Chapter1:

Introduction to Control Systems:

Definition: A System is an arrangement, set, or
collection of things connected or related in such a
manner as to form an entirety or a whole.
By this definition, anything can be a system, but
were only interested in a particular class of
systems.

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System Classifications:
1. Time-Variant and Time-Invariant Systems:
A Time-Varying System is a system that its
parameters are functions of time variable, t. If
it is described in terms of an algebraic or a
differential equation, the coefficients of the
equation are functions of time variable, t.
However, A Time-Invariant System is a system
that its parameters are constant. If it is
described in terms of an algebraic or a
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differential equation, the coefficients of the

equation are constants.
Note: In reality, all systems are Time-Varying.
In this course, we are interested in Time-Invariant
Systems.
2. Continuous and Discrete Systems:
Continuous Systems are those systems that can
be described in terms of continuous-time
signals, whereas Discrete Systems can be
described in terms of discrete-time signals.
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Note: In reality, all systems are continuous.

In this course, we are interested in Continuous
Systems.
3. Causal and Non-Causal Systems:
Causal Systems, also known as Physical or
Non-Anticipative Systems, are those systems
where the output y(t) at some specific instant t0
only depends on the input x(t) for values of t
less than or equal to t0. Therefore these kinds
of systems have outputs and internal states that
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depend only on the current and previous input

values. The idea that the output of a function at
any time depends only on past and present
values of input is defined by the property
commonly referred to as Causality.
Non-Causal Systems, also known as
Non-Physical, Acausal, or Anticipative
Systems, are those systems that have some
dependence on input values from the future in
addition to possible dependence on past or
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current input values. Systems that depend

solely on future input values are called
Anti-Causal Systems. Note that some
textbooks have defined Anti-Causal Systems as
those systems that depend solely on future and
present input values or, more simply, as
systems that do not depend on past input
values.
In this course, were interested in Causal
Systems.
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4. Lumped and Distributed Systems:

Lumped Systems are those systems in which
the dependent variables of interest are a
function of time alone. In general, this means
solving a set of differential equations.
Distributed Systems are those systems in
which all dependent variables are functions of
time and one or more spatial variables. In this
case, this means solving a set of partial
differential equations.
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For example, consider the following two

systems:

The first system is a distributed system,

consisting of an infinitely thin string,
supported at both ends; the dependent variable,
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the vertical position of the string y(x,t) is

indexed continuously in both space and time.
The second system, a series of ''beads''
connected by massless string segments,
constrained to move vertically, can be thought
of as a lumped system, perhaps
approximation to the continuous string.

an

For electrical systems, consider the difference

between a lumped RLC network and a
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transmission line as shown in the following

figure:

In this course, we are interested in Lumped

Systems.
5. Linear and Non-Linear Systems:
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If all the initial conditions are zero, the system

response is called Zero-State-Response. If all
the inputs or excitations are zero, the system
response is called Zero-Input-Response.
For a system to be Linear, 2 conditions must be
satisfied:
i. The Total Response must be decomposable
into the sum of the Zero-State-Response and
Zero-Input-Response. In other words, we
should be able to separate the
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Zero-State-Response completely from the

Zero-Input-Response.
ii. The response must satisfy Homogeneity and
Superposition properties, i.e.
F[ag(t) + bh(t)] = aF[g(t)] + bF[h(t)]
where g(t) and h(t) are 2 independent input
functions, a and b are 2 independent
constants, and F is the response of the
system.
Non-Linear System are those systems that
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are not Linear.

In this course, we are interested in Linear
Systems.
6. Dynamic and Static Systems:
Dynamic Systems are governed by a set of
differential or difference equations, whereas
Static Systems, also known as Memoryless
Systems, are governed by algebraic equations.
The value of any of the states of a Dynamic
System at any instant of time depends on the
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history of the system. However, the value of

any of the states of a Static System at any
instant of time depends on the value of the
input only at that instant of time.
In this course were interested in Dynamic
Systems.
7. Deterministic and Probabilistic Systems:
In this course, we are interested in Deterministic
Systems.
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Therefore, in this course, we are interested in

Dynamic, Deterministic, Linear, Continuous,
Time-Invariant, Lumped, and Causal Systems.
Control System Terminologies:
1. Definition: A Control System is an
arrangement
of
physical
components
connected or related in such a manner as to
command, direct or regulate (keyword in this
definition is regulate, and that regulation
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simply means controlling, either it is to

regulate itself or another system).
2. Definition: Input is the excitation applied from
an external energy source (for example not the
initial charge of a capacitor).
3. Definition: Transfer Function is defined as the
ratio of the Laplace Transform of the Output
(Zero-State-Response) and Laplace Transform
of the Input. Therefore, all I.C.s are zero.
There are two types of transfer functions:
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i. Open-Loop Transfer Function, and

ii. Close-Loop Transfer Function.
In Chapter 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, we analyze and
design the system using the closed-loop
transfer function. In the remaining chapters, we
analyze and design the closed-loop system
using the open-loop transfer function.
4. Definition: Output is the actual response of the
system.
5. Definition: Control Action is that quantity
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responsible for activating the system to

produce output, also known as Actuating
Signal. It is also known as error signal in the
case of unity negative feedback.
6. Definition: Feedback is that property of the
Close-Loop System which permits the system
output or some other control variable of the
system (not necessarily the principal system
output) to be compared with the system input
or some input (not necessarily the principal
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system input) to some other internally situated

component or subsystem of the system so that
an appropriate control action maybe formed as
some function of the input and the output.
Feedback Characteristics:
Feedback Advantages:
1. It increases accuracy.
2. It reduces sensitivity.
3. It reduces effects of
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non-linearity

and

distortion. We will show distortion but not

non-linearity.
4. It increases bandwidth (Definition: Bandwidth
is defined as the difference between high
cut-off frequency and low cut-off frequency).
Feedback Disadvantages:
It increases tendency toward oscillation and
instability.

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Typical Feedback Control Systems:

1. Servomechanism is a power amplifying
feedback control system where usually the
control variables are mechanical position,
velocity or acceleration, and the output usually
follows the input.
2. Regulator is a feedback control system which
the output is maintained at constant level.

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Types of Control Systems:

1. Man-Made,
2. Natural, and
3. Man-made and Natural.
Classification of Control Systems:
1. Open-Loop Control Systems: An Open-Loop
Control System is one in which the control
action is independent of the output.
2. Closed Loop Control Systems: A Closed-Loop
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Control System or Feedback Control System is

one in which the Control Action is somehow
dependent on the output

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