CHAPTER 3 - METHODS OF ANALYSIS

List of topics for this chapter :

Solving Systems of Equations
Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
Nodal and Mesh Analysis by Inspection
Circuit Analysis with PSpice

SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

Invert a general n n matrix.

Problem 3.1

The inverse of a nonsingular n n matrix

a 11
a
21
A =

a
n1

a 12
a 22

a n2

 a 1n
 a 2n

 
 a nn

is given by

c11

C
1 c12
-1
A =
=


c
1n
T

c 21
c 22

c 2n

 c n1
 cn2
 
 c nn

where is the determinant of the matrix A and c ij is the cofactor of a ij in .

The value of the determinant, , can be obtained by expanding along the ith row

a 11
a 21

a 12
a 22

a n1

a n2

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 a 1n
 a 2n
= (-1) i+1 a i1 m i1 + (-1) i+ 2 a i 2 m i 2 +  + (-1) i+ n a in m in
 
 a nn

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or the jth column

a 11
a 21

a 12
a 22

a n1

a n2

 a 1n
 a 2n
= (-1)1+ j a 1 j m 1 j + (-1) 2+ j a 2 j m 2 j +  + (-1) n + j a nj m nj
 
 a nn

where m ij , the minor of a ij in , is a (n 1) (n 1) determinant of the submatrix of A

obtained by removing the ith row and the jth column.

c ij = (-1) i+ j m ij .

The cofactor of a ij in is

The transpose of the cofactor matrix is also known as the adjoint of the matrix; i.e., adj A = C T .

A -1 =

Therefore,

Problem 3.2

adj A C T
=
det A

Solve a general system of simultaneous equations using Cramer's rule.

Given a system of simultaneous equations having the form

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 +  + a 1n x n = b1
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 +  + a 2 n x n = b 2




a n1 x 1 + a n 2 x 2 +  + a nn x n = b n
where there are n unknowns, x 1 , x 2 , , x n , to be determined.
The matrix representation of the system of simultaneous equations is

a 11
a
21

a
n1

a 12
a 22

a n2

 a 1n x 1
 a 2n x 2

  
 a nn x n

b1
b
= 2

b
n

AX = B

or

where

a 11
a
21
A =


a
n1

a 12
a 22

a n2

 a 1n
 a 2n
,
 
 a nn

x1
x
2
X=


x
n

b1
b
2
B=


b
n

Note that A is a square ( n n ) matrix, while X and B are ( n 1 ) column matrices.

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Cramer's rule states that the solution to the system of simultaneous equations, AX = B , is

x1 =

1
2
n
, x2 =
, , x n =

where the 's are the determinants given by

1 =

b1
b2

a 12
a 22


bn


a n2

 a 1n
 a 2n
 
 a nn

2 =

a 11
a 21

a 12
a 22

 a 1n
 a 2n

a n1

a n2

 
 a nn

a 11
a 21

a n1

b1  a 1n
b 2  a 2n
  
b n  a nn

n =

a 11
a 21

a 12
a 22

a n1

a n2

 b1
 b2
 
 bn

Notice that is the determinant of matrix A and k is with its kth column replaced with
matrix B.
Obviously, Cramer's rule only applies when 0 . In the case that = 0 , the set of equations
has no unique solution because the equations are linearly dependent.
See Problem 3.1 to find out how to calculate the value of a determinant of a matrix.

NODAL ANALYSIS

Problem 3.3

Find the currents i1 through i 4 and the voltage v o in Figure 3.1.

[3.3]

vo

10 A

i1

i2

i3

10

20

30

i4
2A

60

Figure 3.1

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Applying KCL to the non-reference node,

vo vo vo
vo
+
+
+2+
10 20 30
60
480 = 12 v o
v o = 40 V

10 =

Thus,

vo
10
i1 = 4 A

vo
20
i2 = 2 A

i1 =

vo
30
i 3 = 1.3333 A

i2 =

i3 =

vo
60
i 4 = 666.7 mA
i4 =

Given the circuit in Figure 3.1, find I x .

Problem 3.4

10
Ix
20

10

2A

3A

Figure 3.1

Ix = 2 A

NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES

Given the circuit in Figure 3.1, solve for Vx .

Problem 3.5

20

10 V

+
20 V

20

Vx

10

9A

10

Figure 3.1

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 Carefully DEFINE the problem.

Each component is labeled completely. The problem is clear.
PRESENT everything you know about the problem.
The goal of the problem is to find Vx . Letting the lower node be the reference node, we need
to find the voltage to the right of the 10-V voltage source.
A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected
between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it. Hence, it is
clear that the two nodes on either side of the 10-V voltage source form a supernode.
A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in
common. Hence, the two meshes on the right half of the circuit create a supermesh, with the
9-A current source in common.
Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.
The two methods of analysis of simple circuits, such as the one above, are nodal analysis and
mesh analysis. Because the circuit contains three nodes in addition to the reference node,
nodal analysis produces a set of three equations and three unknowns. Yet, the supernode
changes the set to two equations and a constraint equation. On the other hand, the circuit has
four loops. Thus, mesh analysis produces four equations and four unknowns. The supermesh
changes the set to three equations and a constraint equation.
Because the goal of the problem is to find a voltage, the obvious choice is to use nodal
analysis to find the voltages at each node of the circuit. If mesh analysis were used to find
the mesh currents, Ohm's law would also be needed to find the voltage across the resistor.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
Begin the problem solution by identifying the nodes, including the supernode.

20

10 V
v1

v2

v3

+
20 V

20

Vx

10

9A

10

Clearly,

Vx = v 2

Use nodal analysis to find v1 , v 2 , and v 3 .

At the supernode (nodes 1 & 2):

v1 20 v1 0 v 2 0 v 2 v 3
+
+
+
=0
20
20
10
5

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At node 3:

v3 v2
v 0
9+ 3
=0
5
10

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Simplifying,

( v1 20) + v1 + 2 v 2 + (4)( v 2 v 3 ) = 0
2 v1 + 6 v 2 4 v 3 = 20
v1 + 3 v 2 2 v 3 = 10

(2)( v 3 v 2 ) + v 3 = 90
- 2 v 2 + 3 v 3 = 90

This is a set of two equations and three unknowns. Thus, we must find a constraint equation.
The supernode will provide the constraint equation.
v 2 = v1 + 10
v 1 = v 2 10
or
Substitute the constraint equation into the simplified equation from the supernode. Then, this
equation plus two times the simplified equation from node 3 will isolate v 3 .

( v 2 10) + 3 v 2 2 v 3 = 10
(2) [ - 2 v 2 + 3 v 3 = 90 ]
[ 4 v 2 2 v 3 = 20 ] + [ - 4 v 2 + 6v 3 = 180 ] = [ 4 v 3 = 200 ]
v 3 = 50 volts
The equation at node 3 can be written,

2 v 2 = 3 v 3 90
v 2 = (1 2)[ (3)(50) 90 ] = (1 2)(150 90) = (1 2)(60) = 30 volts
The constraint equation gives

v 1 = v 2 10 = 30 10 = 20 volts
Therefore,

Vx = v 2 = 30 volts

EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.

This circuit can be analyzed using mesh analysis to verify the solution. This would provide
practice analyzing a circuit with a supermesh. Mesh analysis will be discussed later in this
chapter. So, we will check our solution using KCL at each node.
For the supernode,

v1 20 v1 v 2 v 2 v 3 20 20 20 30 30 50
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
= 0 +1+ 3 4 = 0
20
20 10
5
20
20 10
5
For node 3,

v3 v2
v 3 50 30
50
9+
=
9+
= 49+5= 0
5
10
5
10
KCL is not violated. Thus, our check for accuracy was successful.

Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return to ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.

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Vx = 30 V

Using nodal analysis, find Vo in Figure 3.1.

[3.7]

Problem 3.6

i1

i3

v1

i2
+

+
Vo

3V

4 Vo

Figure 3.1

v1 v1 3 v1 4 Vo
+
+
=0
5
1
5

i1 + i 2 + i 3 = 0

7 v1 4 Vo = 15

2
5
v1
v1 = Vo
or
5
2
(2)(15)
5
(7) Vo 4 Vo = 15
Vo =
2
27
Vo =

But
So that

Vo = 1.1111 V

Problem 3.7

Given the circuit in Figure 3.1, solve for Vx using matrix inversion.

10
+
10

10

Vx
10

2A

80 V

Figure 3.1

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10

v1
+
10

Vx
10

2A

v 1 = Vx + v 2 or

Clearly,

10

v2

80 V

Vx = v 1 v 2

Use nodal analysis to find v1 and v 2 .

At node 1 :
At node 2 :

v1 0
v v2
2+ 1
=0
10
10

v 2 80 v 2 0 v 2 v 1
+
+
=0
10
10
10

Simplifying,

v1 20 + v1 v 2 = 0
2 v1 v 2 = 20

v 2 80 + v 2 + v 2 v 1 = 0
- v1 + 3 v 2 = 80

The system of simultaneous equations is

2 - 1 v1 20
- 1 3 v = 80

2
v1
v
2
Therefore,

Problem 3.8

1 3 1 20 1 60 + 80 1 140 28
=
6 1 1 2 80 = 5 20 + 160 = 5 180 = 36

Vx = v1 v 2 = 28 36
Vx = - 8 V

Solve Problem 3.5 using Cramer's rule.

Vx = 30 V

This answer is the same as that found in Problem 3.5.

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MESH ANALYSIS

Given the circuit in Figure 3.1, solve for the loop currents, i1 and i 2 , using

Problem 3.9
mesh analysis.

20

10

70 V

20

i1

i2

100 V

Figure 3.1
For loop 1 :

For loop 2 :

- 70 + 10 i1 + (20)(i 1 i 2 ) = 0
30 i 1 20 i 2 = 70
3 i1 2 i 2 = 7

(20)(i 2 i1 ) + 20 i 2 + 100 = 0
- 20 i 1 + 40 i 2 = -100
- 2 i 1 + 4 i 2 = -10

Thus, the system of simultaneous equations is

3 - 2 i1 7
i1
1
- 2 4 i = - 10 or i = 12 4

2
i1 = 1 A

Therefore,
Problem 3.10

and

[3.33]

4 2 7 1 8 1
2 3 - 10 = 8 - 16 = - 2

i2 = - 2 A

Apply mesh analysis to find i in Figure 3.1.

10
2

6V

i1

1
4

i2

8V

i3

Figure 3.1

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For loop 1 :

6 = 12 i 1 2 i 2

3 = 6 i1 i 2

For loop 2 :

- 8 = 7 i 2 2 i1 i 3

For loop 3 :

- 8 + 6 + 6 i3 i 2 = 0
2 = 6 i 3 i 2

(1)

8 = 2i 1 7 i 2 + i 3

(2)
(3)

Putting (1), (2), and (3) in matrix form,

6 - 1 0 i1 3

2 - 7 1 i2 = 8
0 - 1 6 i 3 2
6 -1 0
= 2 - 7 1 = -234
0 -1 6

6 3 0
2 = 2 8 1 = 240
0 2 6

6 -1 3
3 = 2 - 7 8 = -38
0 -1 2

Clearly,

i = i3 i2 =
i = 1.188 A

3 2 - 38 240
=
- 234

MESH ANALYSIS WITH CURRENT SOURCES

Given the circuit shown in Figure 3.1, find I x using mesh analysis.

Problem 3.11

10

25 V

Ix

1A

20

20

50 V

Figure 3.1
Carefully DEFINE the problem.
Each component is labeled completely. The problem is clear.

PRESENT everything you know about the problem.

A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in
common. Hence, the leftmost mesh and the middle mesh create a supermesh, with the 1-A
current source in common.

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 Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.
The problem clearly states to use mesh analysis. This makes sense because the goal of the
problem is to find a current, I x , and mesh analysis produces the currents in each mesh, or
loop, of a circuit.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
Begin the problem solution by identifying the meshes, including the supermesh.

10

25 V

Ix

1A

i1

i2

20

20

i3

50 V

I x = i3

Clearly,

Use mesh analysis to find i1 , i 2 , and i 3 .

For the supermesh (loops 1 & 2) :

1 = i 2 i1

where
For loop 3 :

- 25 + 10 i1 + (20)(i 2 i 3 ) = 0
i1 = i 2 1
or
(constraint equation)
50 + (20)(i 3 i 2 ) + 20 i 3 = 0

Substitute the constraint equation into the equation for the supermesh and simplify,

- 25 + 10 i 2 10 + 20 i 2 20 i 3 = 0
50 + 20 i 3 20 i 2 + 20 i 3 = 0
Simplifying further,

30 i 2 20 i 3 = 35
- 20 i 2 + 40 i 3 = -50

or

6i2 4i3 = 7
- 2 i 2 + 4 i 3 = -5

The system of simultaneous equations is

6 - 4 i2 7
-2 4 i = -5

3
i2
i
3
and

1 4 4 7 1 8 0.5
= 24 8 2 6 - 5 = 16 - 16 = - 1

i1 = i 2 1 = 0.5 1 = -0.5

Therefore, I x = i 3 = -1 amp

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 EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.

This circuit has only one unknown node after identifying the lower node as the reference
node. Hence, it can easily be analyzed using nodal analysis.

10

25 V

Ix

vx

20

20

1A

50 V

v x 25
v x v x 50
1+
+
=0
10
20
20
4 v x = 120
v x = 30 volts
Using Ohm's law,

Ix =

v x 50 30 50
=
= -1amp
20
20

This matches the answer that was obtained using mesh analysis. Our check for accuracy was
successful.
Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return to ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.

Ix = - 1 A

Problem 3.12

Use mesh analysis to obtain i o in the circuit of Figure 3.1.

[3.35]

6V
+

2
io
5

4
+

12 V

3A

Figure 3.1

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6V
+

i3

io

i2
+

12 V

i1
3A
i1

i2

Loops 1 and 2 form a supermesh. For the supermesh,

6 i1 + 4 i 2 5 i 3 + 12 = 0

(1)

6 + 7 i 3 i1 4 i 2 = 0

(2)

i 2 = 3 + i1

(3)

For loop 3,

Also,

Putting (1), (2), and (3) into matrix form,

6 4 - 5 i1

1 4 - 7 i2
- 1 1 0 i 3

- 12

= 6
3

Solving this system of equations yields

i1 = -3.067 amps

i 2 = -0.06667 amps
i 3 = -1.3333 amps
Therefore,

i o = i 1 i 3 = -3.067 (-1.3333)
i o = - 1.7333 A

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Given the circuit as shown in Figure 3.1, solve for I x using mesh analysis.

Problem 3.13

30

30 V

Ix

20

2A

24

Figure 3.1

Ix = 1 A

NODAL AND MESH ANALYSIS BY INSPECTION

[3.51]
Obtain the node-voltage equations for the circuit shown in
Problem 3.14
Figure 3.1 by inspection. Determine the node voltages v1 and v 2 .

6A

v1

3A

v2

5A

Figure 3.1

1 1
G 11 = + = 1.25
1 4
i1 = 6 3 = 3

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G 12 = -1 = G 21

1 1
G 22 = + = 1.5
1 2

i 2 = 5 6 = -1

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Hence, we have

1.25 - 1 v 1
- 1 1.5 v

3
= -1

1.25 - 1
1 1.5 1
=
- 1 1.5
1 1.25

-1

v1
v
2

where

= (1.25)(1.5) (-1)(-1) = 0.875

1.7143 1.1429 3 (3)(1.7143) + (-1)(1.1429) 4

= 1.1429 1.4286 - 1 = (3)(1.1429) + (-1)(1.4286) = 2

Clearly,

v1 = 4 V

and

v2 = 2 V

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS WITH PSPICE

Problem 3.15

Solve Problem 3.13 using PSpice.

Clearly, I x is the current flowing through R3 and the current probe reads I x = 1.0 A .

This answer is the same as the answer obtained in Problem 3.13.

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