CELL STRUCTURE

Cell Wall:
o Protects cell from changes in osmotic pressure and maintains shape; Anchors flagella
Plasma MB:
o Fluid dynamic and selectively permeable barrier btw cell wall & cytoplasm
o Composition: amphipathic phospholipid bilayer that contains integral & peripheral
proteins
Lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids)
Cholesterol fluidity but mechanical stability and prevents freezing
Unsaturated FAs fluidity
Proteins (integral & peripheral proteins) All transport proteins are integral
proteins
o Q: One layer of charged lipids on either side of a layer of neutral lipids
o Q: Cell coat and microfilaments are attached to the cell MB (golgi complex is not)
Fluid stuff:
o Protoplasm: viscous, translucent, watery material that is a primary component of animal
cells
Water + inorganic ions (K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+) + naturally occurring organic
compounds (proteins)
Irritability = property of protoplasm responsible for cell being sensitive to a
stimulus
Nucleoplasm: Reproduction
Protoplasm of the nucleus // Ground substance
Communicates with the cytoplasm by way of nuclear pores Molecules <
40kD can diffuse freely btw nucleoplasm & cytoplasm thru the pores
Cytoplasm: Synthetic activities
Surrounds the nucleus // Contains cytosol (semitransparent fluid 70-90%
water), organelles, inclusions (metaplasm)
Metaplasm = lifeless material stored in cytoplasm, may appear as:

Glycogen (an example of a cytoplasmic inclusion), Lipid droplets,

Secretory granules, Pigment granules (lipofucin- yellowish brown
substance that in quantity as cells age + melanin-abundant in
epidermis of skin & retina)

Nucleus:
Nuclear membrane: double membrane between nucleus & cytoplasm
Nucleoplasm: ground substance of the nucleus
Nucleolus: site of rRNA/ribosome synthesis (not DNA, tRNA, or mRNA)
o Nonmembranous(unlike nucleus, lysosome, mitochondria, & pinocytotic vesicle)
o NOTE: rRNA is the most abundant RNA in the cell!!!!
Chromosomes = DNA + protein (histones); appear as chromatin granules called
chromatids
Chromatin = complex of DNA + proteins (histone or non-histone) Is the cell component
that is genetically continuous from one generation to the next (not nuclear
membrane or golgi complex)
o Histone proteins: (+) charged proteins enriched w/ lysine & arginine involved
in DNA packaging
o Non-histone proteins nuclear fxn such as replication, transcription, & DNA

repair
Euchromatin: loosely arranged chromatin indicates nuclear activity, (Eu means
Loose!!) Truly transcribed.
o Heterochromatin: Highly condensed chromatin indicates nuclear inactivity
Barr body: inactivated X-chromosome found ONLY in female
o It tells us sex; Sex of embryo determined if Barr body presence as early as 8th
weeks
Yes in female, no in male
If a male has a barr body, then he has Klinefelters (XXY)
DNA is found principally in the nucleus; Feulgen Reaction test to distinguish btw DNA &
RNA
o

Membrane-bound organelles
Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis (mRNA attachment & AA assembly); composed of
rRNA + protein
Rough ER (rER): Protein synthesis for export outside the cell (AKA site of synthesis of secretory
proteins)
o Which cells are likely to have abundance of rER? Active cells (think fibroblasts,
osteoblasts)
o Associated with rRNA repeated again & again & again on tests
Q: Cytoplasmic RNA is localized in granular endoplasmic reticulum
o Has regions that are smooth in appearance called transitional elements
Smooth ER (sER): Steroid synthesis (ADRENAL CORTEX & TESTES) & Lipid/Glycogen
metabolism
o Detoxification (hydroxylation & conjugation)
o Glycogen degradation & gluconeogenesis (G6P is an integral membrane protein of
SER)
o Lipolysis (begins in the SER)
o Bile salts production (when in hepatocytes)
o Protein synthesis for use inside the cell
o Sequester Ca2+ (skeletal & cardiac muscle)
o Q: Smooth ER predominates in steroid producing cells, but not in protein producing
cells
Steroid hormone & hepatocyes producing cells of adrenal cortex are rich in SER
Golgi Apparatus: Posttranslational modification & packaging of proteins & Lysosome
production
o Posttranslational modification & packaging of proteins:
Add oligosaccharides for glycoproteins (for extracellular use)
Add sulfate groups for proteoglycans
Modifies N-oligosaccharides on asparagine // Adds O-oligosaccharides to serine
& threonine
o Procollagen filaments forms here Polymerization of molecules into collagen
fibrils occurs in Golgi
o Composed of flat, membranous sacs called cisternae arranged in stacks
cis face receives material
trans face transports material
Lysosomes: contain hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular or autolytic digestion
o Involved in cells that like to phagocytose

Cytoplasmic MB-bound vesicles that are called to action when the cell produces too
much proteins
o Formed in the Golgi Apparatus(when Golgi packages up an especially large vesicle of
digestive enzymes)
o Lysosomes deal w/ biochemical breakdown & phagocytosis in the oral region
Peroxisomes: Elimination of H2O2 by various oxidative enzymes (oxidase, catalase &
peroxidase)
o Oxidase reduces oxygen hydrogen peroxide water
o Bile acid synthesis occurs in peroxisomes
Vacuoles: store & excrete various substances within cytoplasm
o Glycosomes (in LIVER): store sugar
o

Mitochondria: double MB power house of the cell - ATP production via Krebs cycle +
Oxidative Phosphorylation
o Q: The most important organelle or component of a cell for oxidative processes =
mitochondria
o Double MB (inner & outer MBs)
Outer MB: smooth, continuous, permeable porin (integral MB protein that
forms channels)
Inner MB: impermeable to small ions (due to high content of cardiolipin)
Enzymes for ETC & Oxidative Phos are embedded in the inner membrane
Only mitochondria & nucleus have double membrane (not lysosome, Golgi
complex, or rough ER)
Crista of mitochondria provides more surface area for chemical reactions to
occur (Protein NZs)
o Maternal DNA Link Mitochondria contain their own cyclic DNA
Similar to bacteria in shape & size; Also reproduce by dividing, just like
bacteria
NOT present in erythrocytes

Non MB-bound Organelles

Microtubules: transport & movement
o Cylindrical hollow structures composed of tubulin (protein)
o Found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells
o Microtubules are found in Axonemes of Flagella & Cilia, basal bodies, centrioles,
mitotic spindle, elongating cell processes, and cytoplasm
CenTRIoles = microtubule organizing center of the cell; 9 triplets forming ends of
mitotic spindle during mitosis centrioles contained in centrosomes
Microfilaments: muscle contraction & movement/anchorage
o Much smaller than microtubules and have contractile and structure groups
Contractile group is made up of actin (double-stranded helices) and myocin
Sliding filament movement in muscle fiber microfilaments
o Structural group is made up of
Tonofilaments attachments for Desmosomes (anchor cell) & Terminal
webs (anchor microvilli)
Q: What layer are they found in? ALL layers except for corneum
o Microvilli & Stereocillia
Intermediate filaments: Rope-like filaments that function in structural roles
o

Cell Surface Appendages

Flagella: Longer, whip-like & move in snake-like motion; Present in humans found only in
spermatozoa
Cilia: Shorter, hair-like & beat in coordinated waves; Require basal bodies for development
o

Similarities of Flagella & Cilia:

Core composed of microtubules

Axonemes: 9 doubles + 2 singles in central

Move by contraction of tubular proteins

Basal body: essential to function of cilia and flagella Thru basal body, fibers
project into cytoplasm, possibly to anchor the basal body to the cell

Microvilli (in INTESTINES): fingerlike structure of various lengths located on the apical
surface of most epithelial cells. Primary purpose is to increase SA for absorption and
transport of fluids (not purpose of flagella or cilia)
o Core composed of microfilaments Remember: Microvilli have microfilaments; Cilia
have microtubules!!
Stereocilia: unusually long, nonmotile microvilli located ONLY in epididymis &
sensory cells of inner ear
o S for Sex and Stereocilia - Facilitate passage of nutrients from epithelium to sperm
by increasing SA
o Q: Different from Cilia: they are NONMOTILE & have microvilli (microvillaments) NOT
microtubules
Cell Death:
Autolysis = degradation caused by intrisinc intracellular enzymes usu. occus after cell death
- Irreversible (along with coagulative necrosis or infarcts) reversible: fatty & hydrophobic
degeneration
- In the presence of cephalosporins & penicillins, growing bacterial cells lyse (without
functional cell wall structure, the cell bursts)
Heterolysis = caused by extrinsic source ex. bacteria
Necrosis = sum of intracellular derivative rxn after individual cell death within a living organism

The Cell Cycle

Protein & RNA synthesis occur in all phases EXCEPT Mitosis, where cell reproduction occurs
Cell turn over rate (High Low):
Oral, epidermal, GI epithelial
Smooth muscle, Vascular
endothelial
Skeletal muscle, Cardiac muscle

Neurons (Permanent cells)

Interphase:
o G1: first cellular growth - By far the most variable cycle period timewise among

o
o

different types of cells

G0: period outside of the cell cycle of terminal differentiation
Labile cells (GI, blood) parenchymal cells normally in G0 phase but can be
stimulated to enter G1
Stable cells (Hepatocytes, kidney) do no reenter cycle unless stimulated by
the loss of cells
Q: Which cells do not have ability to undergo mitosis/regenerate?
Cardiac myocytes
Nerve cells (permanent cells) in CNS, lungs, skeletal/cardiac/smooth
muscles are terminally differentiated after mitosis
o Heart, brain, lungs very vulnerable to hypoxia & anoxia die &
unable to regenerate
o Striated muscle harder to regenerate than smooth muscle
o The heart can undergo hypertrophy in response to injury
S: DNA replication all chromosomes replicated. Take about 7 hours
G2: second cellular growth (shorter)

Mitosis(Karyokinesis): all somatic cells except gametes - 2 daughter cells with the SAME
chromosome number (diploid, 2n) as the parent cell
o Prophase
Chromatin coils/condenses within the nucleus Individualization of
chromosomes
Mitotic spindle forms
o Metaphase
Disappearance of the nuclear envelope & nucleoli
Chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate
o Anaphase
Chromosomes split to opposite poles of the cell (Begin of cell division)
o Telophase
Nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes at each pole
chromosomes uncoil and nucleoli reappear (End of cell division)
o Cytokinesis
Splitting of the cytoplasm
Q: The diploid number of chromosomes is perpetuated in somatic cells by a process
of mitosis
Q: M phase mitosis (karyokinesis) of the nuclear parts of cell (no protein
synthesis)
Q: # of chromosomes after telophase??? 46, Only if youre counting PAIRS BEFORE
Cytokinesis
Meiosis: gametes 4 daughter cells with half the chromosome number (haploid, n) as
the parent cell.
o Genetic material between homologus chromosomes is intermixed
o Two divisions separated by a resting phase
Embryonically early cell types/forms:
Mesenchymal cells (mesoblastic cells)
o Potential to proliferate & differentiate into diverse types of cells
o Form a loosely woven tissue called mesenchyme or embryonic CT

 Mesectoderm (ectomesenchyme)
o Derived from ectoderm, especially from the neural crest in the very young embryo
o The primary source of cranial connective tissue cells is the ectomesenchyme
Neural crest cells:
o Give rise to spinal ganglia (dorsal root ganglia) and the ganglia of the ANS
o Give rise to neurolemma cells (Schwann cells), cells of the meninges that cover
the brain and spinal cord, pigment cells (Melanocytes), chromaffin cells of
adrenal medulla and several skeletal and muscular components of head
Fetus Blood Cells
o Developing fetus blood cells are found in the red bone marrow, liver, spleen,
and lymph nodes
Important CellsFunction or
Location
Macrophagephagocytosis, defense against bacterial infection
o Activated by gamma-IFN
o Can function as APC
o Kupffer cellliver
o Splenocytespleen
o Histiocyteloose CT
Mast Cellsmediators of inflammation on contact w/ antigen, same as Basophil in that it
secretes Heparin & Histamine
o Mediates allergic reaction involved in type I hypersensitivity reactions
Schwannform myelin sheath around axons of PNS
o Derived from neural crest cells
Sertoliproduce testicular fluid (not testosterone)
Leydigproduce testosterone
Fibroblastproduces collagen and reticular fibers, most common cell of CT
Osteoblastforms bone matrix and gives rise to osteocytes
Sustentacular (supporting) cellinternal ear (organ of Corti), taste buds,
olfactory epithelium. They are the taller cells on the basement epithelium.
Pyramidalcerebral cortex (cerebrum)
o The pyramids contain upper motor neuron fibers only
Endotheliallining blood and lymph vessels, endocardium inner layer
Ependymallining brain ventricles and spinal cord
Ganglionicin the ganglion of peripheral to CNS
Globulartransitional epithelium (kidney, ureter, bladder)
Prickle stratum spinosum of epidermis
Chromaffinadrenal medulla and paraganglia of Symp NS
Purkinjecerebellar cortex (cerebellum)
Claraterminal bronchioles
Goblet cellsmucous MBs of female reproductive tract, respiratory tract, and intestines
InterstitialCT of ovary and testis
Isletpancreas
Juxtaglomerularrenal corpuscle of kidney
Hepatocyteliver