Computer Networks Prof.

Hema A Murthy

Virtual Networks and Tunnels

• Virtual private networks via internet
• Use leased lines
• Establish VCs on an ATM network
• Controlled connectivity
• Using IP
– IP Tunnels:
• No VC
• Concept of encapsulation router

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Example
N1 R1
Inter Network

R2 N2

Tunnel 10.1.0.1

Forwarding Table R1

Network Number Next hop

1 Interface 0

2 Virtual Interface 0

Default Interface 1
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Setting up Tunnels in the Internet

N1 R1 R2
IP header,
IP destination IP destination,
destination = R2
N2 = 2 .x IP destination
N2 = 2 .x

N2 = 2 .x
IP payload
IP payload
IP payload

R1 - Encapsulating router
•sends packet address to R2
•Packet reaches R2 as if a standard internet packet
• at R2 – strip and forward to the destination directly
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Interfaces
• Router R1 –
– Two physical interfaces 1 and 2
– one virtual interface packet to R1 destined for
N2.
– Forwarding table – says send on Virtual
interface 0
• Advantages:
• Security: Supplement with encryption
• A private link across a public network

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Internet Control Protocols in the

Network Layer
• ICMP, ARP, RARP, BOOTP
• ICMP – primarily used by routers to monitor the
Internet
• Different type of ICMP messages:
– Destination unreachable
• No path to destination
– DF bits set, destination on small packet Network
– Time exceeded
• Packet dropped – looping, congestion, timer bandwidth
– Parameter problem
• Illegal value in header field

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Internet Control Protocols in the

Network Layer (ICMP)
– Source quench
• Throttle source sending too many packets
• Lead to congestion
– Redirect
• Router discover that packet routed wrongly
• Inform sending host about problem
– Echo request
• Determine if destination alive
– Echo reply
• I am alive

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Internet Control Protocols in the

Network Layer (ICMP)
– Time stamp request:
• Same as echo request, timestamp
– Time stamp reply
• Same as echo reply, timestamp
– Four more messages to handle single IP address
on multiple LAN, hosts can discover their
Network

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Internet Control Protocols in the

Network Layer (ARP)
Address Resolution protocol (ARP): Map IP address to their
physical addresses?
10.6.0.1
R1 R2 10.7.0.1
10.6.0.10 10.6.0.7 10.7.0.2 10.70.3

FDDI ring
L1 L2 L3 L4

10.65.0.4 10.65.0.4
10.65.0.0 10.7.0.0
10.6.0.0
EE Ethernet CS Ethernet
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Internet Control Protocols in the

Network Layer (ARP)
• L1 wants to send packet to L2
• Upper layer puts IP address of L2 in
destination field and sends it to IP Layer.
• IP software – Realises on same LAN
• How does it find Ethernet address?
– Configuration file?
– updation?

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Internet Control Protocols in the

Network Layer (ARP)
• L1 outputs a broadcast packet
– Who owns IP address 10.6.0.7 ?
– Arrives at all machines on same LAN
• Each machine checks, L2 alone responds with its Ethernet
address
– Maintain ARP cache for future
• ARP timeout
– Remove addresses that are old
– Alternatively all machine broadcast their Ethernet
address at boot time

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Internet Control Protocols in the

Network Layer (ARP)
• Machines on different LAN
– L1 wants to send packet to L4
• send to local router R1
– Router takes care of it
– proxy – ARP
• alternatively sends to a default Ethernet address
• requires router - router ARP requests for other
LANs

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Internet Control Protocols in the

Network Layer (Proxy ARP)
• Lets router answer ARP request on one of its
network for a host on another of its networks!
– Fool sender – destination router
– Machine with two network cards can do proxy ARP
• Maintain ARP cache on each host
• Maintain recent mapping
– expiration of an entry in cache every 20 minutes

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

ARP Packet format

Eth Eth Hard Proto Hard Proto Sdr Sdr Target Target
Frame
Dest source ware col output ware col ethernet IP Ether
type IP
add add type type size size net

6 6 2 2 2 2

For ARP / ARP Sizes in bytes

hardware addresses
reply 0 x 0806
1 for Ethernet (type
Size in bytes
hardware address and protocol addresses
protocol address)

0 x 800 for IP

Output ARP request (1) RARP request (3)

ARP reply (2) RARP reply (4)
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

ARP (Example)
• arp - a -- empty cache
• telnet xyz – try to connect to xyz
• DNS resolves xyz to IP address
• To monitor Ethernet packets
• Use tcpdump on unix machines

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

ARP (Example)
• tcpdump –e
• 0:0.C0:6f:2d:40 ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff arp 60
Senders Ethernet broadcast Length of Ethernet
address address
0:0.C0:C2:96:26 0:0:C0:6f:2d:40

Target Ethernet Senders Ethernet

address address

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Gratitious ARP
• Host sends a request to get its own IP
address
• tcpdump –n option
• 0:0:C0:6f:2d:C0:ff:ff:…….ff arp 60
• arp who has 140.252.13.35 tell
140.252.13.35
– enables host to determine if same IP address is
in use!

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

ATMARP
• LAN Emulation Procedure
• Part of classical IP over ATM model
– Depends on server to resolve addresses
– ARP server
• Database of IP address and ARP address
• Machines setup VC to ARP server at boot time
• Get address of destination
• Setup VC to destination address

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

.2
.00
H1 13.0.0.3

11
11.0.0.1 H2
LIS 11 LIS 13 13.0.0.2

ATM Network
Network number 11 Network number 13

Two nodes on same Network

- Cannot communicate directly
LIS – Logical IP Subnet

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

ATMARP
• LIS – advantage:
• - Connect large number of routers and hosts to a big ATM
• Network
• ARP Server:
• - Enable nodes on LIS to resolve IP address – w/o broadcast
• LIS
• - Each node in LIS configured with ATM address of ARP
• server
• ARP Server
• - Table of IP and ATM addresses
• Issues:
• h1 cannot talk to h2 directly – must go through router

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

(DHCP)
Unicast to server

broadcast DHCP Other DHCP

relay NWs server

Host

IP address – unique to a given Internetwork

Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

DHCP
• Automated configuration methods:
• DCHP server
– addresses handed over to hosts on demand
• Issues
– host requires address of DCHP servers
– host sends DCHP discover broadcast message
– DHCP server replies to the host
– Avoid DHCP server on every network
• Use DHCP Relay

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Computer Networks Prof. Hema A Murthy

DHCP
• DCHP format:
• chaddr – field in which host puts its
hardware address
• yiaddr – your IP address DHCP assigns
address
• Hosts cannot keep IP addresses permanently
• Some mechanism for leasing IP address
• Getting IP address for duration of the call

Indian Institute of Technology Madras