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Grammar Appendix
Present Simple and Continuous
FORM

USE

EXAMPLES

PRESENT SIMPLE

a. a habitual action or a fact

I watch sport at the weekends.

bare infinitive (-s / -es)

b. a general truth

The earth revolves around the sun.

(-) do / does + not + bare infinitive

c. stative verbs (see, hear, etc.)

I dont remember the address.

(?) Do / Does + subject + bare

infinitive

d. future (timetable / schedule)

University starts next Monday.

My train leaves in two hours.

e. narrative, commentary about a

sporting event, joke, etc.

I arrive at the hotel and I find

He aims for the basket oh, he misses!

a. an action in progress at the

time of speaking

Were watching the news now.

b. an incomplete action still in

progress, usually temporary

Im taking a judo course.

c. an arrangement or plan in the

near future

We are meeting Sue at the cinema

tonight.

d. With always, forever, constantly,

etc., for an action that happens
very often (usually a criticism or
a complaint)

She is forever arranging little suprises

for us.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS
am / is / are + verb-ing
(-) am / is / are + not + verb-ing
(?) Am / Is / Are + subject + verb-ing

Paul is always losing things.

Passive
They grow oranges here. Oranges are grown here.
The teacher is marking our tests now. Our tests are being marked by the teacher now.

Time Expressions

Present Simple: always, often, usually, occasionally, sometimes, rarely, hardly ever, scarcely, never, every week,
once / twice a year, on Monday

Present Continuous: now, right now, at the moment, today, tonight

With a future meaning: this week, next week, tomorrow, soon, on Tuesday

Stative Verbs
1. Stative verbs refer to the state of things rather than an action and are not usually used in the continuous form.
These verbs express:

senses: feel, hear, smell, sound, see, taste, notice, recognise

mental activities: appear, believe, consider, depend, doubt, expect, feel, forget, forgive, guess, hope, imagine,
know, mean, mind, prefer, realise, remember, seem, suppose, think, understand

possession: belong to, have, own, owe, possess

emotion: adore, desire, dislike, fear, hate, like, love, need, want, wish

measurements: cost, equal, measure, weigh

2. Some of these verbs can be used in the continuous form when the meaning changes from a state to an
activity in progress.
I have a new bicycle. (possess)

Mum feels that Ive made a good choice. (opinion)

Im having supper at home. (eating)

Are you feeling better? (physical feeling)

I think its a good idea. (opinion)

Do you see what I mean? (understand)

Im thinking of travelling abroad. (considering)

Jane is seeing her boyfriend tonight. (meeting)

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The Future: Future Simple and Continuous, be going to,

Future Perfect, Present Simple and Continuous
USE

FORM

EXAMPLES

FUTURE SIMPLE

a. information about the future

Well visit you tomorrow.

will + bare infinitive

b. a spontaneous decision

Ill do the shopping.

(-) will not + bare infinitive

c. a suggestion / offer / request

Will you play the piano for us, please?

(?) Will + subject + bare infinitive

d. a prediction or warning

Youll catch cold if you dont wear a hat.

e. willingness or refusal to do
something

Ill make the salad, but I wont clean

the chicken.

f.

I know she will like this CD.

opinion or speculation about the

future (often after verbs like: think,
know, expect, suppose, be sure)

Im sure hell arrive soon.

a. when we know an action will be in

progress at a certain time in the
future

Ill be writing a test between 3.00 and

5.00 this afternoon.

(?) Will + subject + be + verb-ing

b. a future action that has been

pre-arranged

Kylie Minogue will be appearing here

next month.

be going to + bare infinitive

a. a plan or intention

I am going to visit them in May.

b. a prediction based on present

evidence

The wind is strong. Theres going to be

a storm soon.

an activity that will be completed by a

certain time in the future

By tomorrow, the cleaners will have

finished all the office carpets.

to emphasise how long an activity has

been going on by a specific time in the
future

By June, I will have been living in this

house for three years.

a planned future action or series of

actions connected with a timetable,
a programme or a journey

My dentist appointment is tomorrow, so

I cant come to the cinema with you.

personal arrangements and fixed plans

I am getting my bicycle back this

afternoon.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS
will be + verb-ing
(-) will not be + verb-ing

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE

will have + past participle
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
will have been + verb-ing
PRESENT SIMPLE

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Her plane arrives at 2.00 a.m.

Passive
The newspaper will publish your article. Your article will be published by the newspaper.
The police are going to question the suspect. The suspect is going to be questioned by the police.
By tomorrow, the cleaner will have washed the windows. By tomorrow, the windows will have been washed.
The Future Continuous and the Future Perfect Continuous have no passive form.

Notes
1. Be about to + bare infinitive can be used to express the future. It refers to something that will happen very soon.
I am about to leave for Paris.
2. Some words, such as time expressions (temporals) and conditionals, are followed by the present tense although
they have a future meaning.
Phone me if you need help tomorrow. (conditional)
Call me when Tom arrives. (temporal)
Take an umbrella in case it rains later.

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Past Simple and Continuous, Past Perfect Simple and Continuous,

used to / would
FORM
PAST SIMPLE
verb-ed (except irregular verbs)
(-) did not + bare infinitive
(?) Did + subject + bare infinitive

PAST CONTINUOUS
was / were + verb-ing
(-) was / were not + verb-ing
(?) Was / Were + subject + verb-ing

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

had + past participle

USE

EXAMPLES

a. a completed action that took place

at a definite time in the past

We bought the house a year ago.

I didnt understand the instructions.

b. several actions that happened in the

past one after another

She got up, took her bag and left.

c. the main events in a narrative

The speeding car hit a dog and did not

stop.

a. an action in progress at a specific

time in the past

At 9.00 pm last night, we were visiting

friends.

b. two incomplete actions taking place

at the same time in the past

I was playing the guitar while Cindy

was singing.

c. an action in progress (Past

Continuous) interrupted by another
action (Past Simple)

We were walking home when the storm

broke.

d. background to a narrative

We looked outside. It was raining hard

and the wind was howling.

an activity that happened before

another activity or time in the past

He did well in his exam; he had studied

really hard.
By the time we found the hall, the
meeting had started.

(-) had not + past participle

(?) Had + subject + past participle

No sooner had we heard the thunder

than the lights went out.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
had been + verb-ing
(-) had not been + verb-ing
(?) Had + subject + been + verb-ing

a. an action which started before a

particular time in the past and was
still in progress at that time

She realised that she had been reading

the same page for half an hour.

b. an action that had just finished at a

particular time in the past but was
still relevant at that time

I was tired when I got home because Id

been working hard all day.

c. to say how long something had

been happening before something
else happened

Ann had been waiting for 20 minutes

when she realised she was in the wrong
office.

Passive
We bought the house a year ago. The house was bought a year ago.
The students were discussing the exam. The exam was being discussed by the students.
By 10 pm, we had collected 5,000. By 10 pm, 5,000 had been collected.
The Past Perfect Continuous has no passive form.

Time Expressions

Past Simple: a month / year ago, yesterday, last week / month, in 1963 / November, when, the other day

Past Continuous: yesterday, at 9 oclock, as, while

Past Perfect Simple: by the time, after, before, when, as soon as, already, for, no sooner than

Past Perfect Continuous: for, since, all night / week

continued

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used to / be used to / get used to / would

FORM
used to + bare infinitive
(-) did not use to /
never used to + bare infinitive

EXAMPLES

USE
a. an action that happened regularly in
the past but no longer happens

I didnt use to go to the gym. (but now I

do)

(?) Did + subject + use to + bare

infinitive

be used to + noun / gerund

I used to / would play with imaginary

friends when I was younger.

Did you use to go to parties when you

were my age?
b. a past habit, state or situation

I used to own a bicycle, but I sold it.

be accustomed to something which is

no longer new or strange
(can be expressed in all tenses)

I am used to sleeping late at the

weekend.
Hes not used to his new home yet.
I was used to dancing every day and
didnt want to give it up.

get used to + noun / gerund

the process of becoming accustomed

to something
(can be expressed in all tenses)

David is getting used to his new school.

We quickly got used to life in the country.
I cant get used to studying all day.

Note: Used to can be replaced by would for actions that happened regularly. We use it in positive sentences.
I would often play with imaginary friends when I was younger.

Present Perfect Simple and Continuous

FORM
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
have / has + past participle
(-) have / has not + past participle
(?) Have / Has + subject + past
participle

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

have / has been + verb-ing
(-) have / has not been + verb-ing
(?) Have / Has + subject + been +
verb-ing

USES

EXAMPLES

a. an action that took place at an

unstated time in the past but has
present relevance

I have seen the doctor and everything

is OK.

b. an action that began in the past and

continues up to the present (usually
with stative verbs and for and since)

We have studied here for five years.

c. for unfinished time periods

I havent read the paper today.

d. an action that happened several

times or repeatedly in the past

I have met her twice.

e. after superlatives and expressions

like it / this is the first / second time

This is the worst film Ive ever seen.

a. an action that began in the past and

continues up to the present

She has been talking on the phone for

half an hour.

b. to say how long something has

been happening (usually with for
and since)

I have been sleeping all afternoon.

c. an action that has just finished and

still influences the present

The dog is wet because he has been

running in the rain.

We have just finished the test.

I have known the twins since they were
babies.

Passive
Someone has found my book. My book has been found.

Have they invited you? Have you been invited?

The Present Perfect Continuous has no passive form.

Time Expressions

Present Perfect Simple: just, yet, already, ever, never, lately, recently, so far, always, for, since, how long

Present Perfect Continuous: for, since, all day / morning, how long

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Gerunds and Infinitives

1. Verbs and expressions followed by a gerund (verb-ing)
admit
appreciate
avoid
cant help
cant stand
consider
delay

deny
discuss
dislike
end up
enjoy
fancy
feel like

I appreciate hearing from you.

finish
forget
go
have trouble
imagine
involve
its no use / good

its worth
keep
look forward to
mention
mind
miss

She doesnt mind helping you.

postpone
practise
recall
recommend
resent
resist

risk
spend (time)
stop
suggest
tolerate
understand

He spends a lot of time reading.

2. Verbs and expressions followed by an infinitive (to + verb)

afford
agree
appear
arrange
ask
attempt
be afraid
be pleased

be ready
be willing
beg
care
claim
consent
decide
demand

deserve
expect
fail
forget
have a chance
hesitate
hope
its difficult

He deserved to win the competition.

its easy
learn
manage
mean
need
offer
plan

prepare
pretend
promise
refuse
seem
struggle
swear

Will you have a chance to speak to her?

tend
threaten
volunteer
wait
want
wish
would like
Im afraid to tell Bill the truth.

3. Verbs followed by a noun / pronoun + infinitive

advise
allow
ask
beg
cause

challenge
convince
dare
enable
encourage

I expected John to phone me.

expect
forbid
force
help
hire

instruct
invite
need
order
permit

Our teacher encourages us to read.

persuade
remind
require
teach
tell

urge
want
warn

They urged us to come early.

4. Verbs followed either by a gerund or an infinitive without a change in meaning

begin
cant bear

continue
hate

intend
love

prefer
start

I cant bear to hear the shouting. I intend to travel in the future.

I cant bear hearing the shouting. I intend travelling in the future.

She continued to work.

She continued working.

5. Verbs followed by a gerund or an infinitive with a change in meaning

forget

regret

remember

stop

try

I wont forget visiting Gran in hospital. (forget what happened)

I wont forget to visit Gran. (forget what to do)
I regret shouting at her. (be sorry about what happened)
I regret to tell you that you failed the exam. (be sorry about what you must do)
I remember phoning Aunt Mary. (remember what happened)
Remember to phone Aunt Mary! (remember what to do)
I stopped eating chocolate. (I no longer eat chocolate.)
I stopped to eat chocolate. (I stopped what I was doing in order to eat chocolate.)
I tried to get the chair through the door but it was too big. (attempt)
I tried taking some aspirin but my headache didnt go away. (experiment)
6. Other uses of gerunds

as the subject

Sunbathing is unhealthy.

after prepositions

Hes tired of studying every day.

continued

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Review of the Passive: be + past participle

The passive is formed with the verb to be + past participle.
FORM

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

PRESENT SIMPLE

We grow oranges here.

Oranges are grown here.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

They are washing the dishes.

The dishes are being washed.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

They have painted our house.

Our house has been painted.

PAST SIMPLE

He opened the window.

The window was opened.

PAST CONTINUOUS

We were washing the dishes.

The dishes were being washed.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

She had done the shopping.

The shopping had been done.

FUTURE SIMPLE

We will make the beds.

The beds will be made.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE

She will have cleaned her room.

Her room will have been cleaned.

BE GOING TO

They are going to print the article.

The article is going to be printed.

MODAL

He can prepare the report.

The report can be prepared.

SEMI-MODAL

She has to hand in the form today.

The form has to be handed in today.

MODAL PERFECT

She should have taken the test.

The test should have been taken.

Notes
1. The following tenses do not have a passive form: Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous,
Future Continuous and Future Perfect Continuous.
2. The agent is not mentioned when it is obvious, unimportant or unknown.
Her baby was born last month.

Potatoes are grown here.

3. By + agent is used when it is important to know who does the action.

These stamps were collected by my grandfather.
4. When the active sentence has both a direct and indirect object, we usually begin the passive sentence with the
indirect object (the person).
We gave Jim a CD. Jim was given a CD. (less common: A CD was given to Jim.)
5. Dont forget the particle with phrasal verbs in the passive.
She turned down the offer. The offer was turned down.
6. Some verbs (believe, consider, expect, know, say, think, suppose) are followed by the infinitive when
used in the passive.
He is considered to be an excellent doctor.
John was expected to be ready at noon. (We can also say: John was expected to have been ready at noon.)

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Modals and Semi-Modals

MODAL
can

USE

EXAMPLES

a. a general ability in the present or future

I can play the piano.

I can come over later.

b. a request

Can I ride your bicycle?

c. permission

You can have some cake.

cant

an impossibility or something hard to believe Jim cant be away; hes just called me.

could

a. a general ability in the past (past form

of can)

He could read when he was four.

b. possibility (not certain)

He could either be at home or at school.

c. a polite request / asking permission

Could I use your computer?

d. an impossibility or inability in the past

I couldnt find my book.

e. a suggestion

You could try talking to her.

a. a future possibility

I may go on a picnic.

may

might

will

would

should / ought to

must

b. a polite request (formal)

May I close the window?

c. permission (formal)

You may borrow my pen.

a. a future possibility

It might stop raining later today.

b. past form of may

She said that she might phone us tonight.

a. a certainty or prediction

She will leave tomorrow evening.

b. willingness / a spontaneous decision

Ill get some bread.

c. a polite request

Will you pour me some tea, please?

a. a polite request

Would you phone John for me?

b. repeated past action

When I was ill, I would spend hours

watching TV.

c. past form of will

I hoped she would write to us.

d. refusal or impossibility (negative)

We tried to tell her but she wouldnt listen.

a. an obligation

I should go home soon.

b. advice

You should stay in bed today.

c. a polite suggestion when unsure of the

answer

Should I leave the book here?

d. logical probability

She ought to get the results today.

She should get back any day now.

a. a strong necessity

You must follow the doctors instructions.

b. a strong obligation

You must stop at a red traffic light.

c. almost certainty

She studied all day. She must be tired.

d. a strong recommendation

You must taste this coffee.

mustnt

prohibition

You mustnt walk on the grass.

shall

a. a polite suggestion or offer of help

(with I or we)

Shall I lock the windows?

b. future (with pronouns I or we as subject

formal)

We shall send a reply to the invitation.

lack of necessity (= dont have to)

You neednt pay me until next month.

neednt

continued

GRAMMAR APPENDIX
SEMI-MODAL
be able to

have / has to

GRAMMAR APPENDIX
USE

GRAMMAR APPENDIX
EXAMPLES

a. general ability (= can)

(can be expressed in all tenses)

The child is able to dress himself.

You will be able to come home soon.

b. a specific past ability / managing to

do something despite difficulty

We were able to rescue the dog from

the fire. (not: We could rescue )

an obligation or necessity
(can be expressed in all tenses)

I have to wear a seat belt.

I dont have to get up early today.
She had to study for a test yesterday.
We will have to do the shopping
tomorrow.

MODAL PERFECT

USE

EXAMPLES

must have + past participle

when we are quite sure about a past

action

Johns car wasnt there. He must have

left early.

cant have + past participle

when we are sure that something did

not happen

They cant have heard the news. We

kept it a secret.

may / might / could have + past

participle

when we do not know what happened

in the past (we are guessing)

Ann hasnt phoned yet. She may have

overslept.

could have + past participle

when we had the ability to do

something in the past but did not do it

I could have baked a cake, but I

ordered one instead.

should / ought to have + past

participle

a. when expectations were not fulfilled

They should have contacted us by

now, but they havent.

b. when sensible advice was not

followed

You should have apologised to Tim.

would have + past participle

willingness to do something, but didnt

do it

I would have visited Gran, but I was ill.

neednt have + past participle

it wasnt necessary to do something

(but it was done anyway)

You neednt have worked so hard. I

could have helped you.

will have + past participle

(Future Perfect)

an action that will be completed by

some point in the future

By this time next year, I will have

learned to drive.

Passive
They may sell their house. Their house may be sold.
You have to clean your room. Your room has to be cleaned.
They should have contacted us We should have been contacted.

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Relative Clauses
A relative clause gives information about a noun. It immediately follows the noun it describes and often begins
with a relative pronoun.
A defining relative clause identifies the noun it refers to. A non-defining relative clause gives additional
information about something that is already clearly identified. Non-defining relative clauses are separated by
commas from the rest of the sentence.
USE

RELATIVE PRONOUN

EXAMPLES

who

for people

The children who live here are very friendly. (defining)

She is the one who I voted for. (defining)
Jane, who lives next door, is a nurse. (non-defining)

which

for things and animals

The play which we saw was excellent. (defining)

This flat, which is in the centre of the city, is suitable
for us. (non-defining)

that

whom

can replace who or which in

defining relative clauses only

Heres the child that sang so well.

Did you buy the shoes that you wanted?

a.

often used after words like all,

none, little, few, anything,
nothing

There is little that we can do.

b.

after superlatives (often with

the Present Perfect)

Casablanca was the best film that I have ever seen.

for people used in formal English

a.

as the object

This is the teacher whom I described. (defining)

b.

after prepositions

She is the candidate for whom I voted. (defining)

The Bartons, to whom we have just spoken, are coming
to visit us soon. (non-defining)

whose

to show possession

The girl whose bicycle was damaged is upset. (defining)

Tim Smith, whose teaching methods are really good,
is a teacher at our school. (non-defining)

where

for places

The house where I grew up looks the same. (defining)

Here is the Lifestyle Club, where I do aerobics.
(non-defining)

when

for time

I remember the day when (that) we first met. (defining)

I met her in March, when I was taking a computer course.
(non-defining)

Note
Who, whom, which or that may be omitted from a defining relative clause when it is the object of the verb in the
relative clause. (This is more common in spoken English.)
The play (that / which) we saw was excellent.

Did you buy the shoes (that / which) you wanted?

This is the teacher (whom) I described to you.

She is the one (that) I voted for.

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Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)

When we report what someone has said, if the reporting verb is in the past, we move the verb of the sentence back
one tense. The chart below reviews these tense changes from direct to indirect speech.
DIRECT

INDIRECT

PRESENT SIMPLE

PAST SIMPLE

He said, I go to school by bus.

He said (that) he went to school by bus.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

PAST CONTINUOUS

She said, I am learning French.

She said (that) she was learning French.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

He said, I have written a reply.

He said (that) he had written a reply.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

She said, I have been doing exercises.

She said (that) she had been doing exercises.

PAST SIMPLE

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

She said, I practised the piano.

She said (that) she had practised the piano.

PAST CONTINUOUS

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

He said, I was playing a computer game.

He said (that) he had been playing a computer game.

FUTURE

FUTURE PAST

He said, I will book the tickets.

He said (that) he would book the tickets.

She said, I will be marking tests.

She said (that) she would be marking tests.

IMPERATIVE

TO + BARE INFINITIVE

He said, Stop talking!

He told me to stop talking.

She said, Dont waste paper.

She asked us not to waste paper.

MODAL / SEMI MODAL

MODAL

He said, I can write clearly.

He said that he could write clearly.

He asked, Shall I hang up the washing?

He asked if he should hang up the washing.

He said, I may play tennis on Saturday.

He said that he might play tennis on Saturday.

He said, I have to hand in my composition.

He said that he had to hand in his composition.

TIME EXPRESSIONS

TIME EXPRESSIONS

now

then

today

that day

yesterday

the day before, the previous day

tomorrow

the next / following day, the day after

next week / month

the next / following week / month

last week / month

the previous week / month, the week / month before

a week ago

the week before

here

there

this

that

these

those

Notes
1. The Past Perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous do not change in indirect speech.
She said, I had expected a reply. She said she had expected a reply.
He said, I had been working there for a while He said he had been working there for a while
when they met.
when we met.
2. The modals should, could, would, might and ought to do not change in indirect speech.
continued

10

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3. If the reporting verb is in the Present Simple, Present Perfect or Future Simple, the tense of the verb in the
main clause does not change.
He says, I can come next week. He says that he can come next week.
4. When we report something which is a fact, we do not need to change the tense of the verb.
She said, PETA is an international organisation. She explained that PETA is (was) an international organisation.
5. a. In indirect speech, the first conditional is often reported as the second conditional.
If I hear any news, I will tell you, she said. She said that if she heard any news, she would tell me.
b. The second and third conditionals require no change in indirect speech.
John said, If I won a trip, Id go to Thailand. John said that if he won a trip, hed go to Thailand.
6. When we report questions, we change the word order to that of a regular sentence. (This is the same rule
as for indirect questions.)
a. Wh- Questions
Why are you crying? he asked. He asked why I was crying.
b. Yes / No Questions
Do you play basketball? No, I dont. She asked whether / if I played basketball, and I replied that I didnt.
7. Different reporting verbs are followed by different structures.
a. Statements
say + (that) + sentence
He said, I found my key. He said (that) he had found his key.
tell + object + (that) + sentence
I said to John, Were watching a film. I told John (that) we were watching a film.
explain that + sentence
She said, You misunderstood the question. She explained that I had misunderstood the question.
b. Questions
ask, wonder, inquire, want to know, would like to know + whether / if + sentence
Mum asked, Will you be home for lunch? Mum asked whether I would be home for lunch.
c.

Commands
tell, order, instruct, ask, beg, invite, warn, command + object + (not) + infinitive
The officer ordered his soldiers, Stop here! The officer ordered his soldiers to stop there.

8. We can also report what someone said with certain verbs + gerunds without giving the exact words the speaker used.
suggest, accuse, apologise, deny + gerund
I said, Lets go to the beach. I suggested going to the beach.
He said, You stole my money. He accused them of stealing his money.
Im sorry Im late, she said.

She apologised for being late.

I didnt break the window, he said. He denied breaking the window.

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GRAMMAR APPENDIX

Conditionals
FORM
Conditional
Clause

EXAMPLES

USE
Main Clause
(Result)

ZERO
CONDITIONAL

If + present

Present Simple

to talk about things that are

generally true

If babies are hungry, they cry.

FIRST
CONDITIONAL

If + present

Future

a. future possibility

If I finish my project, I will hand it in

tomorrow.
Youll be tired tomorrow unless you
go to bed now.

If + present

Modal

If + present

Imperative

If you apologise, she may forgive you.

b. command

If you have to leave, go now.

SECOND
CONDITIONAL
(unreal)

If + Past Simple would / could /

might + bare
infinitive

a hypothetical or imaginary
situation in the present or
future; also used to express
advice, hope or ambition

If I won the lottery, Id travel abroad.

THIRD
CONDITIONAL
(past)

If + Past
Perfect

an unfulfilled condition in the

past; may be used to express
regret about the past

If I had heard earlier, I would have

come over. (but I didnt hear)

would / could /
might + have +
past participle

If I were you, I would buy a computer.

If I had my own piano, I could play
every day.

Notes
1. unless = if not
2. In formal English, we use were for all subjects in the second conditional.
If she were here, she would help us.
3. Other words can be used instead of if.

Suppose / Supposing used to ask What if ? These words are followed by a question.
Suppose / Supposing you had her phone number, would you phone her?

Provided / Providing (that), on condition that, as long as = if and only if

Shell go on holiday provided (that) she saves enough money.
Ill listen on condition that you tell me the whole story.
You can walk where you like as long as you keep off the grass.

In case refers to things we do in order to get ready for something.

Well buy some more food in case Sue and Jack come over.
Compare: in case of + noun
In case of emergency, phone this number. (= If there is an emergency)

Otherwise can replace an if clause.

Wash these strawberries in lots of water. Otherwise, we wont be able to eat them. (= If you dont wash them)

4. Other words that are not followed by will and would when referring to the future include: after, when, until / till, once,
as soon as, as long as, before, the moment that, whenever, by the time, while
When she gets to London, she will phone us.
We will wait here until the rain stops.
We decided that we would go out as soon as the rain stopped.

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Wish Clauses
There are three forms of wish sentences.
FORM

USE

wish + would / could + bare infinitive

wish + Past Simple

EXAMPLES

a. usually refers to the future

I wish she would phone me.

b. a complaint about the present or

a desire for change

I wish it would stop raining.

dissatisfaction with a present situation

I wish I lived near my cousins.

I wish they were here now.

wish + Past Perfect

regret about a past situation

I wish I had refused the invitation.

I wish you hadnt shouted at Bob.

Notes
1. Wish + would can only be used with different subjects.
I wish he would stop shouting. (not: I wish I would run faster. )
2. If only can replace wish and is often used to stress the wish or express deep regret.
If only she would phone me.

If only they were here now.

If only I had refused the invitation.

3. We use were as the form of the verb to be in wishes about the present (as in the second conditional).
I wish Mary were in our class.

The Causative
Have / Get
The verbs have and get can be used to express the idea that we cause or arrange for someone else to do something
for us. The causative can be expressed in different tenses.

do it yourself
I painted my nails.

have someone do something /

get someone to do something

have / get something done (by someone else)

I had / got my nails painted (by the beautician).

I had the beautician paint my nails.

I got the cleaner to wash the windows.

I am polishing my floors.

I am having / getting my floors polished

(by the cleaner).

I am having the cleaner polish my floors.

I got the cleaner to polish my floors.

Make / Let somebody do something (Make / Let + object + bare infinitive)

Make expresses the idea that someone is forced to do something.

My parents made me do my homework.

Do they make you study at the weekend?

Note: When we use made in the passive, we add to + bare infinitive.

The children were made to clean up after the party.

let = allow
My sister let me borrow her jacket.

Do you let your dog sleep in your room?

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GRAMMAR APPENDIX

Special Structures
FORM
so + adjective / adverb

EXAMPLES
The film was so exciting!
How did you get here so quickly?

so + adjective / adverb + that

The cake was so tasty that I ate three slices.

such + noun

The news was such a shock!

such + adjective + noun

Our neighbours are such nice people.

such + adjective + noun + that

It was such a tasty cake that I ate three slices.

enough + noun

She doesnt have enough money.

adjective / adverb + enough

He tried to reach the shelf, but he wasnt tall enough.

adjective / adverb + enough + to + bare infinitive

He plays well enough to be in the team.

too + adjective / adverb

These jeans are too big for me.

He talks too quickly.

too + adjective / adverb + to + bare infinitive

He is too young to drive.

despite / in spite of + noun / verb-ing

We went on a picnic despite / in spite of the cold weather.

In spite of having / Despite having a driving licence, he is
unwilling to drive.

although / even though / though + subject + verb

Although he has a driving licence, he is unwilling to drive.

what + noun phrase

He knew what a difficult job it was.

how + adjective / adverb

He knew how difficult the job was.

its time + to + bare infinitive

Its time to leave.

Its time for us to leave.

its (high / about) time + subject + Past Simple

Its time he stopped behaving so rudely.

had better (+ not) + bare infinitive

Youd better walk carefully.

Hadnt you better ask your parents permission?
Hed better not touch my books.

would rather + bare infinitive (+ than + bare infinitive)

He would rather leave now.

Shed rather see a film than go to a play.

would rather + subject + Past Simple

The doctor would rather I stayed in bed.

Mum would rather we didnt eat sweets.

prefer + noun / gerund + to + noun / gerund

I prefer tea to coffee.

He prefers jogging to running.

prefer (+ not) + to + bare infinitive

We prefer to live in a flat rather than a house.

She prefers not to talk about it.

I insist on + gerund

I insist on leaving now.

I insist (that) + subject + (should) bare infinitive

We insist that she stay with us.

I recommend + gerund

I recommend having lunch at the new fish restaurant.

I recommend / suggest (that) + subject + (should) + bare

infinitive

I recommend that he (should) send in the form today.

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