The Ophiolitic Molasse Unit of Ikaria Island (Greece)

Abstract: Ikaria Island can be divided generally into two composite tectonic units, namely
the lower and upper. The lower unit comprises paragneiss basement with local orthogneiss
bodies that is overlain by a platform-type marble sequence, passing upward into a sequence
of intercalated schist and marble that is intruded by Miocene granites. The upper unit has not
experienced Alpine high-pressure metamorphism, and is restricted to the central (Kefa la unit)
and northeastern (Faros area) parts of the island, which host ophiolitic associations similar to
those found in the upper unit of several Cycladic islands. The Faros area consists of an
Oligocene-Early Miocene age ophiolitic molasse unit (conglomerates and olistostromes), rich
in ophiolitic clasts, which are similar to diorite and amphibolite rocks of the Kefala unit, and
probably were derived from Late Cretaceous oceanic crust. Furthermore, olistolites and/or
rifted recrystallised carbonate blocks that are similar to those of the Kefala unit overlie the
upper parts of the molasse unit, which elsewhere is discordantly succeeded by Lower
Pliocene marine formations. Therefore, the tectonic emplacement of the upper unit is
assigned to the Late Miocene. The origin and provenance of the molasse unit is probably the
present Cretan Basin. Thus, in its northwestern part, the molasse unit is related to the EoceneMiocene molasse of the Meso-Hellenic trough of continental Greece, to the northeast passes
into the SW Anatolian Late Oligocene-Early Miocene molasse basin of Turkey.
Introduction
Ikaria Island lies in the east-central part of the Aegean Sea and occupies the
northeastern part of the Cycladic Archipelago. The dominant morphological feature is an
oblong NE-SWtrending crest with fusiform-shape.
Ikaria occupies a transitional geotectonic position between the Attic-Cycladic
Crystalline Complex and the Pelagonian Zone (sensu lato) to the west, and the Menderes
Massif to the east (Renz 1940; Brunn 1956; Ktenas 1969; Aubouin et al. 1976; Robertson &
Dixon 1984; Bozkurt & Oberh.nsli 2001). Furthermore, the island belongs to the median
tectono- metamorphic belt of the Hellenides (D.rr et al. 1978; Papanikolaou 1978, 1984,
1988), which is characterised by Alpine and pre-Alpine tectonic units.
The island consists of a gneissic basement that is overlain by a sequence of multiple
intercalations of schist and marble, which is intruded by granite. It was mapped, for the first
time, by Ktenas (1969), and its geological and tectonic structure completed by Papanikolaou
(1978). Thereafter, a Miocene age was ascribed to the granite intrusion (Altherr et al. 1982;
Schliestedt et al. 1987).

The upper tectonic unit, which is found on several Cycladic islands (Jansen 1973,
1977; Ang.lier et al. 1978; D.rr et al. 1978; R.esler 1978; Papanikolaou 1979; Dermitzakis &
Papanikolaou 1980; Robert 1982; Reinecke et al. 1982; Altherr et al. 1994; Patzak et al.
1994) as well as on Crete (Seidel et al. 1981), comprises unmetamorphosed or weakly
metamorphosed rocks (ultramafic, gabbroic, basaltic relicts, associated with various
Mesozoic and Tertiary age limestones) and also occurs on Ikaria Island. It concerns the
Kefala locality, with an Upper Triassic limestone (Papanikolaou 1978) overlying a Upper
Cretaceous diorite-bearing amphibolite (Altherr et al. 1994), and the Faros area, which is
composed by an ophiolitic molasse unit that is overlain by recrystallised carbonate rocks.
The aim of this research was to study (1) the upper tectonic unit of the island, which
consists of an ophiolitic molasse with overlying carbonate formations, and (2) their
separation from the post-Miocene deposits of the Plio-Quaternary deposits. This ophiolitic
olistostrome of the molassic formation, which herein is examined for the first time, was
hitherto confused as being, on the whole, Plio-Quaternary sediments transgressively
deposited on the metamorphic basement of the island.
The term ophiolitic molasse used in this study refers a sedimentary formation that
comprises conglomerates and olistostromes. These rocks were deposited in a terrestrial and/or
shallow- marine environment and resulted from post-orogenic uplift and reworking of mainly
ophiolites and medium- to low-grade metasediments. Since this unit is devoid of Cycladic
metamorphic and granitoid rocks, R.esler (1978) ascribed an age corresponding to the OligoMiocene conglomerates. This formation, as a superficial nappe, tectonically overlay the
Cycladic metamorphic rocks and the Miocene granitic bodies during the Late Miocene
(Jansen 1973, 1977; Ang.lier 1977, 1979; Dermitzakis & Papanikolaou 1980; Faure et al.
1991), as is the case of several outcrops belonging to the upper unit of the Cyclades that have
not experienced Alpine high-pressure metamorphism. The upper unit was emplaced from
south to north by gravity sliding due to ductile or brittle and ductile extensional event, which
is explained by collapse of the Aegean crust during Miocene granitoid intrusions (Faure &
Bonneau 1988; Faure et al. 1991; Lee & Lister 1992; Boronkay & Doutsos 1994; Jolivet et al.
1994).

Geological setting

Taking into account the existing geological data (Ktenas 1969; Papanikolaou 1978),
as well as those of recent geological re-mapping at a scale of 1:50,000 (Photiades 2002), the

island of Ikaria consists of two units (Figure1). These units are characterised by the absence
of any preservable relicts of Eocene high-pressure (HP)/lowtemperature (LT) metamorphic
event that are well known from several other islands of the Aegean Sea (Altherr et al. 1979,
1982; Andriessen et al. 1979; Maluski et al. 1981, 1987; Henjes-Kunst & Kreuzer 1982;
Wijbrans & McDougall 1988).

The Lower Unit

The lower unit is characterised by a gneissic basementthat is overlain by a platformtype marble sequence which hosts emery deposits, and passes upward into a sequence of
intercalated schist and marble.
The gneissic basement has a northeastern-plunging anticlinal core and underlies the
eastern half of the island. Biotite- and/or muscovite-bearing banded gneiss usually is
widespread and alternates with amphibolitic schist; and its deeper members pass into
amphibolitic gneiss which locally encloses amphibolite bodies. The biotite-bearing gneiss
contains porphyroblasts of staurolite, kyanite, garnet with feldspar, and quartz. In the upper
stratigraphic members, the paragneiss sequence is intercalated with irregular bodies of
leucocratic augen gneiss, most probably originating from acid magmatic rocks, and
associated with quartzite and biotite- garnet schist.
The paragneiss, with deformed orthogneiss bodies of probable Palaeozoic age,
constitute the basement of the Cyclades, the Menderes Massif and the Pelagonian zone,
which are thought to be homologous and are closely related spatially (D.rr et al. 1978;
Jacobshagen et al. 1978; Blake et al. 1981; Mountrakis 1984; Robertson & Dixon 1984; Okay
1989; Schermer et al. 1990; Pe-Piper et al. 1993). Carboniferous magmatic activity, which is
widespread over large parts of the Aegean region (Keay 1998; Engel & Reischmann 1998;
Reischmann 1998), is unknown in the Menderes Massif due to its ascribed older age (Hetzel
& Reischmann 1997; Bozkurt & Oberh.nsli 2001).
The basement passes upward into calcschist, which in turn is overlain by a platformtype marble sequence (up to 250- m-thick) that hosts emery deposits at its highest level. This
marble is of similar Triassic age as its corresponding members on Naxos and Paros islands.
The emery deposits represent original karst bauxite, considered to have been formed during
the Jurassic when the carbonate platform was emergent (Feenstra 1985). Meta-bauxite and
karst bauxite also occur on the Cyclades and in the Menderes Massif and the Pelagonian zone
(D.rr et al. 1978; Blake et al. 1981; Feenstra 1985; Yaln 1987; .zer et al. 2001).

The Triassic (inferred) marble passes upward into a sequence of intercalated schist
and marble, up to 300- mthick. The lower stratigraphic members consist of intercalations of
amphibolitic and micaceous schists, which contain epidote-bearing greenschist lenses within
microcrystalline bedded marble. Toward the upper part of this unit, calcshist, phyllitic schist
and phyllite with marble intercalations, locally containing quartzitic nodules predominate.
Locally, this unit is unconformably overlain by a restricted dolomitic horizon.
Furthermore, the platform-type marble and the overlying schist-marble sequence are
considered to be homologous with the Mesozoic series rocks of the Cyclades that have been
dated on the basis of sparse palaeontological evidence (Cayeux 1911; N.gris 1915;
Anastopoulos 1963; D.rr et al. 1978; D.rr & Flugel 1979; Maluski et al. 1987; Melidonis
1980). Additionally, zircon ages obtained from several Mesozoic-series rocks of the Cyclades
are dominantly of Triassic-Jurassic age (Keay 1998).
The whole lower unit has been affected by amphibolite- facies metamorphic
conditions of Barroviantype, with a maximum temperature of 500 C, during the Late
Oligocene (Altherr et al. 1982). Subsequently, this unit was variably affected by retrogress ive
greenschistfacies metamorphism during the intrusion, in the Miocene, of the Raches and
Xylosyrtis granites, which crop out in the western and eastern parts of the island,
respectively.
In particular, the Raches granite is mainly by I-type leucogranite, and occupies the
western half of the island. Potassium- Ar and Rb-Sr dates on biotite (between 8 and 9 Ma), as
well as a fission-track date of 7 Ma on apatite, are interpreted by Altherr et al. (1982) as
cooling ages related to uplift. The age of the Raches granite is estimated to be about 18 Ma
(Schliestedt et al. 1987). This granite is intensely deformed in the form of orthogneiss and is
characterized by typical S-C mylonitic fabrics, indicating top-to-the-north to top-to-the-NE
shear extensional movement (Faure & Bonneau 1988; Faure et al. 1991; Papanikolaou et al.
1991), which has been associated with continuous brittle deformation from the Early
Miocene to the present (Boronkay & Doutsos 1994; Jolivet et al. 1994).
In the eastern part of the island, the small S-type Xylosyrtis granite of Miocene age
(21-10 Ma) (Altherr et al. 1982; Schliestedt et al. 1987) has northeast- verging structure.
Furthermore, between the gneiss basement and the overlying formations, evidence for the
metamorphic hiatus postulated by Papanikolaou (1978), and ascribed to the so-called tectonic
Messaria unit, was not observed. Consequently, it is inferred that this unit is a unified
lithological succession, and was affected by the same metamorphic events.

The Upper Unit

The upper tectonic unit consists of an ophiolitic molasse member, characterised by a
conglomeratic and olistostromal ophiolitic formation, which has been
tectonically transported, and is overlain by a recrystallised white-grey limestone and dolomite
member. These carbonate rocks occur at Kefala hillock (central part of the island), and in the
area of Faros (northeastern peninsula of the island). The carbonate rocks are olistolites and/or
slices tectonically imbricated with the ophiolitic molasses unit. Particularly, at the Kefala
hillock, Papanikolaou (1978) accepts that the recrystallised limestone and dolomite are of
Late Triassic age, while the tectonically underlying formation, with dioritic and amphibolitic
rocks, has yielded radiometric dates corresponding to 80.5-67 Ma and 84.4.2.4 Ma (Late
Cretaceous) (Altherr et al. 1994).
Finally in the northern part of Raches granite at the Yaliskari locality (Figure 1), as
well as along the southeastern coast of the island, sandstone, marly sandstone and marlstone
deposits, with fauna rich in Cardiides of Early Pliocene age, have been observed (Ktenas
1927). Compact breccia-conglomerate and pudding-stone terrace deposits of Quaternary age
unconformably overlie the Pliocene formations (Ktenas 1927; Georgalas 1953).
Lithostratigraphy of the Upper Tectonic Unit
The molassic deposits occur, apart from the Kefala locality, on the Raches granite at
Yaliskari, and on the schist- marble sequence on the northeastern peninsula of the island at the
Daimonopetra, Panagia and Faros localities (Figures 1 & 2).
Daimonopetra, Panagia and Faros Localities
At the Daimonopetra, Panagia and Faros localities, a polygenic conglomerate up to
100-m-thick is present. This conglomerate formation is rich in ophiolitic boulders, cobbles
and pebbles and constitutes an olistostromal ophiolitic molasse unit. Towards the upper part
of this unit in the Faros area it is progressively enriched and dominated by carbonate
conglomerate, which is characterised by cobbles and pebbles of fine- to coarsegrained whitegrey recrystallised limestone and dolomite elements, and admixed with smaller quantities of
phyllite fragments. Finally, the whole clastic unit is overlain by olistolites and/or rifted
recrystallised carbonate blocks.
The boulders, cobbles and pebbles that make up the olistostrome are rounded and
angular to subangular (diameter up to 50 cm) and mainly comprise gabbro (80%) and
volcanic rocks, amphibolite and pyroxenite (5%) of ophiolitic origin. Marble, amphibolebearing schist, mica-bearing schist and calcschist, as well as red chert, mudstone, green
phyllite and calcareous sandstone, make up the remaining percentage. In addition to these

components, at the Faros locality there are also few scattered pebble-sized rocks of white
nummulitic limestone (Nummulites sp.), typically of Early Tertiary age.
The matrix of the molasse unit consists of wellcemented to loose, sandy, pelitic to
argillaceous and calcareous fine- to coarse-grained sandstone. The clastic grains are rounded
to subangular, with diameters up to 5 mm, and comprise quartz, alkali feldspar, plagioclase,
biotite, muscovite, chlorite, chromite, and opaque minerals, as well as various ophiolitic rock
fragments.
The ophiolitic clasts are characterised by hydrothermal metamorphism at greenschistfacies conditions, typified by minerals such as prehnite, actinolite, tremolite, chlorite, albite
and magnetite. All of these sea- floor hydrothermal alterations took place during the
circulation of high-temperature fluids in the oceanic crust. The banded amphibolite blocks are
probably derived from the metamorphic sole, which locally underlie ophiolite slices and
originate by overthrusting of the still- hot ophiolite.
At the Faros locality (Figures 2 & 3) in particular, the basal parts of the ophiolitic
molasse, apart from calcite and quartz veins, comprise a broken conglomeratic deposit with a
pervasively sheared matrix and, therefore, exhibit a m.lange character. The multiply bounded
fracture and shear surfaces of conglomerate are especially due to Middle to Late Miocene
(ductile and brittle) extensional deformations (Ang.lier 1977, 1979; Boronkay & Doutsos
1994). Moreover, the broken formation acquired a northward-preferred orientation, and the
whole ophiolitic molasse is interpreted as an allochthonous unit, characterised by an ophiolite
olistostrome, rich mainly in ophiolitic constituents of various dimensions. In addition, there
also occur, in lower proportions, medium- to low- grade metasediments.
In the Yaliskari area on the northern side of the island (Figure 1), a very limited
ophiolitic molasse outcrop overlies deformed granite that occupies a graben bordered by
NNEtrending high-angle normal faults. The contact between the deformed granite and the
ophiolitic conglomerate separates a domain which has been affected by ductile and then
brittle deformation. This relationship can be observed, both in the top-to-the- north sense of
shear in the ductile domain on the granite below the ophiolitic conglomerate, and by the
north-dipping normal fault with tilted ophiolitic conglomerate, which is covered by Lower
Pliocene sediments. This contact is also characterised by hydrothermal quartz, carbonate and
iron precipitations within extensional veins, shear bands and fractures. Such hydrothermal
precipitations are also found in the granite, where iron-rich concentrations are limited to
ductile shear bands.

Figure 1 : Geotectonic position of the Cyclades archipelago with a simp lified geological map
of Ikaria island (modified from Photiades, in press). 1 Quaternary deposits; 2
Pleistocene deposits; 3 Lower Pliocene marine deposits; 4 upper tectonic unit
(ophiolitic molasse and recrystallised carbonates). Lower unit: 5 schistmarble formation and marble type-platform sequence; 6 gneiss; 7a Miocene
Raches granite, 7b Miocene Xylosyrtis granite; 8 thrust; 9 tectonic contact
(thrust and/or low-angle normal fault); 10 high-angle normal fault; 11
recumbent synclinal axis; 12 recumbent anticlinal axis; 13 anticlinal axis; 14
strike and dip of beds and schistosity planes.

Figure 2 : Detailed geological map of Faros peninsula in Ikaria island (see Figure 1 for
location of the studied area). Lower unit: 1 gneissic basement, 2 marble typeplatform sequence, 3 schist and marble formations; Upper unit: 4a ophiolitic
molasse, 4b olistolites and/or rifted recrystallised carbonate blocks; 5 Lower
Pliocene marine deposits; 6 Pleistocene massive brecciaconglomerate terrace
deposits; 7 alluvial and coastal deposits; 8 tectonic contact (thrust and /or lowangle normal fault); 9 high-angle normal fault; 10 anticlinal axis; 11 strike
and dip of beds and schistosity planes.

As can be seen in Figure 3, these clastic sequences tectonically overlie the Mesozoic
metamorphic series of the lower unit, and also the intensely deformed Miocene granite.
Despite subsequent tectonic emplacement, rather significant sedimentary features were
observed at different levels of the Faros sequence. The lower part of the olistostrome is
dominated by a clast-supported conglomerate, and the upper part is matrix-supported
conglomerate, interbedded with coarse- and fine- grained sandstone, some of which is very
shallow-channeled and locally characterized by fining- upwards sequences. These

sedimentary features can be attributed to a depositional environment between proximal debris

gravity- flow (Lowe 1982) and very proximal braided-stream (Miall 1978).

Kefala Area
In the Kefala area, however, the ophiolitic rocks appear as tectonically wedged
amphibolite and hornblendebearing diorite rocks associated with schistose volcanic rocks and
red mudstone. The radiometric ages reported for the hornblende-bearing diorite and
amphibolite are 80.567.4 Ma and 84.42.4 Ma, respectively, representing a Late Cretaceous
age (Altherr et al. 1994). It is evident that these hydrothermally altered and tectonically
imbricated rocks are similar to those of the Faros area.
Finally, the recrystallised white-grey limestone and dolomite that overlie the
ophiolitic molasse unit in the Faros area occur also at the Kefala hillock, but there the contact
is tectonic. There, Papanikolaou (1978) mentions the existence of Megalontidae, accepts that
these carbonate rocks have a Late Triassic age, and that they are similar to those found on
Thymaena Island (Papanikolaou 1980), which is located to the east of Ikaria island.
Moreover, at the Faros, Panagia and Daimonopetra localities (Figures 2 & 3), as well
as in the Yaliskari area (on the Raches granite in the northwestern part of the island), the
ophiolitic olistostromal formations are overlain discordantly by an alternating sequence of
calcareous sandstone, marly sandstone and limestone (sparite, biosparite and oolitic
limestone), up to 25 m in thickness, which is rich in macrofossils, such as bivalves,
gastropods, ostracods, algae, echinoderm spicules and bryozoans. Ktenas (1927) also
mentions the presence of Cardiidae, such as Cardium (Limnocardium) bollenense MAYER,
Syndosmya alba WOOD and Venus ovata PENN. Furthermore, in all of the aforementioned
formations, significant percentages of tree pollen have been observed; in addition, there occur
pollen grains of herbaceous plants as well as marine phytoplankton, i.e.,
Hystrichosphaeridium sp., Achomospaera sp., Tuberculodinium vancampoae,
Cyclonephelium sp., Hystrichokolpoma sp., Spiniferites div fsp. Furthermore, a few
pteridophyte spores have also been observed (Chrysanthi Ioakim, pers. comm. 1998).
The presence of the Cardiidae and pollen associations suggests that the sequence was
deposited in a shallow littoral marine environment during the Early Pliocene. Finally, at the
Daimonopetra locality, above the Neogene formations, massive breccia-conglomerate terrace
deposits of Pleistocene age (Georgalas 1953) have developed discordantly and contain lithic
elements derived from the metamorphic basement.

Discussion and Conclusions

The ophiolitic molasse unit and the carbonate formation that constitute the upper
tectonic unit of Ikaria are characterised by high temperature/low-pressure (HT/LP) rocks, and
are related to metamorphic episodes of the Late Cretaceous (Altherr et al. 1994). Therefore,
these rocks have escaped high-pressure deformational events that affected the Aegean
domain during the Eocene. A paragenesis (HT/LP) similar to that of Ikaria island has also
been reported from the upper unit of the Cyclades, which also records Cretaceous ages for an
amphibolitefacies metamorphic event, such as on Anafi (Reinecke et al. 1982), Donousa,
Nikouria, Amorgos (D.rr et al. 1978; Altherr et al. 1994) and Tinos (Patzak et al. 1994; with
the emplacement of the ophiolite onto continental crust, and also post-date the ophiolite
formation (Reinecke et al. 1982; Robertson & Dixon 1984; Patzak et al. 1994).
However, the upper tectonic unit of Ikaria, in comparison to the overall upper-unit
Cycladic lithostratigraphic successions, is characterised by an ophiolitic molasse unit, which
is tectonically overlain by Upper Triassic limestone at the Kefala hillock (if this age is
correct) and by clastic recrystallised-carbonate deposits in the Faros area. Eventually, this
apparent succession was related to an initial depositional feeder process (ophiolitic debris
followed upward by olistolite and/or rifted carbonate-block deposits), and then the unit was
engaged in subsequent tectonic emplacement.

Figure 3 : Lithostratigraphic schematic sections of upper unit in Ikaria island. 1 schist and
marble formation of the lower unit; 2 Miocene Raches granite; Upper unit: a
ophiolitic molasse with conglomerates and olistostromes, b conglomerate and
olistolite of recrystallised limestone and dolomite, c outlier or/and rifted
recrystallised carbonate blocks, d Lower Pliocene marine deposits, e
Pleistocene massive breccio-conglomerate terrace deposits.

The existence of molasse indicates that the following processes have operated: (a)
uplift, erosion and transport of mainly ophiolitic clasts, probably derived from Late
Cretaceous oceanic lithosphere, which have been partially reworked during their transport
with rocks of various provenance, such as nummulitic limestone, marble and schist, and
subsequently all were deposited in a continental and/or shallow- marine environment during
Oligo-Miocene time; (b) the thrusting and/or sedimentary sliding of Upper Triassic limestone
and recrystallised carbonate rocks onto top of the molasse formation; (c) tectonic
emplacement of the sequence (ophiolitic molasse and carbonate formation) onto the
metamorphic series and the coevally deformed Miocene granite during the Late Miocene; and
lastly (d) deposition of shallow-water transgressive sediments of Early Pliocene age.
In addition, this ophiolitic molasse unit is analogous to Cycladic molasse of
Oligocene-Early Miocene age on the islands of Paros, Naxos, Koufonisia, Makares and
Mykonos (Jansen 1973, 1977; Ang.lier et al. 1978; D.rr & Altherr 1979; R.esler 1978;
Dermitzakis & Papanikolaou 1980; Robert 1982; Faure & Bonneau 1988; Papanikolaou
1996). Due to the tectonic nature and the predominantly exotic pebble content of this unit,
Jansen (1973, 1977) postulated an allochthonous origin for this Miocene formation. This unit
was considered to have been moving by gravity sliding, due to a local uplift of the Aegean
domain, during Langhian-Tortonian (Ang.lier 1977, 1979; Dermitzakis & Papanikolaou
1980).
Consequently, the emplacement of the upper unit must have occurred in the Late
Miocene, and its sense of movement was from south to north, similar to that postulated for
Thymaena and Mykonos islands (Papanikolaou 1980; Faure & Bonneau 1988; D.rr & Altherr
1979; Faure et al. 1991). The origin and provenance of this unit was probably the present
Cretan Basin (Dermitzakis & Papanikolaou 1980; Papanikolaou 1988); in its northwestern
part, it is related to the Eocene-Miocene Meso-Hellenic trough of continental Greece (Brunn
1956), and to the northeast passes into the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene SW Anatolian
molasse basin of Kale-Tavas and Denizli in Turkey (Akg.n & S.zbilir 2001). Brunn et al.
(1976) previously noted their geodynamic resemblance.