John Zink Company, LLC, 11920 East Apache, Tulsa, OK 74116; [email protected] (for correspondence) Published online 30 August 2006 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/prs.10154 One of the worst nightmares a plant manager can experience is a complete are system outage. The are system is the last line of defense for many rening and petrochemical facilities and, when out of commission, can cause the shutdown of the entire facility. Flare ignition failure may lead to unburned venting of dangerous gases, and may develop into an explosive hazard leading to the loss of property and equipment, or worse, injury to personnel or loss of life. The safety and effectiveness of aring are dependent upon one or more continuously burning pilots for immediate and sustained ignition of gases exiting a are burner. Because pilot failure can compromise safety and effectiveness, it should be detected quickly and accurately to allow prompt automatic and/or operator response. Proper disposal of process and waste gases during routine and/or emergency conditions is crucial to help operating facilities protect plant employees and the surrounding community, and to avoid hundreds of thousands of dollars in nes. These reasons alone make the pilot monitoring and ignition system the most important component of any are system. The advanced are pilot systems explained in this article offer increased protection from harsh environmental conditions and rapid notice of pilot ame failure. Recently published industry standards for are pilot design and performance are also discussed. 2006 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Process Saf Prog 26: 10 14, 2007 Keywords: are pilots, are ignition, are monitoring, SoundProof , ame ionization INTRODUCTION
A are can only achieve its objective of safe, effective disposal if the exiting gases are ignited and the ignition is sustained. Ignition is sustained through the use of a design concept that includes several elements: the pilot, the pilot ignitor, and a pilot ame monitor. While each is important, the critical element in this system is the pilot; are pilots are typically premix type burners designed for operation at a xed heat release. In application, the pilot is positioned adjacent to the exit of the are tip. When the are is in service, the are tip and its pilot(s) are remote, inaccessible, and ex 2006 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Prepared for Presentation at American Institute of Chemical Engineers 2006 Spring National Meeting, Orlando, FL, April 2327, 2006.
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posed to external inuences. Therefore, the pilot must
be capable of operating for long periods of time without adjustment or maintenance. API STANDARD 537
The recently released API Standard 537 is a good
reference to have concerning are systems. API STD 537 states that the pilot should continue to burn and ignite the are at wind speeds of 100 mph under dry conditions and 85 mph when combined with a rainfall of 2 in/hr. These guidelines should be viewed as the minimum level for performance. When the height of most ares is taken into consideration, an effective wind stability of 125 mph or more is desirable. In this same section, API STD 537 recommends a minimum pilot heat release of 13.2 MW (45,000BTU/hr) (LHV) when aring hydrocarbon gases, with a lower heating value of 11,175 kj/Nm3 (300 BTU/scf) or greater. Pilots must be able to provide sufcient energy to initiate burning of the waste products as they exit the are tip. The energy level required is dependent on a number of factors, including: the composition of the waste gas being burned, the gas exit velocity of the are burner, the design of the are burner, and the atmospheric conditions under which the pilot is operating. Good practice recommends a minimum pilot heat release of 45,000 Btu/hr for favorable conditions. The use of lower-heat-release pilots can compromise the initiation of burning. Most are manufacturers use a premixed pilot of some design. Premix pilots offer greater stability over raw gas burners. PILOT ANATOMY
A pilot will usually consist of a pilot tip, a windshield, a venturi mixer, and a metering orice, as shown in Figure 1. PILOT ENVIRONMENT
During the course of a pilots service life on a are,
the pilot can be exposed to a number of external inuences, including: wind, rain, envelopment in are ame or inert gas, smoke suppression media, and caustic or acidic gases. Recent Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling and testing has shown that wind can cause variations in the local static pressure, which will affect the ability of the pilot mixer to supply a Process Safety Progress (Vol.26, No.1)
PILOT FUELS
According to API STD 537 section 5.2.4[1], In order
to maximize pilot reliability, the most consistent and reliable fuel source should be used. Where possible, natural gas should be used. The pilot should be designed to handle a reasonable range of fuels. These fuels typically consist of natural gas, methane, ethane, propane, and renery fuel gases. Fuels with moderate to high amounts of hydrogen, ethylene, and acetylene should be avoided, as these fuels have such a high ame speed that burning can occur in the mixer and not at the tip as intended. PILOT IGNITION
Figure 1. A typical pilot assembly.
combustible mixture to the tip. Surprisingly, the upwind pilot is the least affected by winds and is the most stable. The pilots in the cross wind and down wind positions are more unstable because of the low pressure zones created by the wind. It is important that the cross wind and down wind pilots remain lit, as they are in the best position to light the are gas. PILOT LIFE
Extending the service life of a pilot has become
more important in recent years as facilities have increased the amount of time between major turnarounds. The average service life of a pilot is about 7 years, but it is not uncommon for a pilot to last 30 years depending upon the situation. The number one cause of pilot failure is ame envelopment from the main are ame. Temperatures caused by direct ame impingement are far greater than the maximum continuous temperature that alloys can take in a reducing atmosphere. PILOT MATERIAL
As stated in API STD 537 section 5.2.3[1], The pilot
tip should be constructed of a heat resistant material, such as 309SS, 310SS, CK 20, or a nickel-based alloy such as 800H. For applications with any amount of H2S in the fuel or are gas, 800 alloys are not recommended. It is possible that the piping between the pilot tip and mixer may be exposed to the are ame. For this portion of the pilot, an austenitic stainless steel, such as 304SS or 316SS, is adequate.[1] Process Safety Progress (Vol.26, No.1)
There are two primary methods of pilot ignition in
the rening and petrochemical industry. The oldest and most common method uses the Flame Front Generator (FFG), shown schematically in Figure 2. The FFG combines ignition fuel and compressed air at a mixing tee with the ignition air and gas mixture owing through an ignition line to the pilot tip. After lling the ignition line with the air-fuel mixture, an electrical spark is initiated at the mixing tee. The resulting re ball, or ame front, travels through the ignition line up to the pilot and ignites the pilot. Each pilot is ignited in sequence. FFG ignition can be quite reliable if maintained properly. Proper maintenance includes frequent draining of the ignition lines and routine practice attempts to create a re ball by each operator responsible for the FFG system. The second method of pilot ignition uses a high energy or high voltage spark at or near the pilot tip, as shown in Figure 3. This may be done with a spark probe or electrode in direct contact with the pilot gas or in a slip stream tube. The design must protect the probe from the high temperatures at the pilot tip. Electronic Spark Ignition (ESI) pilots are easy to use compared to the FFG system and require little training or maintenance. The downside to ESI is that shutdown of the are system is required for maintenance. Often confused with the ESI system, Direct Spark Ignition (DSI) uses a spark probe in place of a pilot. In order to reduce maintenance costs, DSI has been used in lieu of a continuous pilot to ignite the are. This is not recommended as it is not in compliance with EPA regulations and cannot ensure that a destruction efciency is occurring in the ame zone. As stated in section 5.2.2 of API STD 537[1], Such designs are not considered to be a suitable alternative to a continuous pilot because, without an independent fuel supply, it is impossible to ensure that a ammable mixture will always exist at the location of the spark. Other methods, such as are guns, aming arrows, oily rags, and magnesium or phosphate pellets, are generally unacceptable in the petrochemical and rening industry as they are potential safety hazards. PILOT DETECTION
Flare performance is closely linked to reliability of
the are pilots and the verication that they are burning. Good operating practice and, in many locations, governmental regulation require that the presence of a ame at each pilot be veried on an ongoing basis.
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Figure 2. A simple ame front generator (FFG).
the pilot ame so that the thermocouple is heated
when a ame is present. The thermocouple is connected to a temperature switch with an adjustable set point. The pilot is assumed to be on when the temperature is above the set point and off when it is below the set point. The primary drawback of the thermocouple is that the response time may take anywhere from 30 seconds to 10 minutes to alert the operators that there is a problem. It is possible to operate the are for some time without knowing the pilots are out. Because the pilot ignition system is a safety control system, it is important to adhere to a routine maintenance procedure. Maintenance performed on a thermocouple is minimal; there is little more to do than monitor its performance to ensure it has not failed.
Figure 3. An Electronic Spark Ignition (ESI) pilot.
More than 50 years ago, visual sighting of the ame,
although difcult in the daytime, was an accepted means of ame verication. Today, visual verication is no longer accepted for most ares. Federal Regulation 40 CFR 60.18[2] states, The presence of a ame shall be monitored using a. . . device to monitor the presence of a ame. Fortunately, there are four different detection methods that can be used. Because of the nature of combustion, energy is emitted in three different forms: heat, light, and noise. The fourth method uses a unique phenomenon that occurs within the ame during combustion. Thermocouples The most common means of compliance with 40 CFR 60.18 is to detect the heat produced by the pilot ame by means of a thermocouple. In practice, the thermocouple junction is placed in a position in or near 12
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Optical Systems Optical systems use the light emitted by the re to detect the presence of a are ame. Much like a camera, these devices use a set of lenses aimed at the are tip to direct infrared or ultraviolet light into a sensor. In principle, the presence of any ame in the viewing area is detected. Upon ame failure, the device sends a signal to the control room to alert the operators. The advantages of an optical device are that it may be maintained at grade, is easy to use, and has a fast response time. However, there are several disadvantages. Because the optical monitors are looking for the presence of any ultraviolet or infrared light, there is no way to detect if a pilot is out or not. The presence of any ame in the viewing area will satisfy the pilot proved requirements. It is quite possible that the main are ame be lit and all pilots are out, creating a potentially dangerous situation. Another disadvantage of the optical system is that environmental conditions can hide the are from the eld of view. Snow, rain, and fog can, if dense enough, blind these sensors. Acoustic Systems The third way energy is released from a pilot ame is in the form of noise. An acoustic system operates by DOI 10.1002/prs
Process Safety Progress (Vol.26, No.1)
Figure 5. Flame ionization system.
tic systems is that each monitor is dedicated to a specic pilot and has a fast response time. Current acoustic technology limits the pilot distance to approximately 350 feet from the pilot, which may be an issue for taller stacks.
Figure 4. SoundProof Acoustic System.
using the sound generated by the energy release of the
ame. The acoustic monitoring system is responsive to the difference between the sound signature of a pilot burning and that of a pilot with no ame. The acoustical selectivity of this system allows it to monitor a specic pilot and ignore extraneous sounds, such as those generated by other pilots, the are ame, or steam used for smoke suppression. John Zinks system, SoundProof , takes advantage of the fact that most are pilots are ignited by using an FFG. The FFG pilot ignition system includes a conduit connecting the FFG panel to the pilot, as shown in Figure 4. This conduit is used only during pilot ignition, and provides a convenient means of conducting the pilot ame sound to a location remote from the pilot, usually a point at or near the base of the are stack. Based on the characteristics of the signal received, a signal processing unit indicates that the pilot is on or off using signal lights on the face of the unit. The on or off indication is also available through a set of dry contacts. Maintenance of acoustic systems is capable of being done as required online; regular maintenance is minimal and includes checking the drains in the sound conveying piping. The primary advantage of the acous-
Flame Ionization The nal method of ame detection takes advantage of a unique phenomenon that occurs during combustion. As the chemical reaction occurs in the pilot tip between the hydrocarbon gases and the air, a pool of ionized gas forms at the base of the combustion zone. This pool of ionized gas is conductive and can actually carry a small current. To accomplish this, a ceramic rod with a conductive core may be placed in the ame zone, as shown in Figure 5. A continuous current may be run through the ame rod into the ionized gas and into common ground. The monitoring system looks for a ow of current between the electrode and ground. If current ow is detected, a ame is present. If there is no current (open circuit), no ame is present. Flame ionization is a fast method of pilot detection and is also highly reliable. Unless the are is taken out of service, no maintenance can be performed on a ame ionization system. Retractable Systems Critical components on the are stack, such as pilots and thermocouples, may be installed with a retractable system. The advantage of a retractable system is that it allows the operators to maintain or change a component while the are system is still in operation. Retractable thermocouples usually consist of a thermocouple being pushed through a tube that runs from grade to the pilot tip. Replacing the thermocouple is fairly simple. Retractable pilots are slightly more complicated and generally consist of a set of cables and possibly
Table 1. Comparison of are pilot ignition systems.
Ignition System Compressed air Ignition line Max distance Components at grade Control Response time
Conventional Flame Front Generator (FFG)
Required 1 in. diameter 1 mile for FFG line Main Automatic or manual One to several minutes
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Spark Probe Igniter
Not required Not required 750 ft. for ignition transformer Some Automatic or manual 110 sec.
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Table 2. Comparison of are pilot detection systems.
Method Sensed phenomenon
Thermocouple Heat
Able to distinguish between individual pilot ames?
Able to distinguish pilot ame from main are ame? Average response time (sec) Location of key system components
Yes Partially 100300 Pilot tip
Installation while are is operational?
Serviceable while are is operational? Resistant to: Rain Fog Snow Steam Sunlight (direct or reected)
No No
Flame Ionization Electrical current Yes Yes 5 Pilot tip and grade No Partial
No Yes Yes No Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
slides. The idea is that the pilot is simply lowered to the
ground by a winch or crank when maintenance is required. Although retractable systems can be somewhat costly, they can be worth the extra expenditure if a shutdown or nes can be avoided.
IR Sensor Light
Acoustic Sound
No No 5 Grade
Yes Yes 510 Grade
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
No No No Yes No
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
effective aring. In this article we have examined several methods of pilot ignition and monitoring that are available, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. Using redundant ignition and monitoring systems can help prevent costly shutdowns and are outages.
CONCLUSION
In order to protect plant employees, preserve the
environment, and avoid costly nes, it is critical to operate and maintain are systems properly. The pilot and pilot verication system are directly related to are performance, making them essential elements of safe,
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LITERATURE CITED
1. API Standard 537, Flare Details for General Renery and Petrochemical Service, September 2003. 2. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR 60.18. (f) (2).
