HF Radio

Direction Finding
Dr. David Sadler
25th February 2010

Roke Manor Research Ltd

a Siemens Company

Contents
1. Overview of HF DF
2. Traditional approaches to DF
3. Superresolution DF
4. Antenna array design
5. HF array elements
6. Digital receivers
7. SRDF software
8. Adaptive beamforming for signal separation
9. SRDF and ADBF demonstration
10.Geolocation systems
11.Concluding remarks
12.References
13.Build a DF system
2
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Overview of HF DF
High frequency band nominally 2-30 MHz, 10-150 m
wavelengths
HF band still used for broadcast, marine, aviation, military,
diplomatic, and amateur purposes
HF radio direction finding is needed to monitor and control the
spectrum:

Identifying interfering sources (civilian)

Locating enemy forces (military)
Signals intelligence

Also need to be able to separate out cochannel signals

Need to be able to handle the unique HF environment

Groundwave and skywave propagation

Potential for correlated multipath
Time-varying ionospheric conditions, fading, polarization changes
External noise is not spatially white

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Traditional approaches to DF directional

antenna
Simplest approach for DF is to mechanically rotate a directional
antenna

A peak in the response indicates the approximate signal direction

Not easy to rotate directional HF antennas due to large size
Can use an electrically small loop

Not high accuracy

Problems with polarization no good for skywaves
180 ambiguity

Only needs a single receiver

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Traditional approaches to DF Watson-Watt

with loops

Two orthogonal loop antennas

Figure of 8 responses
Cosinusoidal for N-S loop
Sinusoidal for E-W loop

Sense

Direction is the arctangent of the

ratio of the E-W signal to N-S
signal

180 ambiguity can be resolved

using a third omnidirectional
antenna

Needs 3 coherent receivers

Small physical size

Can have ~5 accuracy for

groundwaves

Very poor performance for

skywaves with significant
horizontal polarization

N-S loop
E-W loop

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Traditional approaches to DF Watson-Watt with

Adcock antenna
Adcock antenna can use the
Watson-Watt principle

4 antennas: monopoles or
dipoles
2 difference combiners are used
to generate the N-S and E-W cos
and sine patterns
Omni sense signal can be
generated by an in phase
combination of all antennas, or a
fifth antenna

N-S

3 coherent receivers needed

Accuracy still ~5 but much
better than loops for skywaves

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Sense

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E-W

Traditional approaches to DF pseudo-Doppler

Pseudo-Doppler DF comprises

Circular array with a commutating RF switch

to approximate the circular motion of a
rotating antenna
The antenna signal is frequency modulated
at a rate equal to the rotational frequency
After FM demodulation the rotational tone is
recovered
The phase offset of the recovered tone
compared to the original tone equals the
direction of arrival

Single receiver

Accuracy often worse than Watson-Watt

due to less sensitivity and intolerance to
receiver imperfection

Latency to achieve DF result

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Traditional approaches to DF array goniometer

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Pusher CDAA shown

24 antennas per ring

Outer ring 3-10 MHz

Inner ring 10-30 MHz

Mechanical/analogue
goniometer used to
sweep a beam around
360 azimuth

Single receiver

Lots of equipment /
expensive

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Superresolution DF block diagram

Digital
receiver 1

Digital
receiver 2

Digital
receiver N

Digital complex data

Array
manifold

Superresolution digital
signal processing

Number of
signals

Signal 1
weights

Signal M
weights

Signal 1

Signal M

Powers
Bearings

A good SRDF/ADBF system can solve the following:

Detection problem
Estimation problem
Reception problem
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Superresolution DF for and against

Superresolution means two signals can be resolved which are
less than one beamwidth apart
An antenna array is needed with multiple synchronous receivers
Subspace techniques are applied to achieve superresolution
Requires knowledge of the array manifold
Multiple antennas and receiving equipment
More sophisticated digital processing
+ Order of magnitude increase in resolution
+ Increased DF accuracy (< 1 error)
+ Azimuth and elevation DF
+ Simultaneous DF of multiple cochannel signals
+ Operation with very few data samples
+ Not fixed to a particular array geometry

The array manifold characterizes the antenna array and

fundamentally sets how good it will be for DF

It is the known array calibration function against which the unknown

signals are compared to find the lines of bearing
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Superresolution DF the array manifold

Example for a 3
element array

For a signal arriving at the array from a particular direction, the

set of relative gains and phases at the antennas defines an array
response vector
The array manifold is the locus (curve) of the complete set of
array response vectors for all directions
11
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Superresolution DF MUSIC algorithm

There are many algorithms Capon, MUSIC, ESPRIT, IMP
MUSIC is the most well known of the subspace techniques
1. Correlate the IQ data
from each element with
every other element to
form the data
covariance matrix
Array response vector
2. Eigendecompose the
covariance matrix
3. Separate the noise and
Array manifold
signal subspaces
4. Calculate the projection
of the array response
vectors for all directions
into the signal subspace
5. Look for nulls in the
projection function
Signal subspace
when the distance
eigenvector 2
between an array
response vector and the
signal subspace is at a
minimum we have
found a signal
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Noise subspace
eigenvector

Example for a 3
element array

Distance between
array response
vector and the
signal subspace

Signal subspace
eigenvector 1

Signal vector 1

Signal vector 2

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Antenna array design

Array design is critical to DF performance defines the array
manifold
Need an array which exhibits low levels of ambiguity

DF ambiguity occurs when an array has a similar response to signals

which arrive from distinct directions
Grating lobes are perfect ambiguities, large sidelobes are also a
problem
Ambiguity patterns are used to analyze different layouts

Ideally arrays of aligned antennas are set up in clear sites to

avoid polarization effects
For difficult electromagnetic environments, additional array
calibration and polarization processing are needed

13
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C8 array, 5 aperture

10

dB

10

C7 array, 5 aperture

Highly symmetrical C8 array has very poor performance

C7 array is superior even with less antennas
Array layout optimization is possible simulated annealing
14
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dB

Antenna array design - clear array site

ambiguity patterns

Antenna array design EM modelling for difficult

environments

30

20
50
10

El=12 deg Fr=16.014 MHz H=green V=blue Pk:49.6

30
N

100

20

-10
0

10

150

NEC model of a Type 22 frigate

Radiation pattern for a deck edge
loop antenna @ 16 MHz
Diverse V and H polarization
response

dB

10

0 W

-10

-20
S
-30
-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

dB

Skywaves usually have unknown

15
polarization
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HF array elements
Antennas can be passive or active
Generally inefficient antennas are used for DF

Keeps the size down

Low mutual coupling reduced effect on the array manifold

Monopoles are more practical than dipoles

Smaller physical size

Monopoles need to work against the ground plane, no need to
elevate

Loops can also be used

Good for higher elevation skywaves

Suitable for NVIS

16
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HF array elements Sarsen crossed loop

Sarsen antenna for strategic fixed
sites

Requires a poured concrete footing

Feed cables typically run
underground and enter the antenna
underneath the main pillar

Omnidirectional, broadband
elements (1-30 MHz)
Simultaneous or switched vertical
monopole and cross loop outputs
(RHCP and LHCP)
Monopole primarily for 0-45
elevation, cross loops for 25-90
elevation
Ground mesh and 8 ground radials
with ground rods ensure a good
ground for the elements to work
against
17
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HF array elements Quadrant crossed loop

Quadrant antenna for tactical sites

Self supporting
Fibreglass and aluminium
construction, weight < 35 kg
Deployable in 90 s

Monopole gain falls off at low

frequencies this is typical for
broadband receive only antennas

18
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Digital receivers DWR16

30 MHz wideband spectrum monitoring
4 independent DDCs each provide a
32 kHz narrowband channel
RF in, sampled IQ data out over
USB2.0
High linearity, no images from LOs
and mixers, high dynamic range

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Digital receivers DWR16 PCB

FIFO
(delay)
USB2
Interface IC

4 channel DDC

FPGA

Variable gain
amplifier

RF filters

RF IN 1

USB2

RF IN 2
External
clock

Fast interface
Direct to FPGA
EEPROM

16 bit CMOS ADC

80 MSPS
Onboard clock

Power
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Digital receivers DWR16 GUI

FFT and
spectrogram
displays
DDR control
Power level
monitoring
Software
demodulation
AGC settings
Data recording and
playback

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Digital receivers MCDWR16

9 DWR16s in a 2U, 19 box
All channels are synchronized,
coherent sampling
Two units can be linked together
to support 16 antenna DF
systems
Two USB2.0 outputs

Channels 1-8 narrowband DF

Channel 9 wideband monitor

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Digital receivers benefits of N channel direct

digitization
Near instantaneous signal
acquisition
No calibration required
No need for multiple
coherent local oscillators
Supports DF on short
duration / frequency
hopping signals
Can support reconstruction
of frequency hoppers

Provides broadband beamforming without the need for large

coaxial cable delay lines
Supports ADBF for enhanced signal copy
N channels provides 10logN dynamic range enhancement
23
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SRDF software
DF processor is receiver independent, the data server handles
the receiver interface and outputs packets over TCP/IP
Up to 4 independent DF processors can run simultaneously
supports the 4 DDRs in the MCDWR16
MUSIC DF algorithm for azimuth and elevation estimation of
multiple cochannel signals
4 different ADBF algorithms

24
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SRDF software MUSIC result

Single signal incident upon the array: 250 azimuth, 60 elevation

MUSIC is akin to steering nulls rather than beams, so the resolution is

greater

15

dB

10

0
80
60

300
40

200
20

Elevation

100
0

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Azimuth
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Adaptive beamforming for signal separation

single omni antenna

pattern

direction of
signal 1

omni reception
direction of
signal 3

beamform
and null

direction of
signal 2

26
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Adaptive beamforming for signal separation

Conventional beamforming sets the array steering weights equal
to the array response vector for the signal direction

10logN improvement in the SNR for the wanted signal

Interferers reduced to the beam pattern sidelobe level

Beam plus nulls takes the conventional beamforming weights

and projects them to be orthogonal to the interferer subspace

10logN improvement in the SNR for the wanted signal

Superresolution with regards to interferer cancellation
In theory very high levels of cancellation, in practice 15-20 dB occurs
due to errors in the array manifold

Steer a beam plus minimize the output power: Wiener-Hopf

solution

10logN improvement in the SNR for the wanted signal

Maximizes the SINR
Works best for strong interferers, can provide 40 dB of cancellation
Can attenuate the wanted signal if the beam constraint is erroneous

Higher Order Statistics methods not based on DF results

Needs larger data blocks to accurately estimate the statistics

Good nulling even when there are significant DF errors
27
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SRDF and ADBF demonstration

8 element array in
New Hampshire
3 cochannel signals
centred on 16 MHz
1. Over-modulated AM
jamming signal
north of array (10
azimuth)
2. Morse signal from
Havana Cuba
3. 75 baud FSK
teletype from Fortde-France

28
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Geolocation systems - triangulation

The intersection of lines of bearing from multiple DF sites defines
a region where the transmitter is located
Azimuth triangulation errors depend on

Lateral azimuth error on individual lines of bearing

Number of DF sites reporting
Locations of the DF sites relative to each other

In general the 2 site geolocation error is an ellipse, defined by

the lines of bearing RMS azimuth errors
Geolocation
error

Geolocation
error

Site 1

Site 1
Non-ideal
arrangement of DF
sites

Ideal arrangement
of DF sites

Site 2

Site 2

29
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Geolocation systems single site location

Single site location of skywaves is feasible if there is knowledge of
the ionosphere
F2 layer is the most
important for skywave
refraction
D layer tends to absorb
HF waves
Large variations
between day and night
Variation with the
sunspot cycle
MUF determines which
layer is active for the
signal of interest

Critical frequency
Elevation angle

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Geolocation systems single site location

Usual assumption is that a single hop has occurred, typically up
to 1000 km range, but could be up to 3000 km range

Use an ionosonde to measure the ionospheric height

Use a model to predict the ionospheric height

Geolocation accuracy depends on

Azimuth RMS error

Elevation RMS error
Ionospheric height error
Validity of the single hop assumption

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Concluding remarks
Conventional HF DF techniques were developed during WWII

Simple amplitude comparison techniques

Adcock antenna to handle skywaves

Superresolution processing first developed during the 1980s

Increased resolution and accuracy

Multiple signals

Practical SRDF systems did not appear until the 1990s

More complete understanding of the array manifold and DF ambiguity

Array, cable and receiver calibration requirements
High quality digital receivers

Current SRDF systems harness technology developments in

Optimized antenna array layout

Compact antenna designs with multiple elements
N-channel wideband digital receivers
Powerful signal processing in PCs and DSPs

SRDF systems are far more capable than conventional systems

and are increasingly cost effective
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References
RDF Products Web Note WN-002, Basics of the Watson-Watt radio direction finding
technique, http://www.rdfproducts.com, 2007
D. H. Brandwood, Ambiguity patterns of planar antenna arrays of parallel elements, in
proc. IEE conf. Antennas and Propagation, vol. 1, pp. 432-435, Apr. 1995
D. J. Sadler, Planar array design for low ambiguity, in proc. Loughborough Antennas
and Propagation conf., vol. 1, pp. 713-716, Nov. 2009
R. O. Schmidt, Multiple emitter location and signal parameter estimation, IEEE Trans.
Antennas and Propagation , no. 3, pp. 276-280, Mar. 1986
D. H. Brandwood and D. J. Sadler, Superresolution direction finding at HF for signals of
unknown polarization, in proc. IEE conf. HF Radio Systems and Techniques, vol. 1,
pp. 133-137, July 2000
C.J. Tarran, Operational HF DF systems employing real time superresolution
processing, in proc. IEE conf. HF Radio Systems and Techniques, vol. 1, pp. 311319, July 1997
B. D. Van Veen and K. M. Buckley, Beamforming: a versatile approach to spatial
filtering, IEEE Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing magazine, pp. 4-24, Apr.
1988
Roke Manor Research website: http://www.roke.co.uk

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Build a DF system
Watson-Watt method with loops is simple but effective
At a minimum need

2 loop antennas, orthogonally mounted

2 HF receivers, can be low cost COTS, needs a digital output
Simple DF processor implemented in software in a PC

WinRadio or GNU radio? Direct PC interface

Things to remember

Need coherent receivers locked LOs/clocks

No AGC, or at least synchronized AGC across the receivers
Receiver calibration is needed if the RF filters are not consistent
between receivers

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