PART 2

DIODES and APPLICATIONS

I. DIODES
1. VACUUM TUBE DIODE
Also known as Fleming Valve
Components that conduct current in one direction only
Developed by J.A Fleming
2. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
An electronic device that results from the fusion of P-type material and an N-type material

Formation of the Depletion Region

a. Diffusion
Movement of electrons from a region of high concentration to lower concentration
b. At the junction, the electrons from then n-type and holes from the p- type attract each other, combine and cancel
their net charges
c. Due to the cancellation of electrons and holes at the junction, the junction will have no more carriers so it is called
a depleted region or depletion region
Ideal diode is a nonlinear device with a current versus voltage

Biasing the PN Junction

a. Forward Biased
P-type is more positive than the N-type
A condition that allows current to flow through the pn junction
The pn junction narrows

b. Reverse Biased
P-type is more negative than the N-type
A condition that prevents current to flow through the pn junction
The pn junction widens

Diode Parameters
a. Bulk Resistance (Rb)

Rb = Rp + Rn =

Vf Vb
Id

Where: Vf forward voltage drop

Vb barrier potential

b. Junction Resistance (Rj)

26mV ;
Id
Id forward dc current
Rj

c. Dynamic or AC Resistance (Rac)

Rac = Rj + Rb
d. Forward Voltage Drop
Forward Voltage Drop = Power dissipated / forward DC current
e. Forward current
The magnitude of the current the diode can handle without being destroyed under forward biased condition
f. Reverse Saturation Current
It is the magnitude of the current that will leak when the iode is reverse biased
Leakage current
g. Reverse Breakdown Voltage
Peak inverse voltage(PIV)
Maximum reverse voltage hat can be applied before current surges
Voltage across the inductor when the diode is open
h. Reverse DC Resistance (Rr)
Rr = Reverse voltage/ reverse current

i. Linear Power Derating Factor

The reduction of power handling capability of diode due to the increase in ambient temperature from the room
temperature
Review Question:
A silicon diode has a forward voltage drop of 1.2V for a forward DC current of 100 mA. It has a reverse current of 1 uA
for a reverse voltage of 10 V. Calculate the:
a. bulk resistance
Vf Vb
1.2 0.7
Rb =
=
= 5 ohms
Id
100mA
b. reverse resistance
Vr
10 V
Rr =
=
= 10 Mega ohms
Ir
1uA
c. AC resistance at forward DC current of 2.5 mA
Rac = Rj + Rb
26mV
But
Rj =
= 10.4 ohms
2.5mA
So
Rac = 10.4 + 5 = 15.4 ohms

II. SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

1. ZENER DIODE
Diode designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region
a. Zener Breakdown
When the breakdown voltage is below 5 volts
b. Avalanche Breakdown
When the breakdown voltage is above 5 volts
Typical breakdown voltages of 1.8 Volts to 200 Volts with specified tolerances from 1 % to 20%
With very stable voltage drop
Useful as voltage regulator
Symbol :

2. POINT CONTACT DIODE

Semiconductor diode having fine wire whose point is permanent contact with the surface of a wafer of a
semiconductor material such as Silicon, Germanium or Gallium Arsenide
The fine wire is called cat-whisker
For signal mixing and detection
3. SCHOTTKY DIODE
Also known as Surface Barrier Diode
Also known as hot-carrier diodes
This type of diode has no depletion layer which eliminates the stored charges in the junction
A rectifying metal semiconductor junction such as gold, silver and platinum.
Typical forward voltage drop is typically around 0.25 V to 0.3 V
Switch off faster than an ordinary diode
Can rectify frequencies up to 300 MHz
ESBAR(Epitaxial Schottky Barrier)

Symbol:

4. VARACTOR (varicap)
Voltage-variable capacitor
When this diode is reversed bias, the width of the depletion layer increases with the reverse voltage
The key idea is that the capacitances is controlled by voltage
Used foe electronic tuning, harmonic generator and parametric amplifier
Symbol:

Figure of Merit =

0.159
fRsCt

where: ffrequency(Hz); Rs Series resistance

Ct total diode capacitance(F)

5. TUNNEL DIODE
Also known as Esaki diode
Type of diode that exhibit the phenomenon known as negative resistance
Negative resistance implies that an increase in forward voltage produces a decrease in forward current for a
certain part.
Utilizes a heavily doped material and therefore have so many electrons.
Has a very thin depletion region
The extremely narrow depletion region emits electrons to tunnel through the pn junction at very low forward
bias voltage
Used for oscillators and amplifiers
Symbol:

6. BACK DIODE
Conducts better in the reverse (-0.1 V) than in the forward (+0.7 V) direction
Designed such that its high current flow takes place when the junction is reversed bias
Symbol:

7. PIN Diode
Positive Intrinsic-Negative Diode
The intrinsic material between the P and N layer offers impedance at microwave frequencies being controlled by
low frequency signals
Used in microwave switches
8. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
In a forward biased LED, free electrons cross the junction and fall into holes. As these electrons fall from higher
to a lower energy level, they radiate energy goes off in the form of heat. But in a LED, the energy is being
radiated as a light
Commonly used Gallium Arsenide, Gallium Arsenide Phosphide and Gallium Phosphide
GaAs LEDs emit infrared (IR) radiation which is non invisible, GaAsP produces either red or yellow visible light
and GaP emits red or green visible light.
Red is the most common color of LEDs
Electroluminescense is the process involved when large surface area on one layer of one semiconductive
material permits the photons to be emitted as visible light
Irradiance is the power per unit area at a given distance from a LED source expressed in mW/ cm 2.
Symbol:

Typical voltage Drop:

1.5 V to 2.5 V for currents between 10 mA and 50 mA
Nominal Voltage Drop: 2V
Reverse breakdown: 3V 10V
9. LASER DIODE
Term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Laser light is monochromatic meaning it consists of a single color and not a mixture of colors
Laser light is also a coherent light meaning single wavelength
Laser diode pn junction is formed by two layers of doped gallium arsenide
It is forward biased
Laser diodes and photodiodes are used in the pick-up system of compact disk (CD) layers. Audio information is
digitally recorded in stereo on the surface of a compact disk in the microscopic pits and flats.
10. PHOTODIODE
Operated in reverse bias condition
Is one that is optimized for its sensitivity to light
A window let light to pass through the package of the junction. The incoming light produces free electrons and
holes producing larger reverse current
Dark current is the reverse current flowing through the photodiode when there is no incident light
Symbol:

III. APPLICATIONS
1. DIODE RECTIFIER
Type of diode circuit that converts alternating current into unidirectional current(DC)
Typically seen in power supplies

Half Wave Rectifier

A rectifier circuit with a single diode that conduct current during positive or negative half cycles of input AC
signal at a rate determined by the input frequency.

Conversion Factor = 40.6 %

Freqoutput = Freqinput
Full Wave Rectifier
A rectifier circuit that conducts current during positive and negative half cycles of input AC signal.

Conversion factor = 81.2 %

Freqoutput = 2 x Freqinput

Comparison of Rectifiers

Vrms
Vave
Irms
Iave
PIV

Half-wave

Center-Tapped

Bridge-Type

Vpk
2
Vpk

Ipk
2
Ipk

Vpk

Vpk

Vpk

2
2 Vpk

2
2 Vpk

Ipk

Ipk

2
2Ipk

2
2Ipk

2Vpk

Vpk

2. CLIPPERS

Electronic circuits that have the ability to clip-off a portion of the input signal with out distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform

Other names, limiters, amplitude selectors and slicers

Examples of Clipper Circuits

3. CLAMPERS
Circuits that shift the waveform of the input signal either all above or below the reference voltage
Add or restore a DC level to an electrical signal
Also known as DC restorer
Clamping circuit is often used in television receivers as a dc restorer. Incoming composite video signal is
normally processed through capacitively coupled amplifiers that eliminate the dc component losing the
reference levels which must be restored using clamping circuits before applying to the picture tube.
Example of a Clamper Circuit:

4. VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER
Circuit which produces a greater DC output voltage than AC input voltage to the rectifiers
Ss clamping action to increase peak rectified voltages without the necessity of increasing the inputs
transformers voltage rating
Used in high-voltage, low current applications such as TV receivers
Voltage Doubler
A voltage multiplier with a multiplication factor of 2
Example:

At the first negative half cycle:

D1 = Forward Bias
D2 = Reverse Bias
VC1= Vp
VC2= 2Vp

At the first positive half cycle:

D1 = Reverse Bias
D2 = Forward Bias
VC1= Vp
Vo = VC2 = 2Vp

Voltage Tripler
Addition of another diode-capacitor section to the half wave voltage doubler creates voltage tripler.
The PIV of each diode is 2Vp
Example

Voltage Quadrupler
The addition of still another diode-capacitor section in a voltage tripler circuit
The PIV of each diode is 2Vp
Example:

5. VOLTAGE REGULATION
Means maintaining the output voltage at any load
The type of diode used for regulation is Zener diode
Zener Regulation

Rs =

Vs(min) Vz
Vs max Vz
=
IL max Iz min
IL min Iz max

Power Rating (Pz) = Vz Izmax

Take Note: as a rule of thumb, Izmin = 0.1Izmax
Load regulation =

Vno _ load Vfull _ load

Vfull _ load

x100

TEST YOURSELF 2
Review Questions
1. The vacuum tube diode was developed by J. Fleming and is also known as ________.
a. Fleming diode
b. Fleming valve
c. audion
d. dione
Answer b. Fleming valve
2. In case a PN junction is forward biased
a. Holes and electrons seized to move
b. Electrons and holes moves away the junction
c. Electrons and holes move toward the junction

d. depletion region decreases

Answer d. depletion region decreases
3. The bulk resistance of a diode is_____
a. the resistance of N-material only
b. the resistance of P material only
c. the resistance of the junction only
d. the resistance of the P and the N material
Answer d. the resistance of the P and the N material
4. The depletion layer of the PN junction diode has
a. only free mobile electrons
b. only free mobile holes
c. both free mobile holes and mobile electrons
d.neither free mobile electrons nor holes
Answer d. neither free mobile electrons nor holes
5. A zener diode is invariably used with
a. forward biased
b. reverse biased
c. Zero bias
d. no bias
Answer b. reversed biased
6. The light emitting diode produces light when
a. Unbiased
b. forward bias
c. reverse bias
d. zero bias
Answer b. forward bias
7. The PN junction offers
a. a high resistance in forward as well as reverse direction
b. Low resistance in forward as well as in reverse
c. conducts in forward direction only
d. conducts in the reverse direction only
Answer c. conducts in forward direction only
8. The DC resistance of a diode is ________than its AC resistance.
a. same as
b. more than
c. less than
d. all of the above
Answer c. less than
9. The PIV rating of a crystal diode is ________that of equivalent vacuum diode.
a. lower than
b. more than
c. the same as
d. all of the above
Answer a. lower than
10. Crystal diode is a _____device.
a. non-linear
b. linear
c. amplifying
d. oscillating
Answer a. non-linear
11. A zener diode has______.

a. one PN junction
b. two PN junction
c. three PN junction
d. 1.5 PN junction
Answer a. one PN junction
12 The doping level in a zener diode is ______that of a crystal diode.
a. more than
b. less than
c. the same as
d. none of these
Answer a. more than
13. The most widely used rectifier circuit is ______.
a. half wave
b. center tap
c. bridge type
d. book type
Answer c. bridge type
14. If PIV rating of a diode is exceeded, the diode ________.
a. stops conduction
b. is destroyed
c. conducts heavily in the forward direction
d. is not destroyed
Answer b. is destroyed
15. The _______filter circuit results in the best voltage regulation
a. choke input
b. capacitor input
c. resistant input
d. transformer input
Answer a. choke input
16. A 60 Hz sine voltage is applied to the input of a half wave rectifier, what is the output frequency?
a. 60 Hz
b. 120 Hz
c. 30 Hz
d. 180 Hz
Answer a. 60 Hz
17. If the load resistance of a capacitor filtered - full wave rectifier is reduced, the ripple voltage
a. increases
b. decreases
c, is not affected
d. has different frequency
Answer a. increases
18. Load regulation is determined by
a. changes in load current and input voltage
b. changes in load current and output voltage
c. changes in load resistance and input voltage
d. changes in zener current and load current
Answer b. changes in load current and output voltage
19. If you are checking a 60 Hz full-wave bridge rectifier and observe that the output has a 60 Hz ripple,
a. the circuit is working properly
b. the transformer secondary is shorted
c. there is an open diode
d. the filter capacitor is leaky

Answer c. there is an open diode

20. The cathode of a zener diode in a voltage regulator is normally
a. more positive than the anode
b. more negative than the anode
c. at +0.7 V
d. grounded
Answer a. more positive than the anode
21. A no load condition means that
a. the load has infinite resistance
b. the load has zero resistance
c. the output terminals are pen
d. answers a and c
Answer d. answers a and c
22. The internal resistance of a photodiode
a. increases with light intensity when reversed bias
b. decreases with light intensity when reversed bias
c. increases with light intensity when forward bias
d. decreases with light intensity when forward bias
Answer b. decreases with light intensity when reversed bias
23. A diode that has a negative resistance is the ________.
a. Schottky diode
b. Tunnel diode
c. Laser diode
d. hot-carrier diode
Answer b. Tunnel diode
24. The small value of direct current that flows when a semiconductor device has a reverse bias (November, 1999)
a. surge current
b. bias current
c. reverse current
d. current limit
Answer c. reverse current
25. How does a junction diode rated? (November, 1996)
a. maximum reverse current and PIV
b. maximum forward current and PIV
c. maximum forward current and capacitance
d. maximum reverse current and capacitance
Answer b. maximum forward current and PIV
26. Where do you measure the positive direct current output voltage from a half wave rectifier circuit? (November, 2003)
a. anode terminal
b. any terminal
c. cathode terminal
d. ground terminal
Answer c. cathode terminal
27. The main disadvantage of a conventional full-wave rectifier is that the peak voltage is_____that of a half wave rectifier. (November,
2003)
a. triple
b. half
c. double
d. quadruple
Answer b. half
28. What is the condition of the diode in a series limiter when the output is developed? (November, 2003)
a. conducting

b. cut-off
c. shorted
d. shunted
Answer a. conducting
29. As a rule of thumb, what is an acceptable ratio of back-to-forward resistance for a diode? (November, 2003)
a. 2 to 1
b. less than 10 to 1
c greater than 10 to 1
d. 5 to 1
Answer c. greater than 10 to 1
30. What do you call the tiny crystal of semiconductor material that glows when an electric current passes through it? (November, 2003)
a. LED
b. laser beam
c. photon
d. liquid crystal
Answer d. liquid crystal
31. The percentage change in output voltage for a given change in load current is called________ (November, 2003)
a. load regulation
b. line regulation
c. output regulation
d. voltage regulation
Answer a. load regulation
32. How many diodes does a bridge circuits require? (April, 2004)
a. two diodes
b. three diodes
c. five diodes
d. four diodes
Answer d. four diodes
33. What type of circuit would a zener diode is most likely used in? (April, 2004)
a. voltage regulator
b. amplifier
c. oscillator
d. rectifier
Answer a. voltage regulator
34. What is the correct operating voltage for a typical LED? (April, 2004)
a. +3 to +6 V
b. -6 to +5 V
c. +12 to +18 V
d. 0 to +120 V
Answer a. +3 to +6 V
35. The ratio of a varactors capacitance at specified minimum voltage to the capacitance at a specified maximum voltage.
a. tuning ratio
b. percentage ratio
c. capacity ratio
d. efficiency ratio
Answer a. tuning ratio