie a 15–20-in (38.1–50.8-cm) length to the rotation of the Hero engine if they
of fishing line to it. The soda can Hero punched larger or smaller holes in the
engine is complete. cans. Discuss possible hypotheses for
the experiment.
Running the Engine 2. Provide each group with the materials
1. Dip the can in the water tub until it fills with listed for Part Two. The nails should have
water. Ask the students to predict what will different diameter shafts from the one
happen when you pull the can out by the used to make the first engine. Identify
fishing line. these nails as small (S) and large (L).
2. Have each group try out their Hero engine. Older students can measure the diam-
eters of the holes in inches (millimeters).
Discussion Since there will be individual variations,
1. Why did the cans begin spinning when record the average hole diameter. Have
water poured out of the holes? the groups make two additional engines
2. What was the action? What was the exactly like the first, except that the holes
reaction? will be different sizes.
3. Did all cans spin equally well? Why or
why not?
69
3. Discuss how to count the times the Assessment
engines rotate. To aid in counting the Conduct a discussion where students share
number of rotations, stick a brightly their findings about Newton’s Laws of Motion.
colored round gum label or some other Collect and review completed Student pages.
marker on the can. Tell them to practice
counting the rotations of the cans sev- Extensions
eral times to become consistent in their • Compare a rotary lawn sprinkler to
measurements before running the actual Hero’s engine.
experiment. • Research Hero and his engine. Was the
4. Have the students write their answers for engine put to any use?
each of three tests they will conduct on • Build a steam-powered Hero engine
the can diagrams on the Student pages. (See instructions below).
(Test one employs the can created in
Part One.) Students should not predict Teacher Model
results for the second and third cans until Steam-Powered Hero Engine
they have finished the previous tests. (Demonstration Model)
5. Discuss the results of each group’s This should be created and operated by an
experiment. Did the results confirm the adult. A steam powered Hero engine can be
experiment hypothesis? manufactured from a copper toilet tank float
6. Ask the students to propose other ways and some copper tubing. Because this ver-
of changing the engine’s rotation (make sion of the Hero engine involves steam, it
holes at different distances above the is best to use it as a demonstration only.
bottom of the can, slant holes in different
directions or not slanted at all, etc.). Materials and Tools
Be sure they compare the fourth Hero • Copper toilet tank float (available from
engine they make with the engine previ- some hardware or plumbing supply
ously made that has the same size holes. stores)
• Thumbscrew: 0.25 in (0.635 cm)
Discussion • Brass tube: 0.1875-in (0.476-cm) inner
1. Compare the way rockets in space diameter and 12-in (30.18-cm) long
change the directions they are facing in (from hobby shops)
space with the way Hero engines work. • Solder
2. How can you get a Hero engine to turn in • Fishing line
the opposite direction? • Ice pick or drill
3. Can you think of any way to put Hero • Metal file
engines to practical use? • Propane torch
4. In what ways are Hero engines similar to
rockets? In what ways are they different?
70
Procedure Finished Steam-Powered Hero Engine
1. File the middle of the brass tube to pro- 1. Place a small amount of water (about
duce a notch. Do not file the tube in half. 0.5–1 oz [114.79–29.7 ml]) into the float.
File notch in
The precise amount is not important. The
middle of tube. float can be filled through the top if you
(Step 1). drilled an access hole or through the tubes
by partially immersing the engine in a bowl
of water with one tube submerged and the
other out of the water.
2. Suspend the engine and heat its bottom
with the torch. In a minute or two, the
2. Using the ice pick or drill, bore two small engine should begin spinning.
holes on opposite sides of the float at its
middle. The holes should be just large Be careful not to operate the engine too long
enough to pass the tube straight through because it may not be balanced well and
the float. could wobble violently. If it begins to wobble,
3. With the tube positioned so that equal remove the heat.
lengths protrude through the float, heat
the contact points of the float and tube CAUTION: Wear eye protection when demon-
with the propane torch. Touch the end strating the engine. Be sure to confirm that the
of the solder to the heated area so that it tubes are not obstructed in any way before
melts and seals both joints. heating. Test them by blowing through one
4. Drill a water access hole through the like a straw. If air flows out of the other tube,
threaded connector at the top of the float. the engine is safe to use.
5. Using the torch again, heat the protruding
tubes about 1.5 in (3.81 cm) from each
end. With pliers, carefully bend the tube
tips in opposite directions. Bend the tubes
slowly so they do not crimp.
6. Drill a small hole through the flat part of
the thumbscrew for attaching the fishing
line and swivel. Twist the thumbscrew into
the threaded connector of the float in step
4 and attach the fishing line and swivel.
Finished Steam-Powered Hero Engine
71
Pop CanPop
Hero
CanEngine
Hero Engine
Names of Team Members
Design an experiment that will test the effect that the size of the holes has
on the number of spins the can makes. What is your experiment hypothesis?
Mark each can to help you count the spins. Test each
Hero engine and record your data on the can
diagrams below.
Test Number 1
Hero Engine
Number o
f Holes:
Size of Holes:
Test Number 2
Hero Engine Predicted Number
of Spins:
Actual Number
Number o of Spins:
f Holes:
Difference (+ or -):
Size of Holes:
Predicted Number
of Spins:
Actual Number
of Spins:
Test Number 3
Based on your results, was your

Hero Engine
hypothesis correct? Number o
f Holes:
Why? Size of Holes:

Predicted Number
of Spins:
Actual Number
of Spins:
72
Design a new Hero engine experiment. Remember, change
only one variable in your experiment.
What is your experiment hypothesis?
Compare this engine with the engine from your first experiment
that has the same size holes.
Based on your results, was

Hero Engine
your hypothesis correct?
Number o
f Holes:
Why?
Size of Holes:
Predicted Number
of Spins:
Actual Number
of Spins:
Describe what you learned about Newton's Laws of Motion by

building and testing your Hero engines.
Share your findings with other members of your class.
73
Rocket
Transportation
Objective
To construct a rocket out of a balloon and use
it to carry a payload vertically.

• Student group size: Teams of three or
four
Materials and Tools

• Large long balloons (several per group)
• Fishing line A solution to the problem of giant rockets
• Straws weighing too much can be credited to
• Small paper cups the 16th-century fireworks maker John
• Paper clips Schmidlap. Schmidlap attached small rockets
• Tape to the top of big ones. When the large rockets
• Clothespins exhausted their fuel supply, the rocket casing
• Scales dropped behind, and the remaining rocket
fired. Much higher altitudes can be achieved
Background Information this way.
The mass of a rocket can make the difference
between a successful flight and a rocket that This technique of building a rocket is called
just sits on the launch pad. As a basic prin- staging. Thanks to staging, not only can we
ciple of rocket flight, a rocket will leave the reach outer space in the Space Shuttle, but
ground when the engine produces a thrust we can also reach the Moon and other planets
that is greater than the total mass of the using various spacecraft.
vehicle.
Procedure
Large rockets, able to carry a spacecraft into 1. Attach a fishing line to the ceiling or as
space, have serious weight problems. To high on the wall as possible. Try attaching
reach space and proper orbital velocities, a a paper clip to a fishing line and hooking it
great deal of propellant is needed; therefore, on to the light or ceiling tile braces. Make
the tanks, engines and associated hardware one vertical drop with the fishing line to
become larger. Up to a point, bigger rockets the floor or tabletop per group. Thread the
fly farther than smaller rockets; however, when fishing line through a straw. Then attach
they become too large, their structures weigh the bottom end of the line to the tabletop
them down too much. or floor.
74
Note: The fishing line should be taut Discussion
for the rocket to travel successfully up 1. Compare what you have learned about
the line. balloons and rockets.
2. Blow up the balloon, and hold it shut with 2. Why is the balloon forced along the string?
a clothespin. You will remove the clip
before launch. Assessment:
3. Use the paper cup as a payload bay to Compare results from student launches. Have
carry the weights. Attach the cup to the students discuss design elements that made
balloon using tape. Encourage students their launch successful and ideas that they
to think of creative locations to attach the think could be used to create an even more
cup to the balloon. See figure on page 74. successful heavy lift launcher.
4. Attach the straw to the side of your rocket
using the tape. Be sure the straw runs Extensions
lengthwise along the balloon. This will • Can you eliminate the paper cup from
be your guide and attachment to your the rocket and have it still carry paper
fishing line. clips?
5. Launch is now possible simply by • If each balloon costs 1 million dollars
removing the clothespin and untwisting and you need to lift 100 paper clips,
before release. how much money would you need to
Note: The line may be marked off in spend? Can you think of a way to cut
American Standard or metric units with a this cost?
marker to aid students in determining the • Without attaching the paper cup as a
height traveled. payload carrier, have students mea-
6. After trying their rocket, have students sure the distance the balloon travels
predict how much weight they can lift to along the string in a horizontal, vertical
the ceiling. Allow students to change their and 45 degree angle using American
design in any way that might increase the Standard or metric units. Discuss the
rocket’s lifting ability between each try differences.
(e.g., adding additional balloons, changing
locations of the payload bay, or replacing
the initial balloon as it loses some of its
elasticity, enabling it to maintain the same
thrust).
75
Rocket Rocket Team:
Transportation
* Predict how much weight your rocket can lift to the ceiling
(two small paperclips = approximately 0.04 oz (1g)
Test Weight Lifted Results of Test
Based on your most successful launch:

* What was the maximum amount of weight you could lift to the ceiling?
Sketch Your Rocket Explain how you designed your rocket to lift
the maximum amount of weight.
* What other ways could increase the lifting capacity of your rocket?
76
Parachute Area
Versus Drop Time
Objective
To study parachute area and its relationship
to drop time.
• Preparation time: Less than 10 min
Materials and tools

• Plastic trash bags or tissue paper
• String
• Payload (plastic army man,
pencil, etc.)
• Graph paper
• Rulers
• Tape
• Scissors
• Stopwatch
Management
This lesson can be performed using plastic Some of the calculations performed in this
trash bags or tissue paper for the para- lesson may be a little too advanced for
chutes. Each group will need enough of the younger students. If necessary, provide assis-
parachute material to make six different tance or perform the calculations as a group.
parachutes. After the completion of the para-
chutes, they should be dropped from an ele- Background Information
vated area, such as a chair for the student to Parachutes come in many different shapes
stand on, or a second floor. Get permission and sizes and are made from many different
before dropping objects from second stories. types of materials. Even though they come in
Each group will need at least three payloads a wide variety, they all serve one purpose, to
to attach to their parachutes. Each payload catch air and slow the wearer down for a soft,
should be the same weight. smooth landing on the ground.
77
This lesson will give students the opportunity
to test different parachute sizes and shapes.
They will measure each parachute’s area and
record the amount of time it takes to reach the
ground. This data will then be graphed.
Guidelines
1. Discuss how the parachute works. The
parachute creates drag, slowing down the
airplane. This added air resistance keeps
the plane from plummeting to the ground.
2. Explain that the students are going to be
working together to test different para-
chute designs. They are also going to
determine if there is a connection between
the area of the parachute and the time it
takes the parachute to reach the ground.
3. Place students into groups of two or three,
and hand out the Student Sheets.
4. Go over the instructions on the Student
Sheets with the class.
5. Hand out the materials and monitor stu-
dent progress as they work on the activity.
6. If desired, move to the chosen drop loca-
tion for students to experiment with their
parachutes and to collect their data.
Discussion/Wrap-up
• Go over the answers to the ques-
tions found at the end of the Student
Sheets.
• Discuss the correlation between
parachute area and drop time.
Extensions
• Have students create parachutes in the
form of other shapes and test them.
78
Parachute Area Versus Drop Time
Student Sheet(s)

Name
Materials
• Plastic trash bag or tissue paper
• String
• Payload (plastic army man, pencil, etc.)
• Graph paper
• Ruler
• Tape
• Scissors
• Stopwatch
• Science journal
Procedure
Your group will be testing parachute shapes and sizes to determine the best combination
to safely bring a payload to the ground. Follow the steps below to complete the experiment.
1. To make your first three parachutes, cut out three differently sized squares from the plastic
bag or tissue paper. You may need to fold the squares into triangles and trim them to make
them exact squares.
2. Using a pencil, label the parachutes A, B and C.
3. Now, determine the area of each parachute.
a. Measure the length of the sides of the parachute to be sure they are the same.
b. Use the equation “area of square = length of side × length of side” to calculate
the area of each parachute.
c. Record the data in your science journal.
4. To complete the parachutes, perform the following:
a. Cut nine pieces of string (each piece should be about 6-in [15.24-cm] long).
b. Tape the end of a piece of string to each corner of each square parachute.
c. If extra payload is available, tie the loose ends of the string to the payload.
d. If necessary, wait until after square parachutes are tested, and use the same
payloads for the triangle parachutes.
5. To make your next three parachutes, you will cut three differently sized equilateral
triangles from the plastic bag or tissue paper. You may need to fold the triangles to
make sure each side is the same length.
6. Using a pencil, label the parachutes 1, 2 and 3.
79
7. Now, determine the area of each parachute.
a. Measure the length of the sides of the parachute to be sure they are the same.
b. Use the equation ⎛ 3⎞
(side)(side) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
to calculate the area of each triangular parachute.
c. Record the data in your science journal.
8. To complete the parachutes, perform the following:
a. Cut nine pieces of string. Each piece should be about 6-in (15.24-cm) long.
b. Tape the end of a piece of string to each corner of each parachute.
c. If extra payload is available, tie the loose ends of the string to the payload.
d. If necessary, wait until after square parachutes are tested, and use the same
payloads for the triangle parachutes.
9. Your teacher will choose an elevated position for you to do your drop tests. To test your
parachutes, you must drop each parachute from the exact same location each time.
10. Have one group member drop the parachute while another group member times the
parachute’s descent. They must time the drop from the moment the parachute is released
to the time the payload hits the floor. The third group member can record the data in their
science journal.
11. Repeat this process for each parachute. If time permits, drop each parachute twice.
12. Once you have collected all of your data, create a graph comparing the area of the
parachute to the drop time. On your graph, label the x-axis with the area of the parachute
and the y-axis with the drop time.
Answer the following questions in your sci-

ence journal.
1. Is there a definite relationship between the
area of the parachute and the drop time?
2. Does more area equal more drop time?
Why do you think this is so?
3. Were there any variables in this experi-
ment that could have made your results
invalid?
4. Does the shape of the parachute make
a difference?
5. Which parachute performed the best?
Worst? Why do you think so?
80
Safe Landing
Imagine you are flying along in your airplane.
All of the sudden, the engine stops, and you
need to bail out. Luckily, you have a para-
chute to help you land safely. What about the
airplane though? Could it use a parachute to
help it get back safely too? NASA is working
with a few companies to design a parachute
for airplanes in trouble.
The new parachute will allow the endangered

airplane and its passengers to land together.
This means that in an emergency, passen-
gers would not have to bail out of the aircraft.
Pilots and passengers will not have to learn
how to use individual parachutes. Instead,
they can remain fastened in their seats for
a safe landing. Photograph provided by Ballistic Recovery Systems
Many different things can cause an airplane like slamming on the brakes in your car.
to crash land. Engine failure, midair collision, Once the parachute is fully open, the aircraft
out-of-control spin, pilot error, running out of descends to the ground at the safer rate of
fuel, and even ice on the wings can lead to 25 ft/s (7.6 m/s).
disaster. The plane parachute could be used
in any of these situations. At the first sign of The rocket that deploys the parachute is a
trouble, the pilot shuts off the engine and smaller version of the Space Shuttle’s solid
pulls a handle. Pulling the handle ignites a rocket boosters. It is released from a spe-
rocket that deploys the parachute. This feels cial opening on top of the plane’s fuselage.
The parachute is deployed at speeds over
100 m/hr (160 k/hr). It is connected to the
airplane with Kevlar® straps. These straps
help to keep the plane level. The parachute
rescue system can safely deploy at altitudes
as low as 300 ft (91 m).
In the early stages, the parachute system

was designed for lightweight aircraft such
as the ultralight plane. As the technology
improved, other small aircraft were also
equipped with the parachutes. Today, the
system is used on planes that hold up to
four passengers.
81
The next step is to develop the parachute
system for planes that carry up to 12 people.
One challenge is making the system compact
and lightweight. The entire apparatus can
weigh no more than 60 lb (27.22 kg). Engineers
are testing a new lightweight material for the
parachute. It is a reinforced film that has been
used for high-performance boat sails.
So far, the plane chute has had over 150

success stories. It has saved many lives and
small aircraft. Just last year, a pilot flying in a
single-engine plane had to make an emergency
landing with the plane chute. He landed safely
in a tree grove. The pilot was uninjured, and the
plane only suffered minimal damage.
The Parachute Recovery System is a team

effort with Ballistic Recovery Systems. They
are working together as part of NASA’s Small
Business Innovation Research program. This
program’s goal is to make NASA technology
available to smaller companies.
Kevlar is a registered trademark of

E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company.
82
Balloon Staging.
Objective
To simulate a multistage rocket launch by
using two inflated balloons that slide along
a fishing line by the thrust produced from
escaping air.

or three
Materials and Tools When a lower stage has exhausted its load
• Two long party balloons of propellants, the entire stage drops away,
• Nylon monofilament fishing line making the upper stages more efficient in
(any weight) reaching higher altitudes. In the typical rocket,
• Two plastic straws (milkshake size) the stages are mounted one on top of the
• Styrofoam coffee cup other. The lowest stage is the largest and
• Masking tape heaviest.
• Scissors
• Two spring clothespins In the Space Shuttle, the stages attach side
by side. The Solid Rocket Booster’s attach to
Management the side of the external tank. Also attached
The activity described below can be done to the external tank is the Shuttle orbiter.
by students or used as a demonstration. When exhausted, the SRBs jettison. Later,
Younger students may have difficulty in the orbiter discards the external tank as well.
coordinating the assembly steps to achieve Thanks to staging, not only can we reach
a successful launch. For safety, consider outer space in the Space Shuttle, but we can
attaching the fishing line along one wall also reach the Moon and other planets using
where there is not much traffic, so students various spacecraft.
will not walk into the line.
Procedure
Background Information 1. Thread the fishing line through the two
Traveling into outer space takes enormous straws. Stretch the fishing line snugly
amounts of energy. This activity is a simple across a room, and secure its ends. Make
demonstration of rocket staging that Johann sure the line is just high enough for people
Schmidlap first proposed in the 16th century. to pass safely underneath.
83
2. Cut the coffee cup in half so that the lip of 6. If you wish, do a rocket countdown as
the cup forms a continuous ring. you release the balloon you are holding.
3. Stretch the balloons by preinflating them. The escaping gas will propel both bal-
a. Inflate the first balloon about three- loons along the fishing line. When the
fourths full of air and squeeze its first balloon released runs out of air, it
nozzle tight. will release the other balloon to continue
b. Pull the nozzle through the ring. the trip.
c. Twist the nozzle and hold it shut with 7. Distribute design sheets and ask
a spring clothespin. students to design and describe their
d. Inflate the second balloon. own multistage rocket.
e. While doing so, make sure the front
end of the second balloon extends Assessment
through the ring a short distance. 1. Collect and display student designs for
As the second balloon inflates, it will multistage rockets.
press against the nozzle of the first 2. Ask each student to explain his/her
balloon and take over the clip’s job rocket to the class.
of holding it shut. It may take a bit of
practice to achieve this. Extensions
f. Clip the nozzle of the second balloon 1. Encourage the students to try other launch
shut also. arrangements, such as side-by-side
4. Take the balloons to one end of the fishing balloons and three stages.
line and tape each balloon to a straw with 2. Can students fly a two-stage balloon
masking tape. The balloons should point without the fishing line as a guide? How
parallel to the fishing line. might the balloons be modified to make
5. Remove the clip from the first balloon and this possible?
untwist the nozzle. Remove the nozzle
from the second balloon as well, but
continue holding it shut with your fingers.
84
Water Bottle
Rocket Assembly
Objective
Working in teams, learners will construct a
simple bottle rocket from 2-liter soft drink
bottles and other materials. Hot
Glue

and acceleration
• Preparation time: Less than 10 min Collect a variety of decorative materials
• Duration of activity: 50 min before beginning this activity so students
• Student group size: Teams of three can customize their rockets. Rockets can be
students constructed with the materials and attached
by tape or low-temperature electric glue guns
Materials and Tools that are available from craft stores. High-
• 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles temperature glue guns will melt the plastic
• Low-temperature glue guns bottles. Provide tape or glue guns for each
• Poster board table or set up glue stations in various parts
• Tape (masking and/or duct) of the room. When the rockets are complete,
• Modeling clay test fly them.
• Scissors
• Safety Glasses When launching rockets, it is important for
• Decals the other students to stand back. Count-
• Stickers downs help everybody to know when the
• Marker pens rocket will lift off. In a group discussion, have
• Bottle rocket launcher (see page 88) your students create launch safety rules that
everybody must follow. Include how far back
Management observers should stand, how many people
Having the learners work in teams will should prepare the rocket for launch, who
reduce the amount of materials required. should retrieve the rocket, etc.
Begin saving 2-liter bottles several weeks in
advance to have a sufficient supply for your Refer to the Altitude Tracker activity starting
students. You will need to have at least one on page 109 for information on determining
bottle rocket launcher. Construct the launcher how high the rockets fly. While one group of
described on page 146 or obtain one from a students launches its rocket, have another
science or technology education supply group track the rocket and determine its
catalog or on-line. altitude.
85
Background Information Extensions
Bottle rockets are excellent devices for • Challenge rocket teams to invent a
investigating Newton’s Three Laws of way to attach a parachute to the rocket
Motion. The rocket will remain on the launch that will deploy on the rocket’s way
pad until an unbalanced force is exerted back down.
propelling the rocket upward (First Law). The • Parachutes for bottle rockets can be
amount of force depends upon how much made from a plastic bag and string.
air you pumped inside the rocket (Second The nose cone is merely placed over
Law). You can increase the force further by the rocket and parachute for launch.
adding a small amount of water to the rocket. The cone needs to fit properly for
This increases the mass the rocket expels by launch or it will slip off. The modeling
the air pressure. Finally, the action force of clay in the cone will cause the cone
the air (and water) as it rushes out the nozzle to fall off, deploying the parachute,
creates an equal and opposite reaction force after the rocket tilts over at the top of
propelling the rocket upward (Third Law). its flight.
• Conduct flight experiments by varying
The fourth instruction on page 87 asks the the amount of air pressure and water
students to press modeling clay into the to the rocket before launch. Have the
nose cone of the rocket. Placing 1.75–3.53 students develop experimental test
oz (50–100 g) of clay into the cone helps to procedures and control for variables.
stabilize the rocket by moving the center of • Conduct spectacular nighttime
mass farther from the center of pressure. launches of bottle rockets. Make the
For a complete explanation of how this rockets visible in flight by taping a
works, see pages 11–14. An example of the small-size chemical light stick near the
nose cone can be obtained from page 39. nose cone of each rocket. (Light sticks
are available at toy and camping stores
Procedures and can be used for many flights.
Refer to the page 87 for procedures on This is an especially good activity for
building a water bottle rocket. summer space camp programs.)
Assessment
• Evaluate each bottle rocket on its
quality of construction.
• Observe how well fins align and
attach to the bottle.
• Observe how straight the nose cone
is at the top of the rocket.
• If you choose to measure how high
the rockets fly, compare the altitude
the rockets reach with their design
and quality of construction.
86
Building A Bottle Rocket
1. Wrap and glue or tape or

a tube of posterboard
aroun the bottle.
2. Cut out several fins

of any shape and glue
them to the tube.
3. Form a nose cone

and hold it together
with tape or glue.
Ho
tG
lu
e
4. Press a ball or
modeling clay into
the top of the nose cone.
5. Glue or tape nose cone

to upper end of bottle.

6. Decorate your rocket.
87
Launching Water
Bottle Rockets
Objective
To show the connection of propulsion and
force, pushing the rocket by accelerating
water out of a bottle. Expand on the straw
rocket exercise by building a water rocket that
will fly powered by pressurized water. 3. Note the results on a data sheet.
4. Then, select a set water amount and
• Target word: Acceleration change the number of pumps to increase
• Preparation time: 1 hour or decrease the air pressure for the next
• Activity time: 1 hour launch round.
• Students involved: 3–12 per adult 5. Note the results on a data sheet.
6. Determine the best combination of the
Preparation water fill level and air pressure, and fly all
Refer to the Safety Code in Appendix B. Build rockets with that formula.
the water bottle rockets in three or more
teams of three students each. Materials and Sample Data Sheet
assembly instructions are given in a previous Rocket Flight
Water Air Pump
Height
section on page 85. Perform the string-swing Fill Strokes
1 1 1/2 4 low
test given in the section on Rocket Stability
2 1 1/3 4 low
Determination page 138 on these rockets.
3 1 1/3 6 high
You will also need to build the water bottle
1 2 1/4 8 highest
launcher (see Appendix A).
Procedure Questions
Students will explore what relative amounts 1. How is the air and water pressure opera-
of air and water propel the rocket better, or tion better than just the air pressure with
make any design adjustments to the fins or the straw rocket?
nose. Observing the flight of various lengths 2. What if you just put air in the bottle? Just
and weights of rockets will add to the inquiry air pressure drove the straw rocket in a
experience. pulse. The bottle has the pressure expel-
ling water. Ask them to explain the differ-
1. Begin by having some bottles filled one- ence. The action of expelling the water
fourth, one-third and one-half full of water. mass causes the reaction of the bottle
2. Set them on the launcher, and pump these motion (Newton’s Third Law).
rockets each with the same amount of air 3. How would a 2-liter bottle fly differently
(same number of pumps). Then, launch from a half-liter bottle? Hypothesize what
them to see which ones go the highest or would happen and then build and launch
furthest. a rocket made from a small bottle.
88
4. How would you relate pressure, volume
and bottle mouth size against rate of water
expulsion for effective propulsion?
5. How do you relate the operation of this
water-propelled rocket to a liquid fuel
combustion propelled rocket?
89
The Nose Cone
Experts
Objective
Students will experiment with different nose
cone shapes to determine the advantages and
disadvantages of each type. Conic, parabolic
Lift
and flat shapes will be tested to determine
which is most aerodynamic. Weight
Drag

• Student group size: One to two Thrust
students
Materials and tools:

• Nose Cone Distance Traveled Table
Forces on a Rocket
• Group Questions and Procedures
• Paper towel tube the rocket and the air. Factors that affect drag
• Nose cone patterns worksheet include the size and shape of the rocket, the
• Yard stick or meter stick velocity and the inclination of flow, and the
• Several 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles mass, viscosity and compressibility of the air.
• Modeling clay
• Card stock Procedure
• Leaf blower or vacuum set to blow 1. Students in this expert group will complete
• Books to make a path the What a Drag prelab sheet to allow
• Long hall or open area them to build on their past experiences
• Tape with aerodynamics.
2. Students construct nose cones by cutting
Background out three different nose cone shapes from
Aerodynamics is the branch of science that card stock. Two of the patterns are given
deals with the motion of air and the forces on on the following pages. The third nose
bodies moving through the air. There are four cone should be a flat against the paper
forces that act on a rocket. They are lift, drag, towel tube. They will then attach the nose
weight and thrust. cones onto paper towel tubes. This time
modeling clay can be used inside the nose
Drag is a force that opposes the upward cone to provide mass.
movement of the rocket. It is generated by 3. Use a commercial leaf blower or a vacuum
every part of the rocket. Drag is a sort of cleaner with its airflow reversed to blow to
aerodynamic friction between the surface of force the rocket backwards. This should
90
be done on a narrow track to keep the 4. Using the patterns in the nosecone pat-
rocket in line with the wind (books may be tern, cut out three different nose cone
lined up to make this track). shapes from card stock. Assemble the
4. Students should measure the distance nose cones onto paper towel tubes. The
the rocket traveled backwards. Record tubes will be tested with the leaf blower
the results and complete the nose cone as shown below.
expert report on the What a Drag sheets. 5. List the variables that need to be con-
trolled in this activity.
Group Questions and Procedure 6. Use a commercial leaf blower or vacuum
In your expert groups, complete the following: set to blow air to force the rocket back-
1. What is the first thing you think of when wards. This should be done between two
you hear the word aerodynamic? Where rows of books to keep the rocket in line
have you heard the term before? with the wind.
2. Using the resources on the Internet or in a. Place the nose cone design in front of
your library, find information on aerody- the blower, as shown below.
namics and the importance of the use of b. While holding the blower, turn the
wind tunnels. Give several examples. blower on until the nose cone design
3. What is drag as it relates to aerodynamics? stops moving.
a. What are some things that can be 7. Measure the distance the rocket traveled
done to an object to decrease its drag? backwards.
b. What are the parts of a rocket that 8. Record results in the data table below.
may result in drag? 9. Set up a data table in your journal
similar to the table on page 92 to record
your results.
91
Nosecone Distance Traveled Table
Distance Traveled
Shape of Nosecone Trial One Trial Two Trial Three Average
92
Cone Pattern
O
ve
rla
Cones can be
p
th
any size!
is
ed
ge
to
fo
rm
co
ne
93
Cut along the lines. Tape the sides of the triangles together starting with the smaller triangles.
94
Racing Against
Friction
Objective
To understand how friction affects the speed
of a vehicle.

• Preparation time: 20 minutes
• Duration of activity: 40–45 minutes
• Student group size: Teams of two to working in space, astronauts train in many
four students different facilities on Earth. One of these
facilities, the Precision Air Bearing Facility at
Materials and Tools Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, is
• Large sheets of corrugated cardboard used to simulate the reduced friction found
• Masking tape in space.
• Felt fabric
• Wax paper This lesson will introduce students to the
• Sandpaper concept of friction being a slowing force.
• Construction paper
• Various textbooks Procedure
• Small toy cars 1. Write the word FRICTION on the board.
• Stopwatches Have students share any information they
• Student Sheets may know about friction.
• Scissors 2. Explain that the class is going to inves-
tigate friction and the effects it has on a
Management moving vehicle.
Before the activity begins, cut out strips of 3. Place students into groups and hand out
felt fabric, wax paper and sandpaper slightly the Student Sheets.
wider than the width of a toy car and approxi- 4. Go over the instructions on the Student
mately 1 ft (30.48 cm) long. Ensure each Sheets and answer any questions the stu-
group has a piece of cardboard approximately dents may have.
1.5 × 2 ft (45.72 × 60.96 cm) to make their ramp 5. Allow time for the students to complete
surface. Read Two-Ton Hockey Pucks on the activity.
page 98 to the students.
Discussion/Wrap-up
Background Information Have students share their results, and discuss
Working in space can be tricky. With no why the results turned out as they did.
gravity or friction to keep things in place,
relatively simple tasks can become compli- Extensions
cated ordeals. To prepare for the rigors of Study Isaac Newton’s Laws of Motion.
95
Racing Against Friction
Procedure
1. Use the scissors to trim the different strips 5. Place the toy car at the top edge of the
of material to the same length. first strip of material. Let the car roll down
2. Place the strips of material on the piece of the ramp to the table. Use the stopwatch
cardboard. One end of each strip should to time the amount of time it takes the car
be lined up against the edge of one side of to travel from the top of the material strip
the cardboard. (See the above diagram.) to the table. Record the time on the Data
Tape the strips in place using the masking Sheet.
tape. 6. Repeat this process with the first strip of
3. Stack the textbooks on top of one another. material until you have completed three
Place one end of the cardboard on top trials. Record all data.
of the books to form a ramp. The ends of 7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 with the other three
the strips of material should be toward the strips of material. Record all results.
table. Tape the cardboard in place. 8. Answer the questions on the following
4. Predict which material will allow the car to Data Sheet.
move down the ramp the quickest. Write
your prediction on the Data Sheet, and
explain your prediction.
96
Racing Against Friction Data Sheet
Name
Fastest material prediction
Explain your choice
Data Table
Trial Trial Trial

Average Time
One Time Two Time Three Time
(s)
(s) (s) (s)
Construction paper
Felt fabric
Sand paper
Wax paper
Questions
1. Which material was the fastest track for the toy car? Was your prediction correct?
2. Why did the toy car travel at different rates on the different materials?
3. Why is it important for the strips of materials to be the same length?
97
Two-Ton
Hockey Pucks
Superman is not the only one who can
move a 2-ton (1,814.37-kg) automobile with
his pinkie finger. Astronauts can do it too.
There are not any cars in space, but the
crew can move objects just as heavy with
just as much ease. In microgravity, there
is not any friction to provide resistance, so
large objects take off with just a nudge. The
only problem is that, while it is easy to glide
large pieces of equipment, they can be hard
to maneuver or stop. Nobody wants a 2-ton
(1,814.37-kg) object drifting out of control. In There, they take advantage of the air-bearing
order to keep things under control in space, floor. Imagine a giant air hockey table about
astronauts practice working in microgravity 20 ft (6 m) wide and 30 ft (9.1 m) long, says
on Earth. Tom Smith, mock-up manager for the Preci-
sion Air Bearing Facility. Once on the spe-
That is where it gets tricky. There is not one cial floor, astronauts can push huge objects
type of microgravity simulator that perfectly around as easily as an air hockey puck floats
duplicates the conditions of space. That is across a game table, which is how it feels in
why NASA has developed a range of simula- space. Smith says that if you were playing
tors; each one recreates a specific aspect air hockey in a game room, the hockey puck
of microgravity. These simulators include would float on a thin cushion of air blown
the KC-135 airplane that allows astronauts from the surface of the table. However, on
to tumble through the air in a free fall. The the air-bearing floor, the air is essentially fed
Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory takes astro- through the hockey puck to create a layer of
nauts to an underwater lab almost like compressed air hovering just fractions of an
space. Virtual reality simulators reproduce inch (millimeters) off the floor. Needless to say,
the visual aspects of space, and the micro- in order for 2-ton (1,814.37-kg) hockey pucks
gravity drop towers briefly put objects and to maintain a position so close to the surface,
experiments in a near-microgravity setting. that surface must be very smooth and level.
But when it comes to simulating how to
move those large objects, performing func- The floor is made up of steel plates, lined up
tions without friction and responding to the side by side. More steel plates are combined
lack of gravity’s counter forces, astronauts to form pads; these pads are attached to
head to the Precision Air Bearing Facility at the bottoms of the large objects astronauts
Johnson Space Center in Houston. practice moving. From there, compressed air
98
is fed into a tube that runs along the sides air hockey table, it is easy to see if changes
and bottom of the plates. When running, the need to be made because of microgravity.
air-fed plates hover just above the floor’s
surface, and all it takes is a nudge for mam- “Some people call this a zero-gravity room,
moth objects to effortlessly glide across the but that is not accurate,” says Smith. “There
surface. is plenty of gravity in here. This floor simu-
lates the effects of reduced gravity on one
What kind of chores do astronauts practice plane only, not throughout the entire room. It
on the air-bearing floor? They primarily handle is pretty amazing, though, to see how easy
large objects—as large as a small car—and it is to move something weighing 2 tons
learn to keep the objects moving in their (1,814.37-kg) with just your pinkie.”
intended direction. They also practice using
tools the way they would be used in space.
Without gravity to keep the astronaut in place,
a simple twist of a screwdriver can send him
or her zooming. Astronauts can compensate
for the torque created by drills, wrenches and
pliers by anchoring themselves or bracing
their bodies.
“Engineers also use the air-bearing floor as

they are developing products and parts that
will travel into space,” Smith says. A simple
device like a door hinge can be tested to see
how it will function without the friction found
on Earth. By operating the hinge on the giant
99
The Parachuting
Egg
Objective
To drop an egg from a height without it
breaking.

to five
Background Information
After the Space Shuttle is launched, the Solid
Rocket Boosters (SRBs) are jettisoned at
about 2 min into the flight. SRB separation
occurs at an altitude of about 30 miles (48.3
km). The separated boosters then coast up
to an altitude of 47 mi (75.6 km) and free-fall
into an impact zone in the ocean about 158
mi (254.3 km) downrange. They are retrieved
from the Atlantic Ocean by special recovery At 6 minutes and 44 seconds after liftoff, the
vessels and returned for refurbishment and spent SRBs, weighing about 165,000 lb (74.8
eventual reuse on future Shuttle flights. metric tons), have slowed their descent speed
to about 62 mph (99.8 kph), and splashdown
When a free-falling booster reaches an alti- takes place in the predetermined area. The
tude of about 3 mi (4.8 km), its nose cap is parachutes remain attached to the boosters
jettisoned, and the SRB pilot parachute pops until recovery personnel detach them. Under
open. The pilot parachute then pulls out the ideal weather and sea conditions, the retrieval
54 ft (16.5 m) diameter drogue parachute. The operation takes about 5.5 hours. The recovery
drogue parachute stabilizes and slows down ships with the retrieved SRBs in tow, sail to
the descent to the ocean. At an altitude of Port Canaveral, travel north up the Banana
6,420 ft (1,902 m), the frustum, a truncated River, and dock near Hangar AF at the Cape
cone at the top of the SRB where it joins the Canaveral Air Force Station, their mission
nose cap, is separated from the forward skirt, completed.
causing the three main parachutes to pop out.
These parachutes are 115 ft (35 m) in diameter Once the parachutes have been recovered,
and have a dry weight of about 1,500 lb (680.4 they are taken to the Parachute Refurbishment
kg) each. When wet with seawater, they weigh Facility (PRF) in the Kennedy Space Center.
about 3,000 lb (1,360.8 kg). The PRF was originally built to process the
100
Procedure
1. Your group will design a parachute that
can be attached to an egg. The egg will
be dropped from a known height to the
ground or floor. The parachute is to slow
the egg’s descent so that, after landing,
it remains uncracked.
2. You will spend time in class today dis-
cussing how you will design and build your
parachute. It can be made out of anything
you choose. Due to the quickness that this
has to be built, try using household items.
3. The parachute’s length, including any
strings or drag devices, can only be
3.28 ft (1 m).
parachutes used in the Gemini manned space 4. The parachute must allow the egg to
program and was modified for the Shuttle come down. This is not a flying contest,
program. Parachute systems recovered with but a safe, dropping contest.
the SRB casings are delivered to the refur-
bishment facility on reels provided on the
retrieval vessels. The parachutes for the SRBs
are washed, dried, refurbished, assembled
and stored in this facility. New parachutes
and hardware from manufacturers also are
delivered to the PRF.
Parachutes arriving from the retrieval opera-

tions are untangled, hung systematically on an
overhead monorail and transported to in-line
washers and driers that wash and dry them
automatically. They are then sent to the refur-
bishing area, which is equipped with handling
equipment for producing and installing risers
and associated equipment. After final inspec-
tion and acceptance, the chutes are folded
and placed in canisters for reuse.
Materials
• Egg provided by your group
• Parachuting materials brought in by
your group
• Stopwatch
• Tape measure
101
5. There are no set criteria for your para- 10. If it is not already provided, you will need
chute, unless dictated by your teacher due to measure the vertical distance the
to physical or time constraints. egg fell.
6. Bring in a hard-boiled or raw egg, based 11. Using the speed equation, determine the
on what your teacher says. speed of your egg when it hit the ground.
7. Be sure it can be seen from the outside Answer the following questions:
when attached to your parachute. There a. What is your basic design and how
should be no foreign material wrapped does it work? Include a small sketch
around the egg to protect it from the fall of your parachute.
(paint, tape, glue, finger nail polish, paper, b. In designing your parachute, what
bubble wrap, styrofoam, straws, springs, were some of the factors that you
popsicle sticks, etc.). The design of this had to account for to ensure a safe
experiment is to make a working para- landing?
chute, not an egg protection suit. c. How far did your egg fall?
8. You can build a harness for it to sit in, so d. How long did it take to fall?
long as the egg hits the ground first and e. What was the speed of your egg at
not the harness. The harness should not impact?
provide any extra stability for the egg, f. Did the egg break? What does that
other than to hold it to the parachute. tell you about your speed at impact?
9. During the drop, you will need to measure g. How could you improve the safety of
the time from the release to the impact. your egg? Explain.
102
Egg Drop Lander
Objective
Students will create a package to contain and
successfully land a raw egg, unbroken from a
fall to the ground. They will learn how velocity
and acceleration from falling objects relate to
a force on landing.

• Preparation time: 1 hour
• Activity time: 1 hour
(3 to 12 per adult)
Materials
• Raw egg
• Parachute material ( plastic trash or
shopping bags)
• Packing material (gelatin, popcorn,
foam, bubble wrap, etc.)
• Masking tape
• Yardstick or meter stick
• Stopwatch
5. Record the distance and time it takes for
Procedure the egg lander to reach the ground.
1. Each team of three students will build its 6. Examine and record the lander. A drop is
own lander capsule. You may wish to build successful if the egg does not crack.
more than one for experimentation. Select
someone to be a timekeeper, distance Data and Results
measurer and data recorder. 1. List the packaging material used. Which
2. Choose the parachute and packaging material and packing technique worked
material you will use around the egg. the best?
Design and build your lander. Attach the 2. Draw your design.
parachute. 3. Time of the fall s
3. The landing site will be a 1 × 1 ft target. 4. Distance of the fall ft (m)
4. From the top of a ladder over the target, 5. At what speed did the box hit the ground:
drop your lander. A balcony is a good ft/s (m/s)?
place to use too. (speed = distance/time or ft/s (m/s)
103
Additional Approach
From what you learned in packaging and pro-
tecting the egg in this lander drop test, design
a capsule from a model rocket nose cone that
can contain the egg. Test drop that capsule
to prove the egg in it can land safely. There
are also commercial rocket kits that can carry
eggs. Get one of those as a design com-
parison and fly it, then have students build
their own version of an egg-carrying rocket
with their capsule. Launch the egg in the
rocket and see how well the parachute brings
it down.
104
At the Drop
of a Ball
Objective
To recreate Galileo’s experiment and
determine the acceleration of gravity.

• Student group size: Individually not important, but the Leaning Tower of Pisa
or in pairs did provide a clear view of objects dropped
straight down. So, what do you think? Will a
Materials softball and a golf ball dropped at the same
• Golf ball time, fall to the ground at the same rate and hit
• Softball the ground at the same time?
• Basketball
• Stopwatch For advanced students: Here is a
• Tape measure quick review of the equations of
• Calculator motion, which you will need today.
The first one is vf = vi + at, where vf
Background Information is the final velocity (ft/s or m/s), vi is
It may be the most famous physics experi- the initial velocity (ft/s or m/s), a is
ment ever done. Four hundred years ago, the acceleration in feet (or meters)
Galileo Galilei started dropping things off per second squared (ft/s2 or m/s2),
the Leaning Tower of Pisa and timing their and t is the time in seconds (s).
falls. In those days, it was widely thought The second one is d = vit + 0.5at2,
that heavy objects fell faster than light ones, where d is the distance traveled in
but he found that everything hit the ground feet (or meters). The third one is
at the same time. For cannon balls, musket vf2 = vi2 + 2ad. For falling objects,
balls, gold, silver and wood, gravity acceler- we usually substitute –g for a,
ated each item downward at the same rate, where g = 32.1 ft/s2 (9.8 m/s2), and
regardless of mass or composition. y for d, since the distance traveled is linear in
the
Today’s experiment will have your group vertical direction only.
recreating Galileo’s experiment. The size
of the golf ball will be larger, but similar in Procedure
weight to a musket ball (in other words, a 1. Acquire a golf ball, a softball and a
bullet in Galileo’s time). The softball will be stopwatch.
lighter in weight, but of equivalent size to a 2. Travel to your “Leaning Tower of Pisa”
cannon ball. The place of the experiment is (window or balcony) for your experiment.
105
3. Measure the height above the ground a. Did the golf ball and softball hit the
(drop zone) that you will be dropping the ground at the same time?
golf ball and softball. Convert this to feet b. What are some of the things that
(meters), and record the number in the this experiment proved?
chart. c. Did the basketball change the
4. Have one group member climb to the top outcome?
of the Leaning Tower to drop the bullet d. What were the sources of error for this
and cannon ball. experiment?
5. Have one group member time the event in e. How could you improve the accuracy
seconds, and have another group member of this experiment?
record the results. f. How does this experiment compare to
6 Repeat the experiment several times and the way Galileo did it 400 years ago?
average the results in the chart. g. If you were to compare a piece of
7 Using the equations of motion, determine paper and a golf ball, which would fall
the final velocity (the velocity just before faster? Would they hit the ground at
it hits the ground) and acceleration of the the same time? Why or why not? (If
softball and golf ball. time allows, test it.) (Hint: What is
8 Acquire a basketball to repeat the terminal velocity?)
experiment with the softball and golf h. Average the acceleration for the five
ball. Record your results, and use the trials using the softball and golf ball.
equations of motion to determine the final Record that number here: . What
velocity and acceleration. value should this be? Determine the
9 Answer the following questions: percent difference between your value
and the expected value.
Drop of a Ball recording chart
Distance of fall Time Final Velocity Acceleration

Experiment
(ft or m) (s) (ft/s or m/s) (ft/s2 or m/s2 )

Softball and

golf ball

Softball and

basketball

Golf ball and

basketball

106
Free Fall Rocket
Ball Drop
Objective Procedure
To calculate the altitude of a rocket by timing 1. Each student can have their own rocket
the fall of a ball as it drops. This exercise will or work in teams of three. A launch pad
teach the relation of free fall time and altitude operator and timekeeper are also needed.
from acceleration. 2. Modify the rocket by removing the nose
cone from the shock cord and connect the
• Target concept: Acceleration, altitude parachute directly to the shock cord.
• Preparation time: 30 min 3. Wrap two layers of 0.75-in (1.91 cm) masking
• Duration of activity: 60 min per tape around the ball to form a shoulder so
10 students that it can fit snugly into the top of the tube.
• Student group size: Team of 1–3 It should have the same fit tightness as the
students (3–12 students per adult) nose cone did, snug enough not to fall out if
turned upside down, but able to be popped
Materials off by the ejection charge.
• Golf balls, possibly painted bright 4. Prepare the rocket for flight as usual, but
colors place the golf ball on top of the parachute
• A model rocket with a BT60 type body in place of the nose cone.
diameter (1.6 in [4.1 cm]) or made from 5. Launch the rocket.
a paper towel tube to contain a golf 6. At apogee, the golf ball will eject from the
ball as a nose cone rocket and free fall to the ground. The rocket
• Motors to launch the rocket to will descend normally on the parachute.
between 100 and 400 ft (30.48 and Have a student use a stopwatch to time the
121.92 m) altitude, B or C size ball’s fall from the ejection point where the
• Launch pad and firing system ball separates from the rocket in the air to
• Stopwatches the moment of ground impact (2–5 seconds).
• Masking tape 7. Record the time measured on a data sheet
(see page 108).
8. Use the time value to solve for the free fall
distance (y = 0.5gt2) (where g = 32 ft/s2 or
9.8 m/s2), which is the presumed peak
altitude of the rocket.
9. Repeat the experiment several times, or
have students launch balls in identical
rockets and motors and compare the mea-
surements and calculations. Using two
stopwatches and taking the average time will
improve accuracy and also helps ensure that
you get a time reading if one of the watches
fails during the event.
107
Sample data sheet
Ball drop time (t) Altitude (y) = 0.5gt2

Flight
(s) (ft or m)
Model 3 on B6-4 3.3 174
Questions
1. What aspects of the golf ball are being
ignored in the descent measurement?
2. If a billiard ball or baseball were dropped
instead of the golf ball, how much faster
would they fall?
3. What would be a problem with using a
ping-pong ball for this experiment?
4. If the ball separates from the rocket with
a lot of sideways motion, how does that
affect the descent time of the fall?
Additional approach
As you launch, have other students measure
the altitude with the altimeter from that activity
lesson on page 109. Compare these altitude
values. If you have a rocket altitude simulation
software program, how does the prediction
compare to the calculated value for
the rocket?
You can also launch the rockets with different

size motors to measure the different altitudes
to compare the motor performance effects.
Another student can time the ascent of the
rocket (lift-off to ejection) and compare it to
the ball’s free fall time.
108
Altitude Tracking
ple a
St
A
er
Objective
A
ck
a
Tr
A
e
ple
ud
a
St
To estimate the altitude a rocket achieves
A
lti
A
et
A
k
oc
90
0
during flight.
R
80
10
St
A
a
70
ple
20
60 30
50 40
to
A
s
ng
o
el
A
rb
ke
ac
Tr
A
de
tu
lti
St
A
a
is
ple
Th
A
90
A
85
• Duration of activity: 60 min LAT
OR
80
CU m 75
AL
E
30
et IN
• Student group size: Teams of two C e e
ck
ro d.
th sur BA
S EL
15 8
70
of ea
DE
e
s m 5 65
no u
4
IT U
e yo
th le 1.
3
te ng
ta e a
ALT
60
o
Materials and Tools R th
to
55
e he
• Altitude tracker pattern n o
r i ce
th f t
be tan tion he tude
50
m i s ti
nu d ca T al
• Altitude calculator pattern k
o o w
e e lo e. e
th r th on sit th s.
at fo tati nch you eter
s u l m l
45
Lo ind king e la ill te t in

• Thread or lightweight string w ac th r w ke 40
tr om be oc
fr um e r
n f th 35
o
• Small washer
30
• Brass paper fastener
25
20
0
15
10
• Scissors
• Razor-blade knife and cutting surface
• Stapler Altitude tracking, as used in this activity,
• Yard stick or meter stick can be used with the Paper Rockets (page
• Rocket and launcher 43), 3-2-1 Pop! (page 58) and Bottle Rocket
Assembly (page 85) activities and with com-
Management mercial model rockets. The altitude calculator
Determining the altitude a rocket reaches is calibrated for 16.4, 49.2 and 98.4 ft (5, 15
in flight is a team activity. While one group and 30 m) baselines. Use the 16.2 ft (5 m)
of students prepares and launches a rocket, baseline for Paper Rockets and 3-2-1 Pop
a second group measures the altitude the rockets. Use the 49.2 ft (15 m) baseline for
rocket reaches by estimating the angle of Project X-35, and use the 98.4 ft (30 m)
the rocket at its highest point from the baseline for launching commercial model
tracking station. The angle is input into rockets.
the altitude tracker calculator, and then
the altitude is read. Roles are reversed so For practical reasons, the altitude calculator
that everyone gets to launch and to track, is designed for angles in increments of
depending upon the number of launches five degrees. Younger students may have
held and whether or not every student difficulty in obtaining precise angle measure-
determines their own altitude. ments with the altitude tracker. For simplicity’s
sake, round measurements off to the nearest
The trackers and altitude calculators activity five-degree increment and read the altitude
should take an hour or two. While waiting to reached directly from the altitude calculator.
launch rockets or track them, students can If desired, you can determine altitudes for
work on other projects. angles in between the increments by adding
109
le
ap
St
A
r
ke
A
ac
Tr
A
e
le
ap
ud
St
A
lti
t A
ke
A
oc
90
0
R
80
10
St
A
ap
70 20
le
60 30
50 40
to
A
s
ng
lo
be
A
r
ke
ac
Tr
A
de
tu
lti
St
A
ap
is
le
Th
A
A
Completed Altitude Tracker Scope
the altitudes above and below the angle and procedure diminishes. For example, if the
dividing by 2. A more precise method for rocket climbs over a tracking station, where
determining altitudes appears later in the the angle is measured, the altitude calculation
procedures. will yield an answer higher than the actual
altitude reached. On the other hand, if the
A teacher’s aid or older student should cut out rocket flies away from the station, the altitude
the three windows in the altitude calculator. measurement will be lower than the actual
A sharp knife or razor and a cutting surface value. Tracking accuracy can be increased
work best for cutting out windows. The alti- by using more than one tracking station to
tude tracker is simple enough for everyone to measure the rocket’s altitude. Position a
make one of their own, but they can also be second or third station in different directions
shared. Students should practice taking angle from the first station. Averaging the altitude
measurements and using the calculator on measurements will reduce individual error.
objects of known height, such as a building or
a flagpole, before calculating rocket altitude. Constructing the Altitude Tracker Scope
Procedure
Background Information 1. Copy the pattern for the altitude tracker
This activity makes use of simple trigonom- on heavy weight paper.
etry to determine the altitude a rocket reaches 2. Cut out the pattern on the dark outside
in flight. The basic assumption of the activity lines.
is that the rocket travels straight up from the 3. Curl (do not fold) the B edge of the pat-
launch site. If the rocket flies away at an angle tern to the back until it lines up with the
other than 90 degrees, the accuracy of the A edge.
110
and antacid-powered rockets, a 49.2 ft
(15 m) distance is sufficient for bottle
rockets, and a 98.4 ft (30 m) distance is
sufficient for model rockets.)
2. As a rocket launches, the person doing
the tracking will follow the flight with the
sighting tube on the tracker. The tracker
should be held like a pistol and kept at
the same level as the rocket when it is
launched. Continue to aim the tracker at
? the highest point the rocket reached in
the sky. Have a second student read the
angle the thread or string makes with the
quadrant protractor. Record the angle.
r
ke
ac
Tr
de
tu
lti
tA
ke
oc
R
Constructing the Altitude Calculator

Procedure
49.2 ft (15 m)
1. Copy the two patterns for the altitude cal-
Baseline
culator onto heavy weight paper or glue
the patterns onto lightweight poster board.
4. Staple the edges together where marked. Cut out the patterns.
If done correctly, the As and Bs will be on 2. Place the top pattern on a cutting surface,
the outside of the tracker. and cut out the three windows.
5. Punch a small hole through the apex of 3. Join the two patterns together where the
the protractor quadrant on the pattern. center marks are located. Use a brass
6. Slip a thread or lightweight string through paper fastener to hold the pieces together.
the hole. Knot the thread or string on the The pieces should rotate smoothly.
backside.
7. Complete the tracker by hanging a small
90
washer from the other end of the thread

85
as shown in the diagram above. ATOR

80
C UL m 75
AL
E
30
et LIN
ck
C ro d. SE
15
70
e ure BA
Using the Altitude Tracker h
t s
of ea
8
DE
se m 5 65
no you
4
Procedure
IT U
e 3
th le 1.
te ng
ta a
ALT
60
1. Set up a tracking station location a short Ro the
to
distance away from the rocket launch e he

55
th f t
n o
site, depending upon the expected alti- r i ce
be tan tion he tude
50
m is ti
nu d ca T al
e e lo e. e
tude the rocket rose after launch. A ver- t th r th ion sit u th rs.
o t
a f ta c o te h
45
ok ow s un ll y me
tical line is drawn to show the vertical Lo ind king e la ill te t in
w ac th r w ke 40
tr om be oc
fr um e r
distance of 16.4, 49.2 or 98.4 ft (5, 15 or n f th
o
35
30 m) away. (Generally, a 16.4 ft (5 m)

30
distance is sufficient for paper rockets

25
20
0
15
10
111
112
U DE C A LC UL
T I T AT
A L OR
Rotate the nose of the rocket
to the angle you measured.
BASELINE
5 15 30 m
Look at the number in the

window for the distance of the
tracking station location
from the launch site. The
number will tell you the altitude
of the rocket in meters.
90
85
80
75
70
65
343
EL
170
112
60
.4
171
HE
5.1
82
.3
5.9
8
W
64
.2
57.2
41
4
CK
.2 55
28.
52
.6
32
18
.7
.8
ULATOR - BA
26
13
10 42.9
8.7
21.4 50
7.1
35.8
6 17.9
5 15 30 45
4.2
12.6
3.5 25.2
10.5
C
2.9 40
21
CAL
2. 8.7
3
17
1.8
7 .3 35
1.3
E
0.9
0.4
14
UD
5.5
4
T
30
2.6
1.3
TI
11
0
AL
8
25
5.3
2.6
0
20
15
10
5
0
113
Determining the Altitude calculate altitude of the rocket:
Procedure Altitude = tan × baseline
1. Use the altitude calculator to determine 3 Use a calculator with trigonometry func-
the height the rocket reached. To do so, tions to solve the problem or refer to the
rotate the inner wheel of the calculator tangent table on page 116. For example,
so that the nose of the rocket pointer is if the measured angle is 28 degrees and
aimed at the angle measured in step 2 of the baseline is 49.2 ft (15 m), the altitude
the previous procedure. is 26.15 ft (7.98 m).
2. Read the altitude of the rocket by looking
in the window. If you use a 5 m (16.5 ft) Altitude = tan 28° × 49.2 ft (15 m)
baseline, the altitude the rocket reached
will be in the window beneath the 5. To Altitude = 0.5317 × 49.2 ft (15 m) = 26.15 ft
achieve a more accurate measure, add (7.98 m)
the height of the person holding the
tracker to calculate altitude. If the angle 4 An additional improvement in accuracy
falls between two degree marks, average can be obtained by using two tracking
the altitude numbers above and below stations. Averaging the calculated alti-
the marks. tude from the two stations will achieve
greater accuracy. See the figure below.
Advanced Altitude Tracking
1. A more advanced altitude tracking scope Assessment
can be constructed by replacing the rolled Have students demonstrate their proficiency
sighting tube with a fat milkshake straw. with altitude tracking by sighting on a fixed
Use white glue to attach the straw along object of known height and comparing their
the 90-degree line of the protractor. results. If employing two tracking stations,
2. Once you determine the angle of the compare measurements from both stations.
rocket, use the following equation to
m)
Es
36
tim
ft (
at
ed
.43
Al
98
tit
ud
de
e
titu
98
.4
Al
3
ted
ft
(3
ma
Two Station Tracking 0

m
ti
)
Es
Use average of the two stations
51°
45°
re
kc
ar
T
ed
u
tit
lA
te
kc
oR
98.43 ft (30 m) 98.43 ft (30 m)
Baseline Baseline
114
115
0 10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
A A A A A A A A A A A A
This Altitude Tracker belongs to
Staple
Staple
Staple
Staple
Rocket Altitude Tracker
Rocket Sighting Instructions:
1. Follow rocket by sighting through tube.
2. Read angle of string for highest altitude
of rocket.
B B B B B B B B B B B B
Extensions
• Why should the height of the person more sophisticated rocket tracking
holding the tracker be added to the measurements. These activities involve
measurement of the rocket’s altitude? two-station tracking with altitude and
• Curriculum guides for model rocketry compass direction measurement and
(available from model rocket supply trigonometric functions.
companies) provide instructions for
Tangent table.
Degree Tan Degree Tan Degree Tan
0 0.0000 31 0.6008 62 1.8807
1 0.0174 32 0.6248 63 1.9626
2 0.0349 33 0.6494 64 2.0603
3 0.0524 34 0.6745 65 2.1445
4 0.0699 35 0.7002 66 2.2460
5 0.0874 36 0.7265 67 2.3558
6 0.1051 37 0.7535 68 2.4750
7 0.1227 38 0.7812 69 2.6050
8 0.1405 39 0.8097 70 2.7474
9 0.1583 40 0.8390 71 2.9042
10 0.1763 41 0.8692 72 3.0776
11 0.1943 42 0.9004 73 3.2708
12 0.2125 43 0.9325 74 3.4874
13 0.2308 44 0.9656 75 3.7320
14 0.2493 45 1.0000 76 4.0107
15 0.2679 46 1.3055 77 4.3314
16 0.2867 47 1.0723 78 4.7046
17 0.3057 48 1.1106 79 5.1445
18 0.3249 49 1.1503 80 5.6712
19 0.3443 50 1.1917 81 6.3137
20 0.3639 51 1.2348 82 7.1153
21 0.3838 52 1.2799 83 8.1443
22 0.4040 53 1.3270 84 9.5143
23 0.4244 54 1.3763 85 11.3006
24 0.4452 55 1.4281 86 19.0811
25 0.4663 56 1.4825 87 19.0811
26 0.4877 57 1.5398 88 28.6362
27 0.5095 58 1.6003 89 57.2899
28 0.5317 59 1.6642 90 ∝
29 0.5543 60 1.7320
30 0.5773 61 1.8040
116
The Scale of a
Model Rocket
Objective
Students will show what scale is using dimen-
sional proportions and ratios and how scales
relate to models. Students will use unit con-
versions and compare the altitude of models
scaled from the same design.
• Target concept: Altitude Drawing Procedure

• Preparation time: 30 min 1. Take the linear dimensional data (length,
• Duration of activity: 60 min width, etc.) from the fact sheet, and divide
• Student group size: 3 to 15 students all the values by the scale factor of 100.
2. Using those scaled dimensions and the
Materials ruler, draw the rocket on the paper. All the
• Dimension information sheet on Saturn proportions of length and width will be
V, Ares, Delta or other NASA rocket preserved in the shapes.
• Large sheet of drawing paper or paper
sheets taped together
• Pencils
• Ruler
• Long paper tubes, such as from
wrapping paper or construction paper
These are approximate lengths as indicated by the ≈.
117
Sample Work Sheet for Apollo Saturn
Scale Dimension for
Rocket Dimension Scale (1/100)
Drawing
Parameter
(ft) (m) (ft) (m) (ft) (m)
Length 393.7 120 393.7/100 120/100 3.94 1.2
Diameter 32.8 10 32.8/100 10/100 0.33 0.1
Tail span 39.4 12 39.4/100 12/100 0.39 0.12
Tail length 9.8 3 9.8/100 3/100 0.10 0.03
Modeling procedure 2. If a Saturn V model is 3.6 ft (1.1 m) tall

1. Now determine another scale factor for and 1/100 scale, how tall is the real rocket?
multiplying the rocket dimensions to 3. Scale can also be expressed in propor-
build a model. Select a paper tube about tions, such as 1 in equals 1 ft. What would
1–3 in (2.54–7.62 cm) in diameter and be the ratio for this scale?
measure it. 4. This lesson looked at the scale of the
2. Find the scale proportion by dividing dimensions. What other parameters of a
the diameter of the real rocket by the rocket could be scaled in a model? What
diameter of the tube to get a number like characteristics would have to be scaled
1/222 or 1/72. This fraction is the scale for the model to fly like the full size vehicle?
factor.
3. Use this scale factor to multiply all the Additional approach
other rocket dimensions, and list the The point of testing small engineering versions
scaled values on your drawing. The first of a large device is to economically prove they
number to find will be the length of work. This can be done because the scale
the tube. model functions the same way as the full size
4. Now build a model of the rocket version. To show this point, have students
according to those values around the design their own rocket and build it to scale at
size of the paper tube with other paper, two different sizes, such as one having a 0.75
tape and art supplies to make a nose in diameter body and the other a 1.5 in diam-
cone and tail fins. This is just to be a dis- eter body. One rocket will be small enough to
play model of the physical proportions fly on A-B size motors and the bigger one to
and not to be flown. fly on D-E motors or larger. Students should
try to determine the drag value for the design
Questions first using a simulation software model for
1. Get a scale model rocket kit and evaluate both design sizes. They will launch the small
its closeness to scale of the real rocket rocket and compare it to the simulation, then
by comparing its dimensions to your own build and launch the large rocket and compare
calculations. How true to the scale factor its altitude performance and drag value. Stu-
is it in preserving the proportions? What dents will see the relationships of the computer
other vehicles or objects are often seen model and the small flight-test model to the
in scale models? full-scale vehicle.
118
119
Rocket Motion
Video Studies
Objective
Students will use a video camera to record
motion, measure velocity and compute accel-
eration of a model rocket at launch. This
lesson will teach measurement methodology,
data interpretation and deriving acceleration 7
Video Camera set up
from velocity. for Launch Imaging 6
5
• Target concept: Acceleration and
Camera Marked
velocity Field of View
4 Pole
• Preparation time: 60 min 3
• Duration of activity: 60 min to launch Model
and 60 min to analyze In Flight 2
• Student group size: 3 to 12 students Tripod 1
per adult
Launcher
Materials 2. Measure and mark the pipe off in foot-

• Model rocket launch pad and firing (meter-) long increments. Put a wrap of
system tape around the pole at each foot (meter)
• Small model rockets mark (black tape on a white pipe for con-
• Motors trast). Number the marks so that the pipe
• Video camera on a tripod becomes a giant ruler.
• Computer for video editing or 3. Set the pipe straight up in the launch field
TV screen connected to camera next to the launch pad. This can be done
• Video editing software or camera by driving a broomstick in the ground like a
that can view frame by frame stake and setting the pipe on it. Set up the
• Pole or PVC pipe about 10 ft video camera so that the launcher and the
(3.05 m) long entire pipe length is framed and focused
• Vinyl electrical tape within the viewfinder. The pipe should be
• Tape measure directly behind the rocket.
4. Set up a small model on the pad to launch.
Procedure Check the camera operation, and then set
Launch and filming it to record. Launch the model. Stop the
1. For this exercise, a student is needed for camera from recording. Repeat for several
each task to set up the pipe and pad, prep other launches, and note which motors are
the rocket, launch the rocket, record the flown in each scene. A data sheet will help
data, and operate the camera. listing flight order, motor type, camera
settings and display counter index.
120
Launch and filming data sheet
Flight Motor Counter Index of First Motion Count at First Mark Count at Second Mark
Video Analysis To find the acceleration, first compute a final

1. Connect the camera to the computer to velocity for the last frames at the top of the
analyze your recording. pipe. Then, count up the frames of the entire
2. Note in the video where the nose of the flight from first motion to the last view of the
rocket or the fins are against the markings rocket to get a total time. Acceleration will be
on the pipe. Step through the frames until a = v/t.
you see the moment the rocket begins
to move. If the final velocity is 90 ft/s (27.3 m/s) over a
3. Count the number of frames from that total time of 1/3 second, then
point to where the nose (or fin) crosses
the next mark on the pipe. a =90 ft/s ÷ 1/3 s = 270 ft/s2
4. From that point, count again the frames (27.3 m/s ÷ 1/3 s = 81.9 m/s2).
for the nose to reach the next mark,
and so on until the rocket is out of view. Compare these values to the predicted values
You might like to save and print the best of the same rocket in a simulation program.
frames and work from a hard copy.
Questions
Calculations 1. How does the thrust value given in the
Check the camera manual to find the video motor code affect the observed accelera-
frame speed, which is likely 30 frames per tion; that is, how does the take off of the
second. This means each frame is 1/30 of a same rocket with a B4-4 motor compare
second. The rocket speed is v = y/t where y to its launch with a B6-4 motor?
is the distance moved, and t is time. 2. What shutter speeds on the camera work
best to freeze the motion of rocket flights?
Calculate the rocket velocity from the actual 3. Does changing the contrast of the image
displacement in time. during analysis help the resolution or
clarity?
For example, if the rocket takes five frames to
move up 1 ft (0.3 m), then five frames (5 x 1/30 Additional approach
sec) is 1/6 sec, and 1 ft ÷ 1/6 s = 6 ft/s (0.3 m Get a small strobe light that brightly flashes
÷ 1/6 s = 1.8 m/s). at a known constant rate that can be easily
seen in daylight. This may be a bicycle hazard
If the rocket moves 3-ft (0.91-m) marks light or a toy blinker. Use a clear plastic nose
between one frame, then section to contain the strobe in a rocket. Use
3 ft ÷ 1/30 s = 90 ft/s (0.91 m ÷ 1/30 s = 27.3 m/s). an appropriately sized rocket and motor to
121
safely carry the weight of the strobe. Test the
strobe with the video camera by moving the
strobe through the field of view and noting
how the flashes appear in the image. Adjust
the camera exposure to be sure the flashes
appear bright enough to be clearly recorded.
Set up the pipe again by the launch pad, but

position the camera further back or zoom out
so that it sees space about five times the pipe
length above the pad. Launch the rocket, and
record the flight with the strobe light flashing.
On the video editor, find the frames where the

flashes appear and use them as time markers.
Count the frames between the peaks of the
flashes. Approximate the distance moved
by the rocket by referring to the pipe length.
Using the known time of the flashes, find the
velocity by dividing the approximated distance
traveled by the rocket by the time.
For another approach, back up the camera

far enough to see the entire rocket flight in
the viewfinder. The increasing spacing of the
flashes along the flight path illustrates the
rocket’s acceleration.
122
Rocket
Parachute Flight
Duration Study
Part 1: Flight Measurements
Objective
To understand the flight time performance
effects and trades and to relate time to
velocity, students will measure the flight time
of rockets of various sizes and parachutes
types, but using the same motor type. 2. Tell the students to design a system (they
will select a rocket and parachute) in order
• Target concept: Velocity to achieve the longest total flight time on a
• Preparation time: 60 min B motor. All rockets must fly on the same
• Duration of activity: 60 min type motor.
• Student group size: 3 to 12 students 3. Prepare and launch the rockets and record
per adult each flight time with the rocket information
on the data sheet. The flight time for the
Materials stopwatch operation is from the moment
• Several identical and some assorted of first motion by the rocket off the pad
size rockets until any part of it touches the ground.
• Various standard size parachutes to Two timers are recommended for better
test accuracy.
• Plastic shopping bags 4. After the first round of launches, the stu-
• Thread or string for making custom dents will review the data sheet of all flights.
size parachutes Discuss which rockets had the highest and
• B6-4 motors, or type A motors if lowest flight times and why.
needed for small fields 5. The students then experiment with their
• Stopwatches rocket selection and parachute types to
• Data sheet determine how to improve and extend their
flight time. They can design and make
Procedure their own parachute. They can investigate
1. For this exercise, a student is needed for packing techniques, shroud line length and
each task to set up the pad, launch the other chute design parameters.
rocket, time and record the data. Each 6. Students will then launch another round
student can have their own rocket or work of rockets with an adjusted and improved
in teams of three. design, following the same timing process,
and observe and record the results.
123
Sample data sheet.
Rocket Chute Diameter Flight Time
Type (in) (cm) (s)
Starsquawk 12 30.48 33
Starsquawk 18 45.72 55
Icarus 24 60.96 56
Questions • g is the acceleration of gravity

1. How much better were the flight times of = 32 ft/s2 (9.8 m/s2).
the redesigned rockets? • π is 3.14159
2. How does the flight time of a large rocket • ρ is the density of air = 0.076 lb/ft3
with a large parachute compare to a small (1.22 kg/m3).
rocket with a small parachute? • Cd is the drag coefficient of the chute,
3. What is the main variable affecting which is 0.75 for a parasheet (flat
descent time? plastic sheet used for a model rocket
parachute
• v is the desired velocity at landing
Part 2: Model Rocket Parachute (9.8 ft/s (3 m/s) or less)
Size Calculation
D is the parachute diameter you want to
Objective find. The rocket mass m can be found from
The size of the parachute and weight of the the manufacturer’s catalog if it is a standard
rocket determine how fast it will all come kit, or you can weigh it on a scale. All the
down. This equation shows the relation of all other values are constants in this case and
the rocket parameters to velocity. Use it to given above.
select the right size parachute for a rocket.
For example, if m = 2.198 oz = 0.137 lb
Procedure (62.3 g = 0.0623 kg). Inputting all the values
Determine the size for a parachute for a and multiplying them out yields
typical rocket with the following equation:
" 2 %
D = 8mg !"Cd v 2
D = 12 $
#
(8! 0.137 ! 32) (3.14 ! 0.076 ! 9.8 ) '& = 17 in
where: or (8 ! 0.0623! 9.81) (3.14 !1.22 ! 3 ) = 0.435 m.
2
• D is the chute diameter in feet or

meters. Standard rocket parachutes are often made to
• m is the rocket mass in pounds or have an 18-in (0.457-m) diameter.
kilograms.
124
Parachute diameters.
Rocket Measured Chute Diameter Total Weight Calculated Diameter

Type
(in) (m) (oz) (kg) (in) (m)
Starsquawk 12 0.305 4 0.113 23 0.584
Icarus 24 0.670 6 0.170 28 0.711
Calculations
Using the weight of the rockets flown in part
1 and the given values in the parachute equa-
tion, solve for the parachute diameter.
Questions
1. How does this equation apply to the pre-
vious exercise in understanding parachute
flight performance?
2. What’s the most critical parameter in the
equation?
3. How did the parachute size determined by
the equation compare to the diameter of
the actual parachute used in the flights?
125
Predicting and
Measuring Rocket
Parachute Drift Rate
Objective
Students will use vector velocity calculations
to determine the vertical descent rate and
horizontal drift distance of a rocket parachute.
Predicted values will be compared to mea-
sured data. Students will learn to manage and
interpret data and evaluate results.
• Preparation time: 60 min from the moment when the parachute
• Duration of activity: 60 min opens to the time of landing.
• Student group size: 3 to 12 students 2. Measure the wind speed with the
per adult anemometer near and about the same
time as the flight.
Materials 3. Use the tape or a long string to measure
Same as for the parachute duration experi- the distance from the launch pad to where
ment, but including the following: the rocket lands. You can pace this off
• Ping-pong anemometer to measure and approximate the distance if a straight-
wind speed (Plans to make one are in line measurement is not possible.
Appendix A.) 4. Weigh the landed rocket with its burnt-out
• Scale to measure rocket weight motor. Record all of this data on the sheet.
• 100 ft (30 m) long tape measure
• Data sheet Calculations
Calculating Parachute Descent Velocity
Procedure The descent velocity equation for the rocket
1. This is similar to the previous parachute can be determined by rearranging the equa-
duration experiment. Referring to that tion for parachute size in the previous section
basic procedure, launch the rocket, but to get velocity. Use the following equation to
in this case, measure the time of the flight calculate the vertical descent velocity from
Sample data sheet sample.
Rocket Weight Chute Diameter Flight Time Landing Distance Wind Speed
Type (s)
(oz) (kg) (in) (m) (ft) (m) (ft/s) (m/s)
Icarus 6.2 0.176 24 0.61 56 356 108.51 6 1.83
126
the known rocket weight and parachute Example
diameter, If you have a wind blowing with a V = 12.43 mi/
8mg hr (20 km/hr) and convert it to 18.23 ft/s (5.557
v= .
!"C d D 2 m/s) and the parachute flight was 33 seconds,
the drift distance will be,
Input the values for a rocket and the con-
stants previously given into this equation and Drift = 33 s × 18.23 ft/s (33 s × 5.557 m/s) =
solve for velocity. 601.61 ft (183.38 m).
Questions
Calculating the drift distance 1. What is the highest wind speed you can
The horizontal drift velocity of the rocket fly a rocket in before its parachute will likely
will be assumed to be the same as the wind drift from your pad to outside the clear area
velocity. From the measured wind velocity of your field?
and flight time, calculate the horizontal drift 2. What is the maximum altitude a rocket can
distance of the parachute from the following have that will still land in the field? You will
equation: need to estimate your field dimensions to
Drift = Timechute × Vwind get an answer.
where Additional approach

• Drift = How far the rocket will travel Suppose the predicted altitude y of a rocket
from the launch site is 1,000 ft (304.8 m). Given the weight and
• Vwind = Wind velocity parachute size, determine the descent velocity
• Timechute = Parachute time in seconds v. Now use t=y/v to calculate the parachute
descent time t. That time can now be multiplied
Compare this value to the drift distance you with the wind velocity to find the drift distance.
measured with the tape. Taken all together, these values can predict the
landing point of a rocket or where a launching
pad needs to be placed in a field.
127
Project
Enterprise
Objective
To demonstrate rocketry principles through
a cooperative, problem solving simulation.

and acceleration
• Preparation time: 1-hour duration
of activity
• Activity time: 10 1-hour periods
• Student group size: Teams of
two to four students
Description
Teams simulate the development of a com-
mercial proposal to design, build and launch
a rocket. Management
Prior to this project, students should have
Materials and Tools the opportunity to design, construct and
(All supplies need to be available per group) launch a bottle rocket, evaluating various
• 2-liter soda bottles water volumes and air pressures and calcu-
• 1-liter soda bottles lating the altitude traveled by these rockets.
• Film canisters See Water Bottle Rocket Assembly page 85
• Aluminum soda cans and Altitude Tracking page 109.
• Scrap cardboard and poster board
• Large cardboard panels This project is designed to offer students
• Duct tape an interdisciplinary approach to life skills.
• Electrical tape Students work in teams of threes. Each
• Glue sticks member has designated tasks for their
• Low-temperature glue gun specific job title to help the team function
• Water effectively. These include: Project Manager,
• Clay Budget Director and Design and Launch
• Plastic garbage bags Director. The student section provides
• Crepe paper badges and tasks.
• String
• Paint The project takes approximately two weeks
• Safety glasses to complete and includes a daily schedule
• Bottle rocket launcher (see page 88) of tasks. Students may need additional time
• Altitude calculator (see page 110) to complete daily tasks.
128
Collect all building materials and copy all The students should have a clear under-
reproducible items before beginning the standing of rocket principles dealing with
activity. Be sure to make several copies of Newton’s Laws of Motion found on page
the order forms and checks for each group. 159 and Practical Rocketry found on page 7
before beginning this project.
Allow enough time on the first day for the
students to read and discuss all sheets and Procedure
determine how they apply to the project Refer to the student sheets. The events for
schedule. Focus on the student score sheet day three and day six call for teacher dem-
to allow a clear understanding of the criteria onstrations on how to make nose cones and
used for assessment of the project. how to determine the center of mass and
the center of pressure. See page 138 for an
Background Information explanation.
This project provides students with an exciting
activity to discover practical demonstrations Assessment
of force and motion in actual experiments, Assessment will be based on documenta-
while dealing with budgetary restraints and tion of three designated areas: each group’s
deadlines reflected in real life situations. project journal, silhouette and launch results.
See Student Score Sheet for details.
129
Request for
Proposals
The United Space Authority (USA) is seeking
competitive bids for a new advanced rocket
launch vehicle that will reduce the costs of
launching payloads into Earth orbit. Interested
companies are invited to submit proposals to
USA for designing and building a rocket that
will meet the following criteria.
The objectives of Project Enterprise are:
1. Design and draw a bottle rocket plan

to scale (1 square = 1 in [2.54 cm]).
2. Develop a budget for the project and
stay within the budget allowed.
3. Build a test rocket using the budget
and plans developed by your team.
4. Identify rocket specifications and evaluate
rocket stability by determining center of
mass and center of pressure and con-
ducting a swing test. See page 139 for
an explanation.
5. Display fully illustrated rocket design in
class. Include dimensional information,
location of center of mass and center of
pressure, and flight information, such as
time aloft and altitude reached.
6. Successfully test launch rocket achieving
maximum vertical distance and accuracy.
7. Successfully and accurately complete
rocket journal.
8. Develop a cost analysis and demonstrate
the most economically efficient launch.
Proposal Deadline
2 weeks
130
Project Enterprise Schedule
Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 1 Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 6
• Form rocket companies. • Demonstration: Find center of mass
• Brainstorm ideas for design and and center of pressure.
budget. • Introduce rocket silhouette
• Sketch preliminary rocket design. construction and begin rocket analysis.
Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 2 Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 7

• Develop materials and budget list. • Finish silhouette construction and
• Develop scale drawing. complete prelaunch analysis.
• Hang silhouette.
Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 3 • Perform swing test.
• Demonstration: nose cone
construction. Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 8
• Issue materials and begin • Launch Day!
construction.
Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 9
Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 4 • Complete post launch results and
• Continue construction. silhouette documentation.
• Prepare journal for collection.
Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 5 • Documentation and journal due at
• Complete construction. beginning of class tomorrow.
131
Project Enterprise Checklist
Project Grading
• Documentation (See Project Journal below. Must be complete, neat, accurate
and on time.): 50 percent.
• Proper display and documentation of rocket silhouette: 25 percent.
• Launch data (measurements, accuracy and completeness): 25 percent.
Project Awards
USA will award exploration contracts to the companies with the top three rocket designs
based on the above criteria. The awards are valued at the following:
• First: $10,000,000
• Second: $5,000,000
• Third: $3,000,000
Project Journal
Check off the following items as you complete them:
1. Creative cover with member’s names, date, project number and company name.
2. Certificate of Assumed Name (Name of your business).
3. Scale drawing of rocket plans. Clearly indicate scale. Label: Top, Side and End View.
4. Budget Projection.
5. Balance Sheet.
6. Canceled checks (staple or tape checks in ascending numerical order, four to a sheet
of paper).
7. Prelaunch Analysis.
8. Rocket Launch Day Log.
9. Score Sheet (Part 3).
132
Badges
Each group member will be assigned specific tasks to help their team function successfully.
All team members assist with design, construction, launch and paper work. Enlarge the
badges and glue them front and back to poster board. Cut out the slot and attach a string.
133
Project Enterprise
Budget
Each team will be given a budget of $1 mil- All materials not purchased from listed subcon-
lion. Use the money wisely and keep accurate tractors will be assessed an import duty tax of
records of expenditures. Once your money 20 percent of the market value. Materials not
runs out, you will operate in the “red,” and on the subcontractors list will be assessed an
this will count against your team score. If you Originality Tax of $5,000 per item.
are broke at the time of launch, you will be
unable to purchase rocket fuel. You will then A project delay penalty fee will be assessed for
be forced to launch with compressed air. You not working, lacking materials, etc. This penalty
may only purchase as much rocket fuel as fee could be as high as $300,000 per day.
you can afford at the time of launch.
Approved Subcontractor List
Subcontractor Material Market Price
Bottle Engine Corporation 2-L bottle $200,000

1-L bottle $150,000
Aluminum Cans Ltd Can $ 50,000
International Paper
Cardboard 1 sheet $ 25,000
Corporation
Tag board 1 sheet $ 30,000
Manila paper 1 sheet $ 40,000
Silhouette panel 1 sheet $100,000
International Tape and 50-cm
Duct tape $ 50,000
Glue Company segments
100-cm
Electrical tape $ 50,000
segments
Glue stick 1 ea $ 20,000
Aqua Rocket Fuel Service 1 ml $ 300
Strings, Inc 1m $ 5,000
Plastic Sheet goods 1 bag $ 5,000
Common Earth
Modeling clay 100 g $ 5,000
Corporation
NASA Launch Port Launch $100,000
NASA Consultation Question 1 ea $ 1,000
134
Project Enterprise
Balance Sheet
Company Name
Amount Balance
Check No. Date To ($) ($)
135
Rocket Measurements
For Scale Drawing
Project No.
Date
Company Name
Use American Standard measurements to measure and record the data in the blanks below.
Be sure to accurately measure all objects that are constant (such as the bottles) and those you
will control (like the size and design of fins). If additional data lines are needed, use the back of
the sheet.
Data table.
Length Width Diameter Circumference
Object
(ft) (in) (in) (in)
Using graph paper, draw a side, top and bottom view or your rocket, to scale
(1 square = 1 in), based on the measurements as recorded above. Attach your
drawings to this paper.
136
Scale Drawing
Note: One square equals 1 in.
137
Rocket Stability
Determination
A rocket that flies straight through the air is
said to be a stable rocket. A rocket that veers
off course or tumbles wildly is said to be an
unstable rocket. The difference between the
flight of a stable rocket and an unstable rocket
depends upon its design. All rockets have two
distinct centers. The first is the center of mass
(CM). This is a point about which the rocket
balances. If you could place a ruler edge
under this point, the rocket would balance
horizontally like a seesaw. What this means is
that half of the mass of the rocket is on one
side of the ruler edge, and half is on the other. lower end of the rocket (starting with the CM
CM is important to a rocket’s design because and going downward) has more surface area
if a rocket is unstable, the rocket will tumble than the upper end (starting with the CM and
about this center. going upward). When the rocket flies, more air
pressure exists on the lower end of the rocket
The other center in a rocket is the center of than on the upper end. Air pressure will keep
pressure (CP). This is a point where half of the lower end down and the upper end up. If
the surface area of a rocket is on one side the CM and the CP are in the same place, nei-
and half is on the other. The CP differs from ther end of the rocket will point upward. The
the CM in that its location is not affected by rocket will be unstable and tumble.
the placement of payloads in the rocket. This
is just a point based on the surface of the Stability Determination Instructions
rocket, not what is inside. During flight, the 1. Tie a string loop around the middle of your
pressure of air rushing past the rocket will bal- rocket. Tie a second string to the first so
ance half on one side of this point and half on that you can pick it up. Slide the string
the other. You can determine the CP by cut- loop to a position where the rocket bal-
ting out an exact silhouette of the rocket from ances. You may have to temporarily tape
cardboard and balancing it on a ruler edge. the nose cone in place to keep it from
falling off.
The positioning of the CM and the CP on a
rocket is critical to its stability. The CM should
be towards the rocket’s nose, and the CP
should be towards the rocket’s tail for the
rocket to fly straight. That is because the
138
2. Draw a straight line across the scale dia- If your CM is in front of the CP, your rocket
gram of the rocket you made earlier to should be stable. Proceed to the swing test.
show where the ruler’s position is. Mark If the two centers are next to or on top of
the middle of the line with a dot. This is each other, add more clay to the nose cone
the rocket’s CM. of the rocket. This will move the CM forward.
3. Lay your rocket on a piece of cardboard. Repeat steps 2 and 3, and then proceed to
Carefully trace the rocket on the card- the swing test.
board, and cut it out.
4. Lay the cardboard silhouette you just cut Swing Test
out on the ruler and balance it. 1. Tape the string loop you tied around your
5. Draw a straight line across the diagram of rocket in the previous set of instructions
your rocket where the ruler is. Mark the so that it does not slip.
middle of this line with a dot. This is the 2. While standing in an open place, slowly
CP of the rocket. begin swinging your rocket in a circle.
If the rocket points in the direction you
Scale Diagram are swinging it, the rocket is stable. If
not, add more clay to the rocket nose
cone or replace the rocket fins with
larger ones. Repeat the stability determi-
nation instructions, and then repeat the
swing test.
Center of Mass
Center of Pressure
139
Prelaunch Analysis
Prelaunch Analysis
Company Name: __________________________________ Project Number:
Employee Name: ___________________________________
Job Title: __________________________
Employee Name: ___________________________________
Job Title: __________________________
Employee Name: ___________________________________
Job Title: __________________________
Rocket Specifications
Total Mass: __________________oz Number of Fins: _____________
Total Length: _________________in Length of Nose Cone: ______________in
Width (widest part): ___________in Volume of Rocket Fuel (water) to be used
Circumference: _______________in on Launch Day: _________oz __________qt
Rocket Stability
Center of Mass (CM) Center of Pressure (CP)
Distance from nose: ______________in Distance from nose: ___________in
Distance from tail: _______________ in Distance from tail: _____________in
Distance of CM from SP: _______________in
Did your rocket pass the swing test? ______________
140
141
Project Enterprise
Score Sheet
Total Score: Project No.
Date:
Company Name:
Part I: Documentation (50 percent of project grade)

Neatness: Completeness:
Accuracy: Order:
On Time: Score:
Part II: Silhouette (25 percent of project grade)
Neatness: Completeness:
Accuracy: Order:
On Time: Score:
Part III: Launch Results (25 percent of project grade) (teams complete this section)

a. Rocket Altitude: Rank:
b. Expenditures and Penalty Fees:

(Check total from Balance Sheet)
c. Final Balance:
(New balance on Balance Sheet)
d. Efficiency (Cost/Foot [Cost/Meter]):

(Divide investment [b] by rocket altitude [a])
e. Contract Award:
f. Profit:
(Contract award [f] minus expenditures [b])
Score:
142
Glossary
Acceleration: Increase in speed or velocity, Escape velocity: The velocity an object must
a change in velocity reach to escape the pull of Earth’s gravity.
Action: A force (push or pull) acting on an Extravehicular activity (EVA): Spacewalking.
object. See Reaction. Fins: Arrow-like wings at the lower end of a
Active controls: Devices on a rocket that rocket that stabilize the rocket in flight.
move to control the rocket’s direction Friction: The interaction of the surface of one
in flight. body against that of another causing a
Airfoil: A streamlined shape given to fins slowing of motion.
or wings for maximum aerodynamic Fuel: The chemical that combines with an
efficiency in flight. oxidizer to burn and produce thrust.
Altitude: Extent or distance upward, height Gimbaled nozzles: Tiltable rocket nozzles
Apogee: The highest point of a rocket’s used for active controls.
flight path. Igniter: A device that ignites a rocket’s
Attitude control rockets: Small rockets that engine(s).
are used as active controls to change the Injectors: Showerhead-like devices that spray
attitude (direction) a rocket or spacecraft fuel and oxidizer into the combustion
is facing in outer space. chamber of a liquid-propellant rocket.
Burnout: The point at which propellant is Insulation: A coating that protects the case
exhausted in a motor. and nozzle of a rocket from intense heat.
Canards: Small movable fins located towards Liquid propellant: Rocket propellants in
the nose cone of a rocket. liquid form.
Case: The body of a solid propellant rocket Mass: The amount of matter contained within
that holds the propellant. an object.
Center of mass (CM): The point in an Mass fraction (MF): The mass of propel-
object about which the object’s mass lants in a rocket divided by the rocket’s
is centered. total mass.
Center of pressure (CP): The point in an Microgravity: An environment that imparts to
object about which the object’s surface an object a net acceleration that is small
area is centered. compared to that produced by Earth at its
Chamber: A cavity inside a rocket where surface.
propellants burn. Motion: Movement of an object in relation
Combustion chamber: See Chamber. to its surroundings.
Drag: Friction forces in the atmosphere Movable fins: Rocket fins that can move
that drag on a rocket to slow its flight. to stabilize a rocket’s flight.
143
Newton’s First Law of Motion: A body Solid propellant: Rocket fuel and oxidizer
remains at rest or in motion with a in solid form.
constant velocity unless acted upon Stages: Two or more rockets stacked on
by an external force. top of each other in order to reach higher
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: A force altitudes or have a greater payload
on an object will cause the object to capacity.
accelerate in the direction of the force. Throat: The narrow opening of a rocket
The object will accelerate directly nozzle.
proportional to the force and inversely Terminal velocity: The constant speed
proportional to the mass of the object. obtained by a falling object when the
Force = Mass × Acceleration. upward drag on the object balances the
Newton’s Third Law of Motion: For every downward force of gravity.
action, there is an equal and opposite Unbalanced force: A force that is not
reaction. countered by another force in the
Nose cone: The cone-shaped front end of opposite direction.
a rocket. Velocity: A moving object’s speed and
Nozzle: A bell-shaped opening at the lower direction of movement.
end of a rocket through which a stream Vernier rockets: Small rockets that use
of hot gases is directed. their thrust to help direct a larger rocket
Oxidizer: A chemical containing oxygen in flight.
compounds that permits rocket fuel to
burn both in the atmosphere and in the
vacuum of space.
Passive Controls: Stationary devices, such
as fixed rocket fins, that stabilize a rocket
in flight.
Payload: The cargo (scientific instruments,
satellites, spacecraft, etc.) carried by
a rocket.
Propellant: A mixture of fuel and oxidizer
that burns to produce rocket thrust.
Pumps: Machinery that moves liquid fuel
and oxidizer to the combustion chamber
of a rocket.
Reaction: A movement in the opposite
direction from the imposition of an action.
See Action.
Rest: The absence of movement of an object
in relation to its surroundings.
Regenerative cooling: Using the low
temperature of a liquid fuel to cool a
rocket nozzle.
144
Appendix A – Assembly Instructions
145
Straw Rocket
Launcher Building
Instructions
Objective Assembly
Build an air pulse (stomp) launcher to propel Insert the straw or tube into the mouth of the
straw and paper rockets used in the activities bottle about an inch. Seal the mouth around
of this guidebook. the straw with the modeling clay to completely
fill the bottle’s neck. The length of the outside
Preparation Time tube should be as long as the rocket to allow
10 min it to slide on completely.
Materials Operation
• 33.8-oz (1-L) plastic soft drink bottle • Set the bottle on its side on a table or
• Drinking straw or similar size tube. solid surface.
(A straight tube will work, but a straw • Slide a straw rocket all the way onto
or tube with a right angle elbow bend the tube. It should slide freely.
in it is better.) • Point the rocket in a safe direction
• Modeling clay away from people.
• To launch the rocket, squeeze the
bottle quickly or strike down on the
side of it with your fist.
• Restore the roundness of the bottle by
removing crumples or creases before
the next launch.
146
Water Bottle
Rocket Launcher
Objective
To construct a bottle rocket launcher for use
with the Bottle Rocket and Project Enterprise
activities.
Description
Students construct a bottle launcher from off-
the-shelf hardware and wood using simple tools.
Management
Consult the materials and tools list to deter-
mine what you will need to construct a single
bottle rocket launcher. The launcher is simple
and inexpensive to construct. Air pressure is Materials and Tools
provided by means of a hand-operated bicycle • Four 5 in corner irons with 12.75 in
pump. The pump should have a pressure gauge wood screws to fit
for accurate comparisons between launches. • One 5 in mounting plate
Most needed parts are available from hardware • Two 6 in spikes
stores. In addition, you will need a tire valve from • Two 10 in spikes or metal tent stakes
an auto parts store and a rubber bottle stopper • Two 5 in by 0.25 in carriage bolts
from a school science experiment. The most with six 0.25 in nuts
difficult task is to drill a 0.375 inch hole in the • One 3 in eyebolt with two nuts and
mending plate called for in the materials list. An washers
electric drill is a common household tool. If you • 0.75 in diameter washers to fit bolts
do not have access to one, or do not wish to • One number 3 rubber stopper with a
drill the holes in the metal mending plate, find single hole
someone who can do the job for you. Ask a • One Snap-in Tubeless Tire Valve
teacher or student in your school’s industrial (small 0.453 in hole, 2 in long)
arts shop, a fellow teacher or the parent of • Wood board 12 × 18 × 0.75 in
one of your students to help. • One 2-liter plastic bottle
• Electric drill and bits including a
If you have each student construct a bottle 0.375 in bit
rocket, having more than one launcher may • Screwdriver
be advisable. Because the rockets are projec- • Pliers or open-end wrench to fit nuts
tiles, safely using more than one launcher will • Vice
require careful planning and possibly additional • 12 ft of 0.25 in cord
supervision. Please refer to the launch safety • Pencil
instructions. • Bicycle pump with pressure gauge
147
Background Information Rubber
Like a balloon, air pressurizes the bottle Tire Stem Stopper Carriage Bolt
rocket. When released from the launch plat- Wood Base Attachment of Mending Plate and
form, air escapes the bottle, providing an Stopper
action force accompanied by an equal and
opposite reaction force (Newton’s Third Law
of Motion). Increasing the pressure inside the
bottle rocket produces greater thrust since a
large quantity of air inside the bottle escapes
with a higher acceleration (Newton’s Second
Law of Motion). Adding a small amount of
water to the bottle increases the action force.
The water expels from the bottle before the
air does, turning the bottle rocket into a big-
ger version of a water rocket toy available in
toy stores.
Construction Instructions
1. Prepare the rubber stopper by enlarging
the hole with a drill. Grip the stopper lightly
with a vice and gently enlarge the hole
with a 0.375 in bit and electric drill. The 4. Lay the mending plate in the center of the
rubber will stretch during cutting, making wood base and mark the centers of the
the finished hole somewhat less than two outside holes that you enlarged. Drill
0.375 in. holes through the wood big enough to
2. Remove the stopper from the vice and pass the carriage bolts through.
push the needle valve end of the tire stem 5. Push and twist the tire stem into the hole
through the stopper from the narrow end you drilled in the center of the mounting
to the wide end. plate. The fat end of the stopper should
3. Prepare the mounting plate by drilling a rest on the plate.
0.375 in hole through the center of the 6. Insert the carriage bolts through the wood
plate. Hold the plate with a vice during base from the bottom up. Place a hex nut
drilling and put on eye protection. Enlarge over each bolt and tighten the nut so that
the holes at the opposite ends of the the bolt head pulls into the wood.
plates, using a drill bit slightly larger 7. Screw a second nut over each bolt and
than the holes to do this. The holes must spin it about half way down the bolt. Place
be large enough to pass the carriage a washer over each nut, and then slip the
bolts through them. (See Attachment of mounting plate over the two bolts.
Mending Plate and Stopper diagram on 8. Press the neck of a 2-liter plastic bottle
page 149.) over the stopper. You will be using the
bottle’s wide neck lip for measuring in the
next step.
148
12. Attach the launch pull cord to the head
Tire Valve
end of each spike. Run the cord through
the eyebolt.
13. Make final adjustments to the launcher
by attaching the pump to the tire stem
and pumping up the bottle. Refer to the
launching instructions for safety notes. If
the air seeps out around the stopper, the
stopper is too loose. Use a pair of pliers
or a wrench to raise each side of the
mounting plate in turn to press the stopper
with slightly more force to the bottle’s
neck. When satisfied with the position,
thread the remaining hex nuts over the
Positioning Corner Irons mounting plate and tighten them to hold
the plate in position.
9. Set up two corner irons so they look like 14. Drill two holes through the wood base
book ends (see page 148). Insert a spike along one side (see page 150). The holes
through the top hole of each iron. Slide should be large enough to pass large
the irons near the bottle’s neck so that the spikes or metal tent stakes. When the
spike rests immediately above the wide launch pad is set up on a grassy field, the
neck lip. The spike will hold the bottle in stakes will hold the launcher in place when
place while you pump up the rocket. If you yank the pull cord. The launcher is
the bottle is too low, adjust the nuts now complete (see page 150).
beneath the mounting plate on both sides
to raise it. Launch Safety Instructions
10. Set up the other two corner irons as you 1. Select a grassy field that measures
did in the previous step (see page 150). approximately 100 ft (30.48 m) across.
Place them on the opposite side of the Place the launcher in the center of the
bottle. When you have the irons aligned field, and anchor it in place with the
so that the spikes rest above and hold spikes or tent stakes.
the bottle lip, mark the centers of the Note: If it is a windy day, place the
holes on the wood base. For more precise launcher closer to the side of the field
screwing, drill small pilot holes for each from which the wind is coming so that the
screw, and then screw the corner irons rocket will drift onto the field as it comes
tightly to the base. down.
11. Install an eyebolt to the edge of the oppo- 2. Have each student or student group set
site holes for the hold down spikes. Drill up their rocket on the launch pad. Other
a hole, and hold the bolt in place with students should stand back several feet
washers and nuts on top and bottom (see (meters). It will be easier to keep observers
page 150). away by roping off the launch site.
149
3. After the rocket is attached to the Extensions
launcher, the student pumping the rocket Look up the following references for add-
should put on eye protection. The rocket itional bottle rocket plans and other teaching
should be pumped no higher than about strategies:
50 lb/in2 (8.93 kg/cm2) of pressure. • Hawthorne, M.; and Saunders, G.: “It’s
4. When pressurization is complete, all stu- Launchtime!,” Science and Children,
dents should stand in back of the rope for Volume 30 No. 5, pp. 17–19, 39, 1993.
the countdown. • Rogis, J.: “Soaring with Aviation Activi-
5. Before conducting the countdown, be sure ties,” Science Scope, Volume 15 No. 2,
the place where the rocket is expected to pp. 14–17, 1991.
come down is clear of people. Launch the • Winemiller, J.; Pedersen, J.: and Bonn-
rocket when the recovery range is clear. stetter, R.: “The Rocket Project,” Science
6. Only permit the students launching the Scope, Volume 15 No. 2, pp. 18–22, 1991.
rocket to retrieve it.
Hold Down
Spike
Launch Release
Cord
To Pump
Complete Launcher Ready for Firing
150
The Ping-Pong Ball Handle
Mounting Hole Bubble Level
Pendulum
Anemometer
12 in
Protractor
Objective
This is how to make a simple device to mea- Fishing Line
sure wind speed. It can be used to understand Ping-Pong Ball
Wind
meteorology, but is applied in this guidebook
to learn about rocket parachute drift speed.
A pendulum anemometer operates by the 3. Pass the other end of the line through
wind blowing a bob suspended from an the index hole of the protractor. Adjust the
angular scale. The angle the bob is displaced length so that the top of the ball is 12 in
from neutral corresponds to the wind speed. (30.48 cm) from the suspension point at
the hole. Then tie off or glue the line in
Materials place. If the line is a light color, you may
• One 180 degree, 6 in clear plastic want to darken it with a pen or marker where
protractor it crosses the scale for easier reading.
• One standard ping-pong ball 4. Drill a 0.0625 in hole in the protractor on the
• One lightweight, monofilament line top edge on the side opposite the level. The
or strong thread 12 in (30.48 cm) length of handle can be cut
• One small bubble level from a broomstick or dowel to have a flat
• One 0.5 in diameter wooden dowel end. Attach the protractor to the handle by
handle or piece of broomstick pressing the thumbtack through the hole in
• Long thumbtack the protractor into the end of the wood stick.
• Glue See finished anemometer on page 152.
• Needle or small sharp knife point 5. Use a marker to label the protractor with
• Marker wind scale values as follows:
• Drill with a 0.0625 in bit a. Mark the 90° mark of the protractor
0 mph.
Assembly b. 80° mark 8 mph.
1. Pierce the ping-pong ball to make a small c. 70° mark 12 mph.
hole. Thread one end of the line through d. 60° mark 15 mph.
the ball with the needle. Anchor the line e. 50° mark 18 mph.
with a dab of glue, but do not use any kind f. 40° mark 21 mph.
that might dissolve the ping-pong plastic. g. 30° mark 26 mph.
If this is difficult, just use a small piece of h. 20° mark 33 mph.
good strong tape to hold the string on
the ball. If you prefer to not mark the protractor, just
2. Next, glue the level to the protractor, read the protractor’s angle graduations and
parallel to the baseline. Be sure you align find the wind speed from this fine scale chart.
it correctly.
151
Protractor scale chart.
Angle Fishing Line

Wind Speed
Makes with Protractor
(mph)
(degrees)
90 0.0
85 5.8
80 8.2
75 10.1
70 11.8
65 13.4
Angle
60 14.9
55 16.4
50 18.6
45 19.5
40 21.3
35 23.4
30 25.7
25 28.6
20 32.4
Operation
1. Take your reading in an open area. 4. Since not every degree in the chart
2. Hold the handle out with the wind on is given as a speed, you may have to
your side and point the anemometer interpolate between the values. As
into the wind so that the ball moves with many instruments, the line may
the line along the protractor. It should oscillate around the true value, so you
be held away from the body to avoid have to watch for the maximum and
the turbulent airflow surrounding you. minimum swings to average a reading.
3. Sight on the level and turn your handle Gusts and lulls will bounce the ball
to adjust the tilt of the protractor and around too, but with practice you can
center the bubble. Then just read the read the anemometer properly.
mark where the line crosses the scale.
You may want a helper to hold the
anemometer level while you take the
reading. Just keep your body at right
angles to the wind.
152
A Model Rocket
Launcher
Objective
A simple model rocket launcher and firing
system can be made from household tools
and a few items from a hardware store.
Materials
• Drill with a 0.125 in bit
• Wire stripper and pliers
• 12–15 feet of electrical wire, like
an extension cord
• Two alligator battery clips
• Two small microclips
• Doorbell button or push button switch
• Empty coffee or similar large size can
or ceramic flowerpot
• One 1 ft square piece of plywood,
0.5 in thick or greater
• One 0.125 in diameter metal rod
3 ft long
Assembly
1. Refer to the drawing as you build the
system.
2. First, make the launcher by drilling a
0.125 in hole perpendicular through the 4. About 2 feet from the end of the battery
center of the plywood base. Drill or punch clips, cut one wire and strip the ends.
with a nail a hole in the center of the Connect the ends to the push button
coffee can lid. Insert the rod into the hole switch. Depending on the style of the
in the base and then slide the can over switch, you may want to mount it on a
the rod. A ceramic pot will also work well small piece of wood for better handling
as a blast deflector. during the launch.
3. Take the wire and strip off enough of the 5. The battery can be a 6 volt or 12 volt dry
insulation on the ends to attach the clips. or wet cell, or a pack of four connected
The battery clips can be almost any size, 1.5 volt flashlight batteries. The battery
but the igniter clips need to be small and needs to be fresh or recharged to give a
lightweight. Flat jaw microclips are good current supply.
the best.
153
Operation
At the launch site in the field, stretch out the
wire to its full length between the launch pad
and the battery. Prep the rocket, and place
it on the pad. Connect the microclips to the
ignitor wire. Clear the area, and get ready for
the final countdown. Connect the battery clips
to the battery. Give the countdown, and push
the button to fire the rocket. After launch,
unclip one wire on the battery. Reconnect the
wire only after the next rocket is on the pad.
Always read and follow the instructions that
come with the rocket motors, and observe the
NAR safety code in Appendix B.
154
Appendix B – Rocket Safety Code
155
Water Rocket • As you set up your rocket on the launch
pad, observers should stand back several
Safety Guide feet (meters). It is recommended that you

rope off the launch site.
• Do not point your water rocket at another
Safety is very important with any rocket. person, animal or object. Water rockets
Rockets are safe when everyone under- take off with a good deal of force from the
stands and abides by safe behavior. Only air pressure and weight from the water.
plastic drinking bottles should be used. New • The team member responsible for
bottles should be used whenever possible. pumping air into the rocket should wear
Bottles should be retired from use after 10–15 eye protection. The bottle rocket should
launches. be pumped no higher than about 50 psi
(3.52 kg-fscm) and never above 90 psi
Caution: Children should be closely super- (6.33 kg-fscm). Before launching, consult
vised when they are using rockets. Even if the pressure-distance table below.
they understand and agree to the safety rules, • When pressurization is complete,
there will be lapses in concentration or judg- everyone should stand behind the roped-
ment. Children cannot be made responsible off area for the countdown. Two-liter bot-
for the safety of others. A child may feel it is tles can weaken and will explode. Bottles
enough to tell a two-year old to stay out of should be retired from use after 10–15
the way. launches.
• Continue to countdown and launch the
Launch Safety Instructions rocket only when the recovery range is
• Select a grassy field or athletic practice clear.
field that measures at least 100 ft (30.48 • If you do not experience successful liftoff,
m) in width. Place the launcher in the remember that the bottle is pressurized
center of the field, and anchor it in place. and may blast off when you touch it. Be
Caution: If it is a windy day, place the careful; do not let it hit you. NEVER stand
launcher closer to the side of the field over a rocket.
from which the wind is blowing so that • A team member should retrieve the rocket.
the rocket will drift onto the field as it
descends.
Table of distances for a given pressure.
Typical Classroom Maximums
Pressure Distance
(psi) (kPa) (ft) (m)
20 0.1379 85.30 26.00
40 0.2758 167.32 51.00
60 0.4137 252.62 77.00
80 0.5516 334.65 102.00
156
NAR Model I will check the stability before flight and
will fly it only after warning spectators and
Rocket clearing them away to a safe distance.
Safety Code 6. Launcher. I will launch my rocket from a

launch rod, tower, or rail that is pointed to
within 30 degrees of the vertical to ensure
Revised February 2001 that the rocket flies nearly straight up, and
I will use a blast deflector to prevent the
1. Materials. I will use only lightweight, motor’s exhaust from hitting the ground.
nonmetal parts for the nose, body, and To prevent accidental eye injury, I will
fins of my rocket. place launchers so that the end of the
launch rod is above eye level or will cap
2. Motors. I will use only certified, the end of the rod when it is not in use.
commercially made model rocket motors,
and will not tamper with these motors or 7. Size. My model rocket will not weigh
use them for any purposes except those more than 53 oz (1,500 g) at liftoff and
recommended by the manufacturer. will not contain more than 4.4 oz (125
g) of propellant or 71.9 lb-s (320 N-s) of
3. Ignition System. I will launch my rockets total impulse. If my model rocket weighs
with an electrical launch system and more than 1 lb (453 g) at liftoff or has
electrical motor igniters. My launch system more than 4 oz (113 g) of propellant, I will
will have a safety interlock in series switch check and comply with Federal Aviation
the launch switch and will use a launch Administration regulations before flying.
switch that returns to the “off” position
when released. 8. Flight Safety. I will not launch my rocket
at targets, into clouds, or near airplanes,
4. Misfires. If my rocket does not launch and will not put any flammable or
when I press the button of my electrical explosive payload in my rocket.
launch system, I will remove the launcher’s
safety interlock or disconnect its battery 9. Launch Site. I will launch my rocket
and will wait 60 seconds after the outdoors, in an open area at least as
last launch before allowing anyone to large as shown in the accompanying table,
approach the rocket. and in safe weather conditions with wind
speed no greater than 20 mi/hr (32.19
5. Launch Safety. I will use a countdown km/hr). I will ensure that there is no dry
before launch and will ensure that grass close to the launch pad and that the
everyone is paying attention and is a safe launch site does not present risk of
distance of at least 15 ft (4.572 m) away grass fires.
when I launch rockets with D motors or
smaller and 30 ft (9.14 m) when I launch 10. Recovery System. I will use a recovery
larger rockets. If I am uncertain about the system, such as a streamer or parachute,
safety or stability of an untested rocket, in my rocket so that it returns safely and
157
undamaged and can be flown again, and
I will use only flame-resistant or fireproof
recovery system wadding in my rocket.
11. Recovery Safety. I will not attempt to

recover my rocket from power lines, tall
trees, or other dangerous places.
Launch Site Dimensions
Installed Total Impulse Minimum Site Dimensions

Equivalent Motor Type
lb-sec (N-sec) (ft) (m)
0.00–0.28 0.00–1.25 1/4A, 1/2A 50 15.24
0.28–0.56 1.26–2.5 A 100 30.48
0.56–1.12 2.51–5.00 B 200 60.96
1.12–2.25 5.01–10.00 C 400 121.92
2.25–4.49 10.01–20.00 D 500 152.40
4.50–8.99 20.01–40.00 E 1,000 302.40
8.99–17.97 40.01–80.00 F 1,000 302.40
17.98–35.95 80.01–160.00 G 1,000 302.40
35.95–71.90 160.01–320.00 Two Gs 1,500 457.20
158
Appendix C – Rocket Principles
A rocket in its simplest form is a chamber is produced. With space rockets, burning
enclosing a gas under pressure. A small propellants, which can be solid or liquid in
opening at one end of the chamber allows form or a combination of the two, produce
the gas to escape, and, in doing so, provides the gas.
a thrust that propels the rocket in the opposite
direction. A good example of this is a balloon. One of the interesting facts about the
A balloon’s rubber walls compress the air historical development of rockets is that while
inside the balloon. The air pushes back rockets and rocket-powered devices have
so that the inward and outward pressing been in use for more than 2,000 years, it has
forces balance. When the nozzle is released, been only in the last 300 years that rocket
air escapes through it, and the balloon is experimenters have had a scientific basis for
propelled in the opposite direction. understanding how they work.
When we think of rockets, we rarely think of The science of rocketry began with the
balloons. Instead, our attention is drawn to publishing of a book in 1687 by the great
the giant vehicles that carry satellites into English scientist Sir Isaac Newton. His book,
orbit and spacecraft to the Moon and planets. entitled Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Nevertheless, there is a strong similarity Mathematica, described physical principles
between the two. The only significant in nature. Today, Newton’s work is usually just
difference is the way the pressurized gas called the Principia.
Inside
Air Pressure
Air Moves Balloon Moves
159
In the Principia, Newton stated three impor- because your chair is actually sitting on the
tant scientific principles that govern the surface of a spinning planet that is orbiting
motion of all objects, whether on Earth or in a star. The star is moving through a rotating
space. Knowing these principles, now called galaxy that is, itself, moving through the
Newton’s Laws of Motion, rocketeers have universe. While sitting still, you are, in fact,
been able to construct the modern giant traveling at a speed of hundreds of miles or
rockets of the 20th century, such as the kilometers per second.
Saturn V and the Space Shuttle. Here are
Newton’s Laws of Motion in simple form: Motion is also a relative term. All matter in the
universe is moving all the time, but in the first
1. Objects at rest will stay at rest, and objects law, motion here means changing position in
in motion will stay in motion in a straight relation to surroundings. A ball is at rest if it is
line, unless acted upon by an unbalanced sitting on the ground. The ball is in motion if
force. it is rolling. A rolling ball changes its position
2. Force is equal to mass (m) × acceleration (a). in relation to its surroundings. When you are
3. For every action, there is always an sitting in a seat in an airplane, you are at rest,
opposite and equal reaction. but if you get up and walk down the aisle, you
are in motion. A rocket blasting off the launch
As will be explained shortly, all three laws are pad changes from a state of rest to a state
really simple statements of how things move, of motion.
but with them, precise determinations of
rocket performance can be made. Gravity
Newton’s First Law

This law of motion is just an obvious state-
Ball at Rest
ment of fact, but to know what it means, it
is necessary to understand the terms rest,
motion, and unbalanced force.
Rest and motion can be thought of as being

opposite to each other. Rest is the state of
an object when it is not changing position in
relation to its surroundings. If you are sitting
still in a chair, you can be said to be at rest.
However, this term is relative. Your chair may
actually be one of many seats on a speeding
airplane. The important thing to remember
here is that you are not moving in relation to
your immediate surroundings. If rest were
defined as a total absence of motion, it would
not exist in nature. Even if you were sitting in Lift
your chair at home, you would still be moving,
160
The third term important to understanding this Objects in space also react to forces. A
law is unbalanced force. If you hold a ball in spacecraft moving through the solar system
your hand and keep it still, the ball is at rest. is in constant motion. The spacecraft will
However, all the time the ball is held there, travel in a straight line if the forces on it are
forces are acting on it. The force of gravity is in balance. This happens only when the
trying to pull the ball downward, while at the spacecraft is very far from any large gravity
same time your hand is pushing against the source, such as Earth or the other planets
ball to hold it up. The forces acting on the ball and their moons. If the spacecraft comes
are balanced. Let the ball go or move your near a large body in space, the gravity of
hand upward, and the forces become unbal- that body will unbalance the forces and
anced. The ball then changes from a state of curve the path of the spacecraft. This hap-
rest to a state of motion. pens, in particular, when a satellite is sent
by a rocket on a path that is tangent to the
In rocket flight, forces become balanced planned orbit about a planet. The unbal-
and unbalanced all the time. A rocket on the anced gravitational force causes the satel-
launch pad is balanced. The surface of the lite’s path to change to an arc. The arc is
pad pushes the rocket up, while gravity tries a combination of the satellite’s fall inward
to pull it down. As the engines are ignited, the toward the planet’s center and its for-
thrust from the rocket unbalances the forces, ward motion. When these two motions are
and the rocket travels upward. Later, when the just right, the shape of the satellite’s path
rocket runs out of fuel, it slows down, stops matches the shape of the body it is traveling
at the highest point of its flight, and then falls around. Consequently, an orbit is produced.
back to Earth. Since the gravitational force changes with
height above a planet, each altitude has
its own unique velocity that results in a cir-
cular orbit. Obviously, controlling velocity is
Pull of extremely important for maintaining the cir-
Resultant Path Planet’s Gravity
(Orbit) cular orbit of the spacecraft. Unless another
unbalanced force, such as friction with gas
molecules in orbit or the firing of a rocket
engine in the opposite direction, slows down
the spacecraft, it will orbit the planet forever.
Now that the three major terms of this

first law have been explained, it is pos-
sible to restate this law. If an object, such
as a rocket, is at rest, it takes an unbal-
anced force to make it move. If the object
is already moving, it takes an unbalanced
force to stop it, change its direction from a
straight-line path or alter its speed.
161
Newton’s Third Law With rockets, the action is the expelling of
For the time being, we will skip the Second gas out of the engine. The reaction is the
Law and go directly to the Third. This law movement of the rocket in the opposite direc-
states that every action has an equal and tion. To enable a rocket to lift off from the
opposite reaction. If you have ever stepped launch pad, the action, or thrust, from the
off a small boat that has not been properly engine must be greater than the weight of the
tied to a pier, you will know exactly what this rocket. While on the pad, the weight of the
law means. rocket is balanced by the force of the ground
pushing against it. Small amounts of thrust
A rocket can lift off from a launch pad only result in less force required by the ground
when it expels gas out of its engine. The to keep the rocket balanced. Only when the
rocket pushes on the gas, and the gas in turn thrust is greater than the weight of the rocket
pushes on the rocket. The whole process is does the force become unbalanced and the
very similar to riding a skateboard. Imagine rocket lifts off. In space, where unbalanced
that a skateboard and rider are in a state force is used to maintain the orbit, even tiny
of rest (not moving). The rider jumps off the thrusts will cause a change in the unbalanced
skateboard. In the Third Law, the jumping is force and result in the rocket changing speed
called an action. The skateboard responds to or direction.
that action by traveling some distance in the
opposite direction. The skateboard’s opposite One of the most commonly asked questions
motion is called a reaction. When the distance about rockets is how they can work in space
traveled by the rider and the skateboard are where there is no air for them to push against.
compared, it would appear that the skate- The answer to this question comes from the
board has had a much greater reaction than Third Law. Imagine the skateboard again. On
the action of the rider. This is not the case. the ground, the only part that air plays in the
The reason the skateboard has traveled far- motions of the rider and the skateboard is to
ther is that it has less mass than the rider. slow them down. Moving through the air
This concept will be better explained in a causes friction or, as scientists call it, drag.
discussion of the Second Law. The surrounding air impedes the
action-reaction.
Action
Reaction
162
As a result, rockets actually work better in The first equation refers to the cannon and
space than they do in air. As the exhaust gas the second to the cannon ball. In the first
leaves the rocket engine, it must push away equation, the mass is the cannon itself, and
the surrounding air; this uses up some of the the acceleration is the acceleration of the
energy of the rocket. In space, the exhaust cannon. In the second equation, the mass is
gases can escape freely. the cannon ball, and the acceleration is the
acceleration of the cannon ball. Because the
Newton’s Second Law force (exploding gun powder) is the same for
This law of motion is essentially a statement the two equations, the equations can be
of a mathematical equation. The three parts combined and rewritten as follows:
of the equation are mass, acceleration, and
force. Using letters to symbolize each part, m(cannon)a(cannon) = m(ball)a(ball).
the equation can be written as follows:
In order to keep the two sides of the equa-
f = ma tions equal, the accelerations vary with mass.
In other words, the cannon has a large mass
The equation reads: force equals mass times and a small acceleration. The cannon ball has
acceleration. To explain this law, we will use a small mass and a large acceleration.
an old style cannon as an example.
Apply this principle to a rocket. Replace the
mass of the cannon ball with the mass of the
A F M A gases being ejected out of the rocket engine.
Replace the mass of the cannon with the
mass of the rocket moving in the other direc-
tion. Force is the pressure created by the con-
trolled explosion that takes place inside the
rocket’s engines. That pressure accelerates
When the cannon is fired, an explosion pro- the gas in one direction and the rocket the
pels a cannon ball out the open end of the opposite direction.
barrel. It flies several yards to its target. At
the same time, the cannon itself is pushed Some interesting things happen with rockets
back several yards. This is action and reaction that do not happen with the cannon and ball
at work (Third Law). The force acting on the in this example. With the cannon and cannon
cannon and the ball is the same. The Second ball, the thrust lasts for just a moment. How-
Law determines what happens to the cannon ever, the thrust for the rocket continues as
and the ball. Look at the following two equa- long as its engines are firing. Furthermore,
tions: the mass of the rocket changes during flight.
Its mass is the sum of all its parts. A rocket’s
f = m(cannon)a(cannon) parts include engines, propellant tanks, pay-
load, control system and propellants. By
and far, the largest part of the rocket’s mass is
its propellants, but that amount constantly
f = m(ball)a(ball). changes as the engines fire. That means that
163
the rocket’s mass gets smaller during flight. Newton’s Second Law of Motion can be
In order for the left side of our equation to restated in the following way: the greater the
remain in balance with the right side, accel- mass of rocket fuel burned and the faster the
eration of the rocket has to increase as its gas produced can escape the engine, the
mass decreases. That is why a rocket starts greater the thrust of the rocket.
off moving slowly and goes faster and faster
as it climbs into space. Putting Newton’s Laws of Motion Together
An unbalanced force must be exerted for a
Newton’s Second Law of Motion is espe- rocket to lift off from a launch pad or for a
cially useful when designing efficient rockets. craft in space to change speed or direction
To enable a rocket to climb into low-Earth (First Law). The amount of thrust (force) pro-
orbit, it is necessary to achieve a speed in duced by a rocket engine will be determined
excess of 17,398.39 mph (28,000 kmph). A by the rate at which the mass of the rocket
speed of over 25,010.19 mph (40,250 kmph), fuel burns and the speed of the gas escaping
called escape velocity, enables a rocket to the rocket (Second Law). The reaction, or
leave Earth and travel out into deep space. motion, of the rocket is equal to and in the
Attaining space flight speeds requires the opposite direction of the action, or thrust,
rocket engine to achieve the greatest action from the engine (Third Law).
force possible in the shortest time. In other
words, the engine must burn a large mass
of fuel and push the resulting gas out of the
engine as rapidly as possible.
164
Appendix D – Rocketry Resource Materials
Who is NAR?
Who is the National
Association of Rocketry
(NAR)? The NAR is the
organized body of rocket
hobbyists. Chartered
NAR sections conduct
launches, connect mod-
elers, and support all
forms of sport rocketry. NAR was founded
in 1957 to help young people learn about
science and math through building and
safely launching their own models.
NAR Sections and its members host As a national organization, NAR approves and
hundreds of launches each year—both certifies the hobby rocket motors that con-
sport launches and competitions—from the sumers use. NAR developed the safety code
local and regional levels to national events. for both model and high-power sport rocketry
Designing, building and flying rockets is that has protected users for 50 years. Other
always more fun when you are doing it with member benefits include NAR insurance cov-
friends. erage and the chance to attend NAR con-
ferences, launches and contests. Members
The NAR membership consists mainly receive the bimonthly Sport Rocketry magazine
of adults, but also includes many young that NAR produces.
people and families. The most experienced
model rocketeers who fly every kind of How NAR Can Help You
sport rocket are in NAR, and they launch The NAR is a nationwide network of local clubs
together with the newbies who have just with experienced rocketeers available to pro-
joined and discovered that they like rockets. vide advice and launch sites for your flights.
The NAR gives its members the chance to They welcome beginners and students who
improve and advance their rocketry skills by want to enjoy rocketry and learn to fly safely.
the association and participation in member Many adult NAR members are mentors and
activities and group projects. assist individuals or schools in their local area.
165
Please visit the NAR Web site at <www.nar. Rockets Educator Guide
org and select http://www.nar.org/tarcmen- EG-2003-01-108-HQ
tors.pdf> for the current list of Mentors. The http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/
section directory is at <http://www.nar.org/ topnav/materials/listbytype/Rockets.html
NARseclist.php> to help you find the closest
club. If you would like to have a club closer The activities and lesson plans contained in
to you, NAR can show you how to start your this educator guide for grades K–12 empha-
own section. size hands-on science, prediction, data col-
lection and interpretation, teamwork, and
Team America Rocketry Challenge problem solving. The guide also contains
Aerospace Industries Association (AIA) and background information about the history
the NAR are proud to sponsor the annual of rockets and basic rocket science.
Team America Rocketry Challenge (TARC),
the largest model rocket showcase on the NASA Educator Resource Centers
planet (see <www.rocketcontest.org>). referenced for this project:
The Challenge is to design, build and fly a U.S. Space and Rocket Center
model rocket carrying a raw egg and return NASA Educator Resource Center for
it safely to the ground, while staying aloft for NASA MSFC
a specific time and reaching a specific alti- One Tranquility Base
tude. Teams whose score is in the 100 best Huntsville, AL 35807
are invited to compete for a share of the Phone: 256-544-5812
$60,000 prize package at the National Finals <http://erc.msfc.nasa.gov>
at The Plains, Virginia. NAR mentors can
help you form a team and learn to launch NASA Glenn Research Center
eggs in this contest. Mail Stop 8-1
21000 Brookpark Road
Rocketry Resource Materials Cleveland, OH 44135
Electronic Resources Phone: 216-433-2017
The following listing of Internet addresses <http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/PAO/html/
will provide users with links to educational edteachr.htm>
materials throughout the World Wide Web
(WWW) related to rocketry. Beginner’s Guide to Rockets
<http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/
National Association of Rocketry rocket/bgmr.html>
<http://www.nar.org/>
This is an excellent site with interactive fea-
tures and simulations describing many rocket
topics with plenty of middle to high school
math and science background material.
166
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, AL 35812
www.nasa.gov/marshall
www.nasa.gov
8-337460

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What is the purpose of the document?

What is the purpose of the document?

What activities are described in the document?

What activities are described in the document?

Educational Guide

Adventures in Rocket Science is an expansion of the NASA guidebook

New and additional material was written and compiled by:

Vince Huegele, Marshall Space Flight Center Scientist and

Kristy Hill, Education Specialist for WILL Technology,

Brenda Terry, Executive Director, Alabama Mathematics,

This document was produced through

Funding for the development of this

Adventures in Rocket Science Activity Matrix........................................................................ v

How to Use this Guide............................................................................................................ vii

Adventures in Rocket Science Introduction: Flight of a Model Rocket................................... 1

A Brief History of Rockets....................................................................................................... 17

Rocket History Glossary......................................................................................................... 24

Constellation Program America’s Fleet of Next Generation Launch Vehicles........................ 27

3. Shuttle Drag Parachute............................................................................................. 38

9. Pop Can Hero Engine............................................................................................... 68

10. Rocket Transportation.............................................................................................. 74

11. Parachute Area Versus Drop Time............................................................................ 77

12. Balloon Staging......................................................................................................... 83

13. Water Bottle Rocket Assembly................................................................................. 85

14. The Nose Cone Experts............................................................................................ 90

16. The Parachuting Egg................................................................................................. 100

17. Egg Drop Lander....................................................................................................... 103

18. At the Drop of a Ball.................................................................................................. 105

19. Free Fall Rocket Ball Drop........................................................................................ 107

20. Altitude Tracking....................................................................................................... 109

21. The Scale of a Model Rocket.................................................................................... 117

22. Rocket Motion Video Studies................................................................................... 120

23. Rocket Parachute Flight Duration Study................................................................... 123

24. Predicting and Measuring Rocket Parachute Drift Rate........................................... 126

25. Project Enterprise..................................................................................................... 128

Glossary .................................................................................................................................. 143

Appendix A – Assembly Instructions....................................................................................... 145

Appendix B – Rocket Safety Code........................................................................................... 155

Appendix C – Rocket Principles............................................................................................... 159

Appendix D – Rocketry Resource Materials............................................................................ 165

Change, Consistency and Measurement

Understanding Science and Technology

Evidence, Models and Explanation

Abilities of Technological Design

Science and Technology

Move It! (balloon direction) X X X

Acknowledgements Examine the matrix for a grade level band

The series of activities in this guide

Guidebook Background of the scientific process and the engineering

Acceleration = constant, negative

Launch (a) Landing (d)

Flight of the Model Rocket

Relation of x, v, a for model rocket

Core The other main kind of rocket engine is one

Contrasted with a relatively simple solid rocket

With any rocket, and especially with liquid-

Engine Thrust Control The burn rate of solid propellants is care-

ing fins and canards are quite similar to each

For an ideal rocket, the total mass of the vehi-

A solution to the problem of giant rockets