4.2.

HOW TO CREATE LEADERS

4.2.1. Leadership Defined

Basically, leadership is getting people to follow you. The moral and ethical
considerations of leading are beyond the scope of this article, but their importance
cannot be overstated. Unfortunately, much leadership is designed around a
control/authority model. Many leaders, even the brightest, figure out what has to
happen with things in the company, tell people what is needed for the desired
results and then expect things to happen-a gross simplification of the process. You
would be surprised how many leaders lead this way. In light of the psychological
reality that people only do what they want to do, the current approach means that
people follow and work only as hard as is necessary to avoid the consequences of
disobedience. However, leadership can be a whole lot more than charting out a
business strategy that others happen to follow.
The most skilled leaders ask themselves, "What can I say or do to get my
followers to cause them to do what I need them to do?" The best leaders cause
maximum follower ship. The art of causing follower ship is founded on a few
deceptively simple principles. One of the most important of these is that people do
what their minds and emotions tell them to do, not necessarily what the leader says
to do. A second principle is that the follower provides the motivation. No leader can
motivate others. They can only cause followers to motivate themselves. While this
may seem like semantics, it is a subtle but profound shift in understanding true
leadership. In short, the accomplished leader becomes adept at reading and feeding
their followers' needs in a way that optimizes the organization's success.
Since leading is basically a psychological process and skill, leaders who learn
and practice the latest in leadership technology will be much more effective.

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And leadership skills, like management skills, can be learned and improved.
However, learning the subtle technology of leadership requires dissatisfaction with
the status quo, a belief that one's leadership could be better. Learning leadership
means facing the inevitable discomfort of hearing negative feedback, the discipline
of trying new approaches and the awkwardness of new behaviors. Yet, the rewards
far outweigh the costs. Releasing the energy and motivation of your followers opens
new opportunities and inevitably results in bottom line improvements. I've
consistently seen productivity improve over 30 percent where an organization's
leaders focused on improving their leadership and its impact on the human system.

Managing Leadership
If leadership can be taught (and it can), it can also be managed. The most
progressive and successful companies are managing leaders and leadership
systematically as a strategic weapon. Of course, what constitutes good leadership is
context - and company s sensitive. However, there are certain principles and
models that will help you develop a robust leadership system. At Farr Associates,
we develop leadership systems for clients at five levels: the individual, small group
relationships, teams, company-wide and intra-company. Different leadership
technology is called for at each level. Some companies will not necessarily have to
manage leadership at all levels to get a significant impact in their bottom-line. I
encourage you to go out and investigate what make the best sense for your
organization.
The best leaders will also manage their own leadership by incorporating the
three basic types of leadership-directional, implementation and interpersonal-into
their thinking process. Directional leadership is strategic leadership. It is all about
determining where the organization should go. Implementation leadership involves
determining how the organization will make it to wherever it is headed.
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Interpersonal leadership involves the process of getting human resources behind

organizational goals and objectives. You should integrate these three types of
leadership successfully and holistically in a way that best serves followers and the
organization.
Three Leadership Rules to Remember
Rule 1: You must have or develop the skill, and take the time to find out what
is in the follower's mind concerning his situation and how he perceives you.
In particular, you must know what he perceives as negative. Since sensible
followers are reluctant to say negative things to anyone who has power over their
work lives, mapping out negative perceptions takes a good deal of leader skill. A
leader can break down any reluctance to give feedback by supporting the efforts of
followers to work in a way that satisfies both themselves and their company. A
good leader knows and consistently uses some of the many techniques for learning
follower's needs and assessing how they experience their environment. Leaders
need to create and manage a system of feedback loops that keep them in permanent
touch with follower mindset so they lead professionally with maximum impact.
Rule 2: To be a powerful leader, you must present your "leaderself" to others,
rather than your natural self. Good leaders do not always do what comes as a
natural expression of their personalities. Instead, they come from a leaderself that is
designed and created to do exactly the leadership behavior called for by the
situation. They fit the leader role rather than make the role fit them. It is amazing
how much poor leadership occurs because leaders do what comes naturally from
their personalities rather than what is needed to be effective.
Rule 3: To create an effective leaderself, you must operate from selfawareness rather than from an automatic mind. For many leaders, this is
unbelievably difficult, because they are unaware of much of what they do and of the
perceptions they create in others. They act on automatic, focusing attention on what
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they want to cause in their business, with little or no thought on what they want the
follower to cause them selves to do. They lead with too much focus on what they
want done, rather than from an awareness of followers' mindset. Often, the
personality traits that make for effective managers can make them terrible leaders,
especially once their role expands beyond leadership based on their personal
charisma and implementation skills.

Principles of Leadership
To help you be, know, and do, (2) follow these eleven principles of leadership
(later sections will expand on gaining an insight into these principles and providing
tools to perform them):

Know yourself and seek self-improvement. In order to know

yourself, you have to understand your be, know, and do, attributes. Seeking selfimprovement means continually strengthening your attributes. This can be
accomplished through reading, self-study, classes, etc.

Be technically proficient. As a leader, you must know your job and

have a solid familiarity with your employees' jobs.

Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions. Search

for ways to guide your organization to new heights. And when things go wrong,
they will sooner or later, do not blame others. Analyze the situation, take corrective
action, and move on to the next challenge.
Make sound and timely decisions. Use good problem solving, decision
making, and planning tools.
Set the example. Be a good role model for your employees. They must not
only hear what they are expected to do, but also see.
Know your people and look out for their well-being. Know human nature
and the importance of sincerely caring for your workers.
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Keep your people informed. Know how to communicate with your people,
seniors, and other key people within the organization.
Develop a sense of responsibility in your people. Develop good character
traits within your people that will help them carry out their professional
responsibilities.
Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished.
Communication is the key to this responsibility.
Train your people as a team. Although many so called leaders call their
organization, department, section, etc. a team; they are not really teams...they are
just a group of people doing their jobs.
Use the full capabilities of your organization. By developing a team spirit,
you will be able to employ your organization, department, section, etc. to its fullest
capabilities

Factors of leadership
The four major factors of leadership are the:
Follower - Different people require different styles of leadership. For
example, a new hire requires more supervision than an experienced employee. A
person with a poor attitude requires a different approach than one with a high
degree of motivation. You must know your people! The fundamental starting point
is having a good understanding of human nature: needs, emotions, and motivation.
You must know your employees' be, known, and do attributes.
Leader - You must have a honest understanding of who you are, what you
know, and what you can do. Also, note that it is the followers, not the leader who
determines if a leader is successful. If a follower does not trust or lacks confidence
in her leader, then she will be uninspired. To be successful you have to convince

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your followers, not yourself or your superiors, that you are worthy of being
followed.
Communication - You lead through two-way communication. Much of it is
nonverbal. For instance, when you "set the example," that communicates to your
people that you would not ask them to perform anything that you would not be
willing to do. What and how you communicate either builds or harms the
relationship between you and your employees.
Situation - All situations are different. What you do in one leadership
situation will not always work in another situation. You must use your judgment to
decide the best course of action and the leadership style needed for each situation.
For example, you may need to confront a employee for inappropriate behavior, but
if the confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too weak, then the results
may prove ineffective.
Attributes:
If you are a leader that can be trusted, then the people around you will learn
to respect you. To be a good leader, there are things that you must be, know, and do.
These fall under the Leadership Framework:
BE a professional. Examples: Be loyal to the organization, perform selfless
service, and take personal responsibility.
BE a professional who possess good character traits. Examples: Honesty,
competence, candor, commitment, integrity, courage, straightforward, imagination
KNOW the four factors of leadership - follower, leader, communication, and
situation.
KNOW yourself. Examples: strengths and weakness of your character,
knowledge, and skills.
KNOW human nature. Examples: Human needs and emotions, and how
people respond to stress.
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KNOW your job. Examples: be proficient and be able to train others in their
tasks.
KNOW your organization. Examples: where to go for help, its climate and
culture, who the unofficial leaders are
DO provide direction. Examples: goal setting, problem solving, decision
making, planning
DO implement. Examples: communicating, coordinating, supervising,
evaluating.
DO motivate. Examples: develop moral and esprit in the organization, train,
coach, counsel.
Leadership Practices
James Kouzes and Barry Posner (1987, 1988) have identified specific
attitudes and behaviors that outstanding leaders have in common. Exemplary
leaders share the following five behavioral practices and ten commitments:
1. Exemplary leaders challenge the process. They are pioneers; they seek
out new opportunities and are willing to change the status quo. They innovate,
experiment, and explore ways to improve their organizations. Such leaders view
mistakes as learning experiences and are prepared to meet any challenges that
confront them. Challenging the process requires two leader commitments: (a) to
search for opportunities and (b) to experiment and take risks.
2. Exemplary leaders inspire a shared vision. They look toward and beyond
the horizon. They envision the future with a positive and hopeful outlook.
Exemplary leaders are expressive; their genuine natures and communication skills
attract followers. They show others how mutual interests can be met through
commitment to a common purpose. Inspiring a shared vision requires leaders to
commit to (a) envisioning the future and to (b) enlisting the support of others.

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3. Exemplary leaders enable others to act. They instill followers with spiritnurturing relationships based on mutual trust. Exemplary leaders stress
collaborative goals. They actively involve others in planning and permit others to
make their own decisions. These leaders make sure that their followers feel strong
and capable. Enabling others to act requires two leader commitments: (a) to
fostering collaboration and (b) strengthening others.
4. Exemplary leaders model the way. They are clear about their values and
beliefs. Exemplary leaders keep people and projects on course by consistently
behaving according to these values and by modeling the behaviors that they expect
from others. They plan thoroughly and divide projects into achievable steps, thus
creating opportunities for small wins. Through their focus on key priorities, such
leaders make it easier for others to achieve goals. To model the way requires leaders
to commit to (a) setting an example and (b) planning small wins.
5. Exemplary leaders encourage the heart. They encourage people to persist
in their efforts by recognizing accomplishments and contributions to the
organization's vision. They let others know that their efforts are appreciated and
they express pride in their team's accomplishments. Exemplary leaders find ways to
celebrate achievements. They nurture team spirit, which enables people to sustain
continued efforts. Encouraging the heart requires leaders to be committed to: (a)
recognizing contributions and (b) celebrating accomplishments.

Leader skils

Listen
Speaking out and taking stand is one thing, but keeping an open ear is
essential. Don't assume what students want. Go out and ask all types of students for
feedback, not just friends or fellow organization members.
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Enthusiastic
If you are passionate about the job issues, the enthusiasm will radiate to the
rest of the community. A positive attitude and optimism will also go a long way to
make the task both fun and effective.
Action
Goals are important, but providing a comprehensive plan of action that
explains how to reach those goals is even more so. Parking, campus housing and the
lack of school spirit and the popular issues, but they are mentioned year after year
during the campaigns. Be creative and take risks in order to find new ways of
accomplishing those goals.
Dependability
Students should be able to trust a leader to operate ethically and with their
best interests at heart. Fulfilling campaign promises and goals in vital in
maintaining student loyalty and confidence.
Educated
You should have a good understanding of the dynamics of student
government, how the university operates and as much about different student
organizations as possible. A leader should also lead by example in the classroom. If
you are too busy with student government and neglected your studies, how can you
be a representative of the students, who are here to work toward a degree?
Results
The motivation to hold office should not be for an impressive resume or to
satisfy the urge for attention - it should be about getting something positive done.
There are true leaders, and then there are people who grab a leadership position as a
stepping stone in their career.

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4.2.2. Orienting New Members

Developing and conducting an organizational recruitment campaign is very
important. Yet, as we all know, retaining these new members is another matter
entirely. All too frequently groups skip any form of orientation and place their new
recruits directly on committees or organizational projects. Although involvement is
crucial to the longevity of the group, understanding the organization's goals,
objectives, structures, norms and taboos is equally as important. By taking the time
to orient new members to the privileges and responsibilities of membership you
create a more educated membership - people who can and will make significant
contributions to the organization.
A Successful Organization Orientation Program Should Include:

The rights and responsibilities of members

Organizational governance, operating policies and procedures

Organizational history, traditions and programs

Assimilation of new members into the organization

An overview of campus services, activities and programs for student

organizations

Information about any support groups or affiliations the group may

have
The purpose of any new member orientation program is to acquaint your
recruits to the organization and to each other. Knowing the ins and outs of the group
is only one part of being in an organization. It is important to note that people join
groups for many reasons: they want to get involved, learn new skills, make friends
and have a good time. For this reason it is important to structure time for the
members to get to know each other and to develop personal relationships and
commitments.
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Inform

This section of the orientation process should cover the organization's

history, purpose and structure. If there are written records, give everyone a copy. Be
sure to include organizational charts, officer job descriptions, and a membership
list. Have the new members included on this list.

Motivate

Get your members, returning and newly recruited, excited about the group.
Provide time for them to meet each other to share ideas and expectations. Below is
a good exercise designed to accomplish that goal.
Have the group break into groups of experienced and new members to
discuss the following:
a) Experienced Members

If you had last year to do over again how would you do it differently?

What advice would you offer to the new members?

What accomplishment(s) are you most proud of?

b) New Members

What would you like this organization to mean to you one year from

What would you like to ask the experienced members of the

now?

organization?

What goals would you like to accomplish this year?

What problems do you anticipate and how would you solve them?

Spend at least fifteen minutes in your group discussing these questions. When
time is up gather together as one group and report what you discussed. It is usually
most effective to have the experienced members report first, followed by the new
members.

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It is also very important to find out what the new members' interests are
and what skills they bring to the group. Using this information, try to give them
tasks which will successfully use their talents and give them a reason to be
committed. Whenever possible, recognize members' accomplishments both publicly
and privately.
By including the above suggestions in your new member orientation program
you will discover that you have built group cohesion. By following these tips you
will ensure:

Members know the organization and are able to articulate its purpose.

Members understand their rights and responsibilities to self and

organization.

Members have leadership and discipline.

An article in the November 2003 issue of Association Management,

published by the American Society of Association Executives, identifies 10
communication tips that make for effective leadership, especially in hard times.

Think before speaking. In tough times people will not only hold onto

every word a leader says, but they will also expend energy to sort out precisely
what leaders are not saying. Leaders need to tailor the message so that a clear
picture of the issues is presented to the audience in a meaningful and controlled
way.

Stay focused by combining the short- and long-term pictures.

Leaders need to be effective at sorting through the real issues. By pointing out past
challenges and using specific examples to underscore their message, leaders remind
others that they will pull through this time as well as in the past.

Handle emotions effectively. Leaders need to be fluid. Leaders cannot

leave or display how angry or frustrated they are. If they do, they become part of
the problem.
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Be hopeful, instill hope, and do something. Leaders need to link their

messages to the broader mission or vision of the organization. Leaders need to

present a clear plan of how they can achieve desired end results. Leaders need to
offer a positive approach for dealing with bad news.

Recognize that quality gossip is good. When bad news needs to be

delivered, people appreciate an informal heads-up in advance of a more formal

gathering. This provides an opportunity for people to talk among themselves and to
console each other and maybe even come up with some effective tactics.

Be transparent when answering questions. Use simple language,

address issues upfront and be willing to admit unfamiliarity or ignorance of certain

questions.

Point out successes in a timely manner. Leaders need to not only

announce any successes, but link the success to the goal or vision of the
organization.

Follow through on commitments. One essential way to build and

foster trust is to follow through on commitments, particularly as they relate to the

vision and mission of the organization.

Listen well. Listen for more than whats being said; pay attention to

whats not being said and try to spot unspoken expectations that are not clearly
communicated verbally or in writing. Its about picking up on what people are
thinking, how they are acting and what they are not necessarily verbalizing.

Avoid surprises. Keep everyone informed and up to date on issues and

address questions before they become problems.

The most important issue in being a success leader is being a person that
others want to follow. Every action you take during your career in an organization
helps determine whether people will one day want to follow you.

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4.2.3. Team Organization

Over the years, Perry has seen the symptoms of poor team organization.
Some projects have too many leaders, leaving only a few people to do the work and
making coordination difficult. Other projects have too many layers of management,
impeding effective communication; team members become frustrated, waiting for
all the leaders to reach agreement or gain approvals. To augment frustration levels,
tasks frequently are unclear, lacking definitions of roles and responsibilities. Good
organization makes sense; yet project managers often give too little attention to
organizing their group.
Frequently, teams are an assembly of people and nothing more. Some project
managers fear alienating people by setting up a project organization. Others lack an
appreciation for its contribution to project success. Still others have a preference for
an unofficial organizational structure.
Through the function of organization, Perry can realize many advantages. His
team can operate more efficiently, since responsibilities and reporting relationships
will be clearly defined. It can operate more effectively, because each person will
know what is expected of him or her. The team has higher morale, because roles
and reporting relationships will be clear which in turn reduces the opportunities for
conflict.

Ten Prerequisites for Effective Organization

Perry must satisfy some preliminary requirements to build a formal

organization, especially one that handles medium to large projects like his:
1. He must know the project goals. This knowledge will help to determine
how to best arrange his resources.
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2. He must know all the players. This knowledge will help him to determine
who will support him directly and who will provide ad hoc support.
3. He must understand the political climate. Although the team may be
temporary, the project may be around for a long time.
4. He must receive preliminary concurrence on the project organization from
all the major players
5. He must determine the appropriate span of control. This means
determining how many people he can effectively manage before establishing an
additional layer of management (e.g., appointing team leaders).
6. He must publish the organization chart as early as possible. This action
will clarify roles early and reduce the opportunity for conflict. It will also make
assigning responsibilities easier.
7. He must consider how much autonomy to grant people on the project. This
will depend on how much control he wants to maintain. If he wants tight control, he
will limit the autonomy he grants to project participants.
8. He must consider issues of authority, responsibility, and accountability.
How much authority will he have and how much can he grant? How much
responsibility can he relinquish and still be accountable for the results?
9. He must consider how to group the functions of the project team. Should
he mix them or segregate them? If the latter, how will he encourage information
sharing, communication, and teaming?
10. He must identify the line and staff functions. The goal of the project will
help determine the positions. Line functions contribute directly to the results; these
are typically people on the core team. Staff functions do not contribute directly to
the results and ordinarily they are not part of the core team.

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Types of Organizational Structure

There are two basic types of organizational structures for a project: task force
and matrix. The task force structure is shown in Exhibit 1.
The task force is a group of people assembled to complete a specific goal.
The team is completely focused on that goal and, consequently, devotes its entire
energies to its accomplishment. By its very nature, task forces are temporary; the
team is disassembled once the goal is accomplished. It also usually operates
autonomously, with its own budget and authority.

Exhibit 4.1. Task force structure.

The task force has the advantage of giving visibility to a project. It isolates
team members from organizational myopia and frees them from daily

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administration. It enables creativity and experimentation within the confines of the

goal and scope of the project.
Despite these advantages, Perry does not like the task force structure, at least
for the Smythe Project. Since a task force would last for only a fixed duration,
theres a danger that few people would have loyalty to the project and stay the
course. As the project experiences difficulties, some people might depart early,
leaving it vulnerable to schedule slippages and lapses in quality.
As the project grows, too, it can become too independent, stealing people
from other projects. Other organizations and projects are robbed of badly needed
expertise. As a project ends, the task force may experience severe morale problems,
as people scramble for new jobs before completing their responsibilities.
It is not uncommon for a project to experience lapses in quality as a result.
Keeping these shortcomings in mind, Perry agrees with his boss that a matrix
structure is best for the Smythe Project. A matrix structure obtains resources from
functional organizations and also shares those people with other projects. For
command and control purposes, people report to their functional managers but
support one or more project managers. A generic matrix structure is shown in
Exhibit 4.1 and the one for the Smythe wedding is shown in Exhibit 4.2.
The matrix structure offers several advantages. It allows for sharing people
with heavy expertise among several projects. People dont need to look for a new
job as the project concludes. The project manager can acquire people with the right
skills at the right time, thereby reducing the need to keep people on when they are
not needed; this helps keep the cost lower. The matrix structure also gives senior
management flexibility in changing the scope or stopping the project owing to
different market conditions.

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Perry realizes, though, that a matrix structure presents challenges. It makes

planning difficult, especially if projects are sharing resources. Often, he must
negotiate with functional and other managers to obtain peoples help.

Exhibit 4.2. Matrix structure.

A matrix structure can wreak havoc on morale, too. Team members on

multiple projects may be forced to determine which project to give attention to.
Sometimes the competition is so keen that individuals become pawns in a power
struggle among functional and project managers. That struggle can last a long time,
adding to team angst. Finally, the matrix structure often violates the unity-ofcommand principle (a single superior to who subordinates report).
To tackle these challenges, Perry recognizes the stress a matrix structure
places on team members. He will coordinate closely with functional and other
project managers to facilitate availability and try to integrate his project with other
projects. He will encourage greater communication, information sharing, and
bonding.
Finally, he will stress flexibility; change is a way of life in the matrix
environment, since priorities and resource availabilities constantly change.

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Virtual Teams

Recent advances in information systems have brought unparalleled changes

to business, not just technically but also in managing projects. These changes
include e-mail, the Internet, groupware, and client-server technology. Technologies
such as these have enabled team members to work autonomously at remote
locations during all time periods (e.g., mornings, evenings). But a project team may
never meet face-to-face with some people and will only interact electronically. That
is the nature of virtual teams.
There are many advantages to a virtual team. It reduces the need for
expensive facilities. Team members feel greater freedom, working with less
supervision. A side benefit is a flatter organization chart, too.
While sounding like a dream come true, reality may provide a different
picture. Virtual teams can pose tough challenges. The first is how to provide
support for these virtual team members. There are issues concerning hardware and
software, plus administrative matters such as accessibility to the project library and
ways of collecting information nonelectronically.
Second is how to overcome the purported loneliness that affects some virtual
team members. Many work alone, in remote geographical locations. Their
opportunities for social interaction and camaraderie are limited.
Third is the challenge of coordinating the activities of team members. With
members geographically dispersed and in different time zones, coordination can be
a nightmare. Since oversight is difficult, project managers cannot closely monitor
work. Similarly, communication usually involves more than e-mail. There must be
a way to discuss major project activities.
Some ways to handle these challenges include:
Conducting frequent face-to-face meetings and holding social gatherings
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 Developing objective ways to measure performance and completion criteria

Empowering people to assume responsibility and accountability for results
Establishing time commitments for team members to respond to each other
Providing a standard suite of hardware and software tools

SWAT Teams

Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) teams are a growing presence in

project management. These are small groups of individuals who are experts not just
in project management but also in other subjects. In the sense that their objective is
to move quickly to complete their mission and pull out, these groups are like the
police SWAT teams from which they get their name. Specifically, a project SWAT
team must quickly set up the appropriate project management and technical
disciplines at the beginning of a project. Once the disciplines have been established,
the team relinquishes control to a project manager and his group, who are
responsible for completing the project.
SWAT team work is intense. By the time its work is completed, it will have
developed and implemented a complete project plan, from estimates to schedules.
Although hard skills (e.g., expertise with software and hardware) are
important, soft skills are important, too.
For example, SWAT team members must solicit buy-in for their work.
Active listening, facilitation, communication, and teaming skills are extremely
important. Also important is the ability to keep calm under pressure and a
willingness to share equipment, expertise, or information.

To use SWAT teams effectively:

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1. Obtain support for the work of a SWAT team by follow-on

teleconferencing sessions; otherwise, the teams effort will be wasted.
2. Be aware that working on a SWAT team can cause burnout. Morale and
energy levels can plummet.
3. Provide constant training for SWAT team members. They must keep
abreast of technologies in order to provide state-of-the-art expertise. Cross-training
can help, but only so far.
4. Select people for the SWAT team who can handle ambiguity. Members
must be willing to tackle projects when goals and deliverables are ill defined.

Self-Directed Work Teams

In recent years, a different approach to building teams has emerged, called a

Self-Directed Work Team (SDWT). SDWTs are teams that have considerable
autonomy while building a product or delivering a service. It is a group of
professionals sharing responsibility for results.
These teams are cross-functional, meaning that people with different
disciplines and backgrounds work together to achieve a common goal. The team
decides everything, from setting priorities to allocating resources. Other actions
include selecting people, evaluating performance, and improving processes. The
key characteristic is the autonomy to make decisions without supervisory approval.
Several trends are pushing toward the SDWT concept because these teams:
Create flatter organizations
Empower employees
Encourage greater teaming
Encourage people to have a more general background
Enlarge spans of control
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SDWTs are excellent candidates for applying project management ideas.

Since the entire team is responsible for the results, all members must help lead,
define, plan, organize, control, and close the project. The tools and techniques of
project management enable teams to do that.

Team Building

A team is more than just a group of people doing work. It is an assembly of

individuals with diverse backgrounds who interact for a specific purpose. The idea
is to capture and direct the synergy generated by the group to efficiently and
effectively achieve a goal. Throughout the years, Perry has witnessed many signs of
ineffective teams.

Characteristics of Poor Teams

No processes for gaining consensus or resolving conflicts. Team squabbles

and overt and covert discussions are ongoing occurrences, making cooperation
difficult, even impossible.
Team members who lack commitment to the goal. No one has an emotional
attachment to the goal.
No camaraderie or esprit de corps. The players do not feel that they are part
of a team. Instead, everyone acts in his or her own interests.
Lack of openness and trust. Everyone is guarded, protective of his or her
own interests. Openness and truthfulness are perceived as yielding to someone,
giving a competitive advantage, or exposing vulnerabilities.
Vague role definitions. The reporting structures and responsibilities are
unclear, causing conflicts. Territorial disputes and power struggles occur often.
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 No commonality or cohesiveness. The team is an unorganized grouping of

people. No one feels a sense of community or brotherhood. No common ground
exists other than to meet periodically to work. This results in lost synergy.
Conformity and mind protection. Insecurity permeates people for fear of
being different or ostracized. People do not speak or share information unless it
reinforces behavior or thoughts.
Low tolerance for diversity. The pressure to conform is so intense that
anyone different in thinking or work style is ostracized or not taken seriously.
Whistle-blowers and creative types, for instance, may be viewed with suspicion.
Under such circumstances no opportunity is available to capitalize on peoples
strengths and address their weaknesses.
Insufficient resources. Whether its people, equipment, supplies, facilities,
time, or money, insufficient resources make teams ineffective. The situation can
also lead to squabbling, dissention, even revolts. If resources are not distributed in
an objective, meaningful manner, then differences can magnify into severe
conflicts. Members of the team can quickly become polarized.
Lack of management support. If team members perceivewhether
justifiably or notthat management is not supportive of the project, then
motivation can plummet. People will feel that the work is not valuable, at least to
the organization.
Listless team members. The goals are vague or nonexistent. Even if the
goals are defined, no one, including the project manager, seems to focus on them.
Instead, everyone is aimless.
Discontinuity between individual expectations and group expectations.
There is a misalignment between the two, with the latter not valuing the former. A
symbiotic relationship between the two just does not exist.

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An ineffective team is conflict ridden, filled with distrust, unfocused, and

reeking of negative competition.
These conditions manifest themselves in high turnover and absenteeism,
considerable frustration levels, poor communication, no esprit de corps, and
intolerance.
Perry wants, of course, a project team with desirable characteristics:

Characteristics of Effective Teams

Acceptance of new ideas and objective evaluation of them

Sustained common norms, values, and beliefs without excessive conformity
Synergy through mutual support
Loyalty and commitment to the project
Focus on end results
A trusting, open attitude
Ability to gain consensus and resolve conflicts
High morale and esprit de corps
Information and resources sharing
Perry knows all too well that a team with these characteristics is difficult to
achieve. Yet he also knows that such characteristics will not arise unless he takes
action. There are seven actions that he takes to engender such characteristics:
1. He sets the example. He not only espouses certain values and beliefs but
also exercises them. He wants people to be trustful and open, so he is trustful and
open. He expects people to be committed, so he is committed. In other words, he
walks the talk.
2. He encourages communicationoral, written, and electronic. He knows
that communication is more than writing memos, standing in front of a team, or
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setting up a Web site. It requires sharing information in an open and trusting

manner, holding frequent meetings (status reviews and staff), publishing a project
manual, defining acronyms and jargon, employing technology as a communications
tool, and encouraging task interdependence.
3. He has the team focus on results. They direct all their energies toward
achieving the vision. Whether he or the team makes a decision, it is made in the
context of achieving the vision. Perry constantly communicates the vision and
establishes change control and problem-solving processes.
4. He engenders high morale and esprit de corps by developing and
maintaining the energy that comes from teaming. He knows, however, that he must
continually nurture that energy to keep it flowing. So he empowers team members,
encourages

consensus

building

and

win-win

solutions,

increases

task

interdependence, matches the right person with the right task, and teams people
with complementary work styles.
5. He builds commitment to the vision and the project. Throughout the
project cycle, team commitment can rise or fall. Ideally, Perry wants to achieve the
former. Ways to do that include matching peoples interests with tasks, encouraging
participative decision making, empowering people, seeking input and feedback,
assigning people with responsibility for completing deliverables, and keeping the
project in the forefront of everyones mind.
6. He lays the groundwork for synergy. A team is more than the sum of its
members. But synergy requires cooperation. Ways to obtain cooperation include
providing cross-training so that people understand each others roles and
responsibilities, clearly defining roles and responsibilities, determining each team
members strengths and weaknesses and making assignments that capitalize on the
former, and having groups within the team be accountable for a complete work unit
(e.g., subproduct or deliverable).
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7. He encourages greater diversity in thinking, work style, and behavior.

Always mindful of the danger of groupthink, Perry encourages different thoughts
and perspectives. He is especially aware of the multicultural environment of the
Smythe Project. The project culminates in Italy and, therefore, requires working
with people from another country. The Smythe family also has many friends around
the world who will attend the wedding. To ensure receptivity to diversity, Perry
uses cross-training and job rotation to broaden peoples understanding of each
other, encourages experimentation and brainstorming to develop new ideas and
keep an open mind, seeks task interdependence to encourage communication, and
nurtures a continuous learning environment.

Team Diversity

With globalization of the economy in general and the Smythe Project in

particular, Perry recognizes that the challenge of leading a diversified team has
never been greater. The team members have a variety of backgrounds, including
race, ethnicity, and religion. Leading a team in such an environment requires
heightened sensitivity to different values, beliefs, norms, and lifestyles.
Perry understands that people vary in their concept of time, ways of doing
business, styles of management and leadership, and views of how the world
functions. He also understands that differences exist in the meaning of words
(semantics), interpretation of expressions (body language), perception of priorities,
and definition of team building. Needless to say, all this diversity adds complexity
to the planning, coordination, and control of the project. He knows, however, that
he can deal with diversity in several ways.

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1. He sets the example by embracing diversity. Through research,

background reviews, interviews, and the like, Perry learns about the diverse
backgrounds of the people and encourages everyone to do the same.
2. He is patient when dealing with people of a different background. He
remains conscious of different values and beliefs, for example, and accounts for
them when leading the project.
3. He overcomes the temptation to stereotype. That is, he avoids generalizing
about people based on one characteristic. He also tackles stereotyping by team
members. An effective approach is to have people with different backgrounds work
together. He can also have the team, with himself, attend diversity training to
understand and respect differences.
4. He has empathy for other peoples experiences. The word is empathy, not
sympathy, since the latter connotes patronization and condescension. He attempts to
appreciate, for example, the difficulties in reconciling different perceptions of time.
5. He encourages feedback. He is especially mindful to obtain feedback from
people whose cultural background is dramatically different from his own or from
the rest of the team. This lessens the tendency for the team to split into subgroups.
What Is Your Team-Building Style?
Decide-X, a Bellevue, Washington, company, provides a scientific toolalso
called Decide-Xto measure how much information a person needs before
reaching a decision.
According to Decide-X, people deal with team-building situations in ways
that reflect their needs and desires, as well as their preferences in dealing with
direction, change, details, and other characteristics of a work situation. There are
four primary styles:
Reactive Stimulators thrive on action and the immediate. They prefer
situations or projects that are fast-moving and have lots of pressure.
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 Logical Processors thrive on logical detail while maintaining focus. They

prefer situations and projects with organizational structure.
Hypothetical Analyzers like to solve problems using decomposition to
unravel complexity. They prefer situations and projects that provide a relatively
slow pace to perform analysis.
Relational Innovators deal in ideas from a big-picture perspective and find
relationships or patterns. They prefer situations and projects that involve blueskying and move at a pace that allows them to do that.
From a project management perspective, the Decide-X tool is very useful.
Different combinations of styles on a project team can influence the level of detail
that goes into making a decision and how quickly it is done. For example, if you put
a Reactive Stimulator and a Relational Innovator on a task, the questions will arise:
(1)

Will decisions be made quickly with little attention to detail (as may be

needed), or will they be made much more slowly, to allow for exploration of detail?
(2)

Will the Reactive Stimulator and Relational Innovator cooperate, or

will they conflict?

Decide-X differs from other approaches, which focus only on the individual,
because it looks at the interactions of people.

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