Chapter 3

Techniquesof Integration
3.1 Integration of Rational Functions
A function of the form P(x)/Q(x), where P and Q are polynomials is called rational function.
We have already considered integrals of simple rational functions. Now we shall consider in
details about integration of rational functions.
px q
dx,
2
3.1.1 Integration of the form ax bx c (p,q are constants)

To evaluate this integral determine M and N such that

M
dx

N
2
2
2
ax bx c
ax bx c
ax bx c dx
1
M ln ax 2 bx c N 2
dx
ax bx c
The second integral can be evaluated by completing the square. This is explained through an
example.

5x 3

x 2 12 x 37 dx

Example :Evaluate
Solution: Let us take
5 x 3 A(2 x 12) B
Equating the coefficients of x and independent tems, we have
2 A 5 or A 5 / 2
12 A B 3 or B 3 12(5 / 2) 33
5x 3
5
2 x 12
1
dx
dx 33 2
dx
2
2
2
x

12
x

37
x

12
x

37
x

12
x

37
Thus

5
2 x 12
1
dx 33
dx

2
2 x 12 x 37
( x 6) 2 1
5
2

ln( x

12 x 37) 33 tan 1 x 6 C

P ( x)
dx,
Q
(
x
)
3.1.2 Integration of the form
using partial fractions.
It is said to be proper fraction if the degree of P(x) is less than degree of Q(x), otherwise, it
is called improper fraction. An improper numerical fraction such as 7/3 may be written as
7/3= 2 + 1/3. Similarly, an improper fraction may be expressed, by division, as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper fraction.

For example,

x4 x3 1
x2 x 1
x 1
x3 x
x3 x
Proper fractions of the form N(x)/D(x) can often be expressed as the sum of simple
fractionswhich than can be integrated
Rules of Partial Factions
Here we shall state the rules by which partial fractions may be found.

2.

A
For each non-repeated linear factor (x- a) of D(x) include a fraction of the form x a
where A is a non-zero constant.
For each non-repeated irreducible (i.e. which cannot be factorized) quadratic factor

3.

Ax B
(ax 2 bx c ) of D(x) include a fraction of the form ax 2 bx c where AndB are
constants.
n
If D(x) contains the repeated factor ( x a ) , the corresponding partial fractions are

1.

An
A1
A2

2
x a ( x a)
( x a)n
If D(x) contains the repeated factor ( ax bx c ) , the corresponding partial fractions
are
A1 x B1
A2 x B2
An x Bn

2
2
2
ax bx c ( ax bx c )
( ax 2 bx c ) n
First write down the partial fractions according to the above rules and then clear the fraction
by multiplying through by the denominator. The resulting expression is an identity, i.e. it is
true for all values of x. To find the values of the constants two methods are available. first
some selected values of x (usually zeros of the denominator) will often give some of the
constants immediately. Second, coefficients of like powers of x may be equated and the
resulting simultaneous equations solved. In some cases a mixture of these two method is
convenient.
2

4.

x4 x3 1
x 3 x dx
Example: Evaluate
Solution: The integral can be expressed as

x4 x3 1
x2 x 1
x 3 x dx x 1 x 3 x dx
2
The denominator factorizes into x( x 1) . Now consider the partial fractions of the proper
fraction part as follows:

x 2 x 1 x 2 x 1 A Bx C

2
x3 x
x ( x 2 1)
x x 1
Clearing the fractions give
x 2 x 1 A( x 2 1) ( Bx C ) x
2

Setting x = 0 yield A 11 . Equating the coefficients x2 and x, we obtain

x4 x3 1
1 2x 1

x 3 x dx x 1 x x 2 1 dx
1
2x
1

x 1 2
2 dx
x x 1 x 1

x2
x ln x ln( x 2 1) tan 1 x K
2

Exercise 3.1:
1.Evaluate the following:

(a)

dx
x 2 x 5
2

2 x 5

x 6 x10
2

(d)

11x 17

(g)

2 x 7 x4
2

(j)
(m)

dx
( x 1)( x 2 ) 2

(b)

dx
2 x 2 x 1 (c)
2

dx
(e)

4 x 17

dx

x 6 x 7

dx
x 7 x 18

dx

x2 2
dx
( x 1)( x 2 2)
(l)

(h)

(k)

dx
2
x 4 x 8 (f)

dx
2 x 8 x 13
2

(i)

2 x 2 9 x 9
x 3 9 x

( 2 x4)
( x 2 )( x 2 4 )

x3 2 x 2 1 dx
4
x 5
dx
2

(
x

2
)( x 3)
2
x 1
(o)
(p)

dx

dx

x
dx
( x 1)( x 2 1)

3.2 Integration of Trigonometric Functions:

cos2 x

1
1
(1 cos 2 x)
sin 2 x (1 cos 2 x)
2
2
2.

3. sec x 1 tan x
2

4. csc x 1 cot x.

Some Standard Trigonometric Integrals

sec x dx tan x C
sec x tan x dx sec x C
3.

csc x dx cot x C
csc x cot x dx csc x C
4.

1.

2.

The above results may be verified by reversing the derivative formula.

sec xdx
Example: Evaluate
This integral can be evaluated as follows:
sec x tan x
sec xdx sec x sec x tan x dx
sec x tan x sec 2 x

dx
sec x tan x
ln sec x tan x C
Thus

sec x dx ln sec x tan x C

csc x dx ln csc x cot x C

(b)

1 cos x dx
2 / 3

(d) 0

tan 2x sec 2x dx

1
dx
(e) 1 sin x

sin
3.2.2 Integration of the form
sin
Example :Evaluate
sin
Solution:I =
Let,

u sin x ,

Then, I =

1 sin x dx

(tan
(c)
/2

(f) 0

x cot 2 x) dx

1
dx
1 cos x

x cosn x dx

x cos5 xdx

x cos5 xdx sin 4 x cos4 x cos xdx sin 4 x(1 sin 2 x) 2 cos xdx

du
cos x, du cos x dx
dx

sin

1
2
1
x(1 sin 2 x) 2 cos xdx u 4 (1 u 2 ) 2 du u 5 u 7 u 9 C
5
7
9

1
2
1
sin 5 x sin 5 x sin 5 x C
5
7
9
Exercise 3.2.2:
1. Evaluate the following:
(a)

sin 2 2 x dx
/2

(d) 0

(b)

cos 3 x dx

(c)

sin 3 x cos 2 x dx

(e)

3.2.3Integrals of the form

sin 2 x cos2 x dx

sin 5 x cos3 x dx

/6

(f) 0

sin 2 3x cos3 3x dx

sin mx cos nx dx , sin mx sin nx dx ,

cos mx cos nx dx

1
sin cos [sin( ) sin( )]
2
(i)
1
cos cos [cos( ) cos( )]
2
(ii)
1
sin sin [cos( ) cos( )]
2
(iii)

Example :Evaluate

sin 7 x cos3x dx
1

Solution:I =

sin 7 x cos3x dx 2 [sin 10 x sin 4 x ]dx 20 cos10 x 8 cos 4 x C

Exercise 3.2.3:
1. Evaluate the following:
(a)

sin 5 x cos3x dx (b) sin 5 x sin 3x dx

(c)

/4
0

cos3 x cos5 x dx

(d)

/6
0

tan
3.2.4Integrals of the form
Example :Evaluate
Solution:I =
Let,

tan

u tan x ,

tan

cos 2 x sin 4 x dx

x sec n x dx

x sec 4 xdx

x sec 4 xdx tan 2 x sec 2 x sec 2 xdx tan 2 x (1 tan 2 x) sec 2 xdx

du
sec2 x, du sec2 x dx
dx
5

 tan

1
1
x (1 tan 2 x) sec 2 xdx u 2 (1 u 2 )du u 5 u 3 C
5
3

Then, I =
1
1
tan 5 x tan 3 x C.
5
3

Exercise 3.2.4:
1. Evaluate the followings:
(a)

2
2
tan x sec x dx

sec
(e)

(h)

x dx

tan
(f)

/4

(b) 0

x sec 4 x dx

sec3 2 x tan 2 x dx

tan 4 x dx

(i)

(c)

tan
(g)

cot3 x dx

tan 3 x dx

x sec x dx

(j)

cot3 x csc3 x dx

3.4 Integration using Trigonometric Substitution

Substitution

x a sin

a2 x2

x a tan
x a sec

a2 x2
x2 a2
Table: 3.2

Note thatanintegration of the form

px q

ax 2 bx c

dx

can be evaluated using any one of the above substitution.

Example1 :Evaluate
Solution: Let,

So,

dx
2

4 x2 2 x

x 2 sin , dx 2 cos d

and 4 x 4 4 sin

dx

4 x

4 x2

4 cos2
2 cos d

4 sin 4 cos
2

1 d
1
csc2 d

2
4 sin 4

1
1 4 x2
cot C
C.
4
4
x

Example2 :Evaluate

Solution:I =

( x 4)

dx

x 2 2 x 10

( x 4)
2

x 2 x 10

dx

( x 4)
2

x 2 x 1 9

dx

x 1 3
( x 1) 2 3 2

x 1 3 tan , dx 3 sec 2 d

Let,

So, I =

( 3 tan 3 ) 3 sec 2 d
9 tan 2 9

x 2 2 x 10

3(1 tan ) sec d x 1

x 2 2 x 10 x 1
x 2 2 x 10

)3
c
3
3
3

3 ln(

Exercise 3.4:
1. Evaluate the following:

(a)

(d)

x2
16 x 2

dx

(b)

dx
2

(g)

25 x (e)
2

x2 4
dx
x
(h)

1 4 x dx
2

(c)

dx
2

x 16
2

x2
4 x2
1

(f) 0

x3 1 x 2 dx

x 2 x8 (i) 1/ 2
dx

dx

2 x 1
2

4 x 4 x 2

dx

dx

dx

3.5Integrals of the form

a cos x b sin x c .

Instruction:Write down
a cos x b sin x c a cos 2

2 x
x
2 sin 2

b 2 sin 2x cos 2x ccos

and then divide numerator and denominator by

cos 2

x
2

2 x
x
2 sin 2

to convert a tangent function.

dx

Example: Evaluate

4 5 cos x
dx

Solution:

I=

dx

4 5 cos x 4cos2 x sin 2 x 5 cos2 x sin 2 x

x
2 dx

x
9 tan 2
2

sec 2

Let,

tan

2
[dividingumerator and denominator by cos ( x / 2) ]

x
x
u , sec 2 dx 2du
2
2

x
3 tan
2
2
3 u
1
2 C
9 u 2 du 2(3) ln 3 u C 3 ln
x
3 tan
2
So, I =

Exercise 3.5:
1. Evaluate the followings:

dx
dx

3 5 cos x (c) 3 2 cos x

dx
(a) 1 sin x cos x (b)

dx
5 4 cos x (e)

/2

(d)

/2

/2
dx
dx

0
4 5 sin x (f)
3 2 sin x cos x