FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES

1. Define density or mass density.

Density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume.
Density, = mass/volume (Kg/m3)
water = 1000 Kg/m3
2. Define specific weight or weight density.
Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is defined as the ratio between the weight
of a fluid to its volume.
Specific weight, = weight/volume (N/m3)
w = g
wwater = 9810 N/m3
3. Define specific volume.
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of fluid occupied by an unit wt or
unit mass of a fluid.
Specific volume vs = volume/ wt = 1/w = 1/g ----- for liquids
Specific volume vs = volume/ mass = 1/ ----- for gases
4. Define dynamic viscosity.
Viscosity is defined as the property of fluid which offers resistance to the movement of
one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
=

dynamic viscosity or viscosity or coefficient of viscosity (N-s/m 2)

1 N-s/m2 = 1 Pa-s = 10 Poise

5. Define Kinematic viscosity.
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid.
= / (m2/s)
1 m2/s = 10000 Stokes (or) 1 stoke = 10-4 m2/s
6. Types of fluids.
Ideal fluid, Real fluid, Newtonian fluid, Non-Newtonian fluid, Ideal Plastic fluid.
7. Define Compressibility.
It is defined as the ratio of volumetric strain to compressive stress.
Compressibility, = (d Vol/ Vol) / dp (m2/N)
7. List the pressure measuring devices?
1) Manometers.
2) Mechanical gauges.
8. Define manometers?
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a
point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the
fluid.
9. What is mechanical gauges?
Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure
by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight.
10. List the mechanical pressure gauges.
1) Diaphragm pressure gauge.
2) Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
3) Dead weight pressure gauge.
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4) Bellows pressure gauge.

11. List the mechanical pressure gauges.
1) Diaphragm pressure gauge.
2) Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
3) Dead weight pressure gauge.
4) Bellows pressure gauge.
12. What are the different types of simple manometers?
1) Piezometer
2) U-tube manometer
3) Single column manometer
13. Limitations of Bernoullis equation :
The fluid is ideal (viscosity is zero).
The flow is steady.
The flow is incompressible.
The flow is irrotational
14. co-efficient discharge: The ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge is
called asthe co-efficient of discharge. Cd= Qact/Qth
15. co-efficient of velocity: The ratio of actual velocity to the theoretical velocity is
called as the co-efficient of discharge. Cv=Vact/Vth
1 6. Coefficient of contraction: It is the ratio of the area of the vena contracta to
the area of the orifice .Co-efficient of contraction =area of vena contracta area
of orifice
17. Mention the characteristics of laminar flow.
1) There is a shear stress between fluid layers.
2) No slip at the boundary.
3) The flow is rotational.
4) There is a continuous dissipation of energy due to viscous shear.
18. What is meant by energy lines?
If at different sections of the pipe total energy is plotted to scale and joined by a
line, the line is called energy grade line.
19. What is meant by hydraulic gradient lines?
The pressure head in a pipe decreased gradually from section of the pipe in the
direction of fluid flow due to loss of energy. If pressure heads at the different sections
of the pipe are joined by a straight line. This is called hydraulic grade line.
20. Define critical velocity.
The velocity at which the flow changes from the laminar to turbulent for the case
of given fluid at a given temperature and given pipe is known as critical velocity.
21. Write down four examples of laminar flow.
1) Flow through pipes.
2) Blood flow through capillaries.
3) Laminar flow hood.
4) Laminar flow airfoil.
22. What is a siphon? What are its applications?
A siphon is a long bend pipe used for carrying water from a reservoir at a higher
head to another reservoir at a lower head when the two reservoirs are by separated by
a hill.
23. Define Steady and Unsteady flow.
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Steady flow
Fluid flow is said to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid various
characteristics such as velocity, density, pressure,etc do not change with time.
V/t = 0, p/t = 0 ,/t = 0
Unsteady flow
Fluid flow is said to be unsteady if at any point flowing fluid any one or all
characteristics which describe the behaviour of the fluid in motion change with
time.
V/t 0 p/t 0 /t 0
24. Define Uniform and Non-uniform flow.
Uniform flow
When the velocity of flow of fluid does not change both in direction and magnitude
from point to point in the flowing fluid for any given instant of time, the flow is said
to be uniform.
V/s = 0 p/s = 0 /s = 0
Non-uniform flow
If the velocity of flow of fluid changes from point to point in the flowing fluid at any
instant, the flow is said to be non-uniform flow.
V/s 0 p/s 0 /s 0
25. Compare Laminar and Turbulent flow.
Laminar and Turbulent flow
A flow is said to be laminar if Reynolds number is less than 2000 for pipe flow.
Laminar flow is possible only at low velocities and high viscous fluids. In laminar
type of flow, fluid particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the
adjacent layer.
Turbulent flow
In Turbulent flow, the flow is possible at both velocities and low viscous fluid. The
flow is said to be turbulent if Reynolds number is greater than 4000 for pipe flow. In
Turbulent type of flow fluid, particles move in a zig zag manner.
26. Define Compressible and incompressible flow
Compressible flow
The compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid
changes from point to point i.e. the density is not constant for the fluid. It is
expressed in kg/sec.
constant
Incompressible flow
The incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant
for the fluid flow. Liquids are generally incompressible. It is expressed in m3/s.
= constant
27. Define Rotational and Ir-rotational flow.
Rotational flow
Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along
stream lines and also rotate about their own axis.
Ir-rotational flow
If the fluid particles are flowing along stream lines and do not rotate about their
own axis that type of flow is called as ir-rotational flow
28. Define One, Two and Three dimensional flow.
One dimensional flow
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The flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and one space co-ordinate
only. u = f (x), v = 0 & w = 0.
Two dimensional flow
The velocity is a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates. u =
f1(x,y), v = f2(x,y) & w =0.
Three dimensional flow
The velocity is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions.
u = f1(x,y,z), v = f2(x,y,z) & w = f3(x,y,z).
29. Write the Bernoullis equation applied between two sections
p/g + v2/2g + Z=C

p1/g + v21/2g + Z1 = p2/g + v22/2g + Z2

p/g = pressure head
v2/2g = kinetic head
Z = datum head
30. State the assumptions used in deriving Bernoullis equation
Flow is steady; Flow is laminar; Flow is irrotational;
Flow is incompressible; Fluid is ideal.
31. Write the Bernoullis equation applied between two sections with losses.
p1/g + v21/2g + Z1 = p2/g + v22/2g + Z2 + hloss
24. List the instruments works on the basis of Bernoullis equation.
Venturi meter; Orifice meter; Pitot tube.
32. Define Impulse Momentum Equation (or) Momentum Equation.
The total force acting on fluid is equal to rate of change of momentum. According to
Newtons second law of motion, F = ma
F dt = d(mv)
33. What is meant by energy loss in a pipe?
When the fluid flows through a pipe, it looses some energy or head due to frictional
resistance and other reasons. It is called energy loss. The losses are classified as; Major
losses and Minor losses
34. Explain the major losses in a pipe.
The major energy losses in a pipe is mainly due to the frictional resistance caused by
the shear force between the fluid particles and boundary walls of the pipe and also due
to viscosity of the fluid.
35. Explain minor losses in a pipe.
The loss of energy or head due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude or
direction is called minor losses. It includes: sudden expansion of the pipe, sudden
contraction of the pipe, bend in a pipe, pipe fittings and obstruction in the pipe, etc.
36. State Darcy-Weisbach equation OR What is the expression for head loss
due to friction?
hf = 4flv2 / 2gd
where, hf = Head loss due to friction (m), L = Length of the pipe (m),
d = Diameter of the pipe (m), V = Velocity of flow (m/sec)
f = Coefficient of friction
22. What are the various types of casing?
1) Volute casing.
2) Vortex casing.
3) Volute casing with guide blades.
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38. What is the maximum theoretical suction head possible for a centrifugal
pump?
10.33 m.
39.What is an air vessel and what is its purpose ?
An air vessel is a closed chamber connected on the suction or delivery or both sides of
the reciprocating pump to obtain a more uniform flow.
40.What is a positive displacement pump ?
In the case of positive displacement pumps, the fluid is physically pushed from an
enclosed space. The positive displacement pumps can be either reciprocating type or
rotary type.
42.What is a draft tube ? In which turbine it is mostly used.
The draft tube is a conduit which connects the runner exit to the trail race, when water
is being finally discharged from the turbine. In reaction turbine , the draft tube is
mostly used.
43.What is the primary function of a draft tube ?
The primary function of the draft tube is to reduce the velocity of the discharged water
to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet.
44.Define specific speed based on discharge.
The specific speed ( Ns ) of the pump is defined as the speed of some unit of the series
of such size that it delivers unit discharge at unit speed
45.What is the significance of specific speed ?
The specific speed inversely proportional to the head across the machine. So low
specific speed corresponds to high head across it and vice-versa.
The specific speed is directly proportional to the discharge through the machine or
power produced by the machine. So low specific speed therefore refers to low
discharge or low power machine and vice-versa.
46. What are air vessels?
An air vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the top portion and
liquid at the bottom of the chamber. At the base of the chamber there is an opening
through which the liquid may flow into the vessel or out from the vessel. When the
liquid enters the air vessel, the air gets compressed further and when the liquid flows
out of the vessel, the air will expand into the chamber.

48. SPEED REGULATION (GOVERNING) OF THE PELTON WHEEL

Usually, hydraulic turbines are coupled to electronic generators. These generators are
required to run at constant speed irrespective of variations in the head and power output. When
the load on the turbine changes, the speed may also change, (i.e., without load the speed
increases and with over load, the speed decreases). Hence, the speed of the runner must be
maintained constant to have a constant speed of generator. This is done by controlling the quantity
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of water flowing on the runner according to the load variations. This speed regulation is
known as governing and it is usually done automatically by a governor.
50.Governing Mechanism for the Pelton wheel
A servomotor governor (also known as oil pressure governor) is shown in Figure
It consists of (l) a servomotor, (2) relay valve or control valve, (3) actuator (centrifugal governor),
(4)oil sump, (5) oil pump and (6) oil supply pipes.
Working
The centrifugal governor (actuator) is driven by the turbine shaft through a belt or gear. When the
load on the generator reduces, the turbine speed increases. It causes the following actions to take
place one after another.
1.Fly ball of the governor moves upward,
2.Sleeve moves upward,
3.Left hand end of main lever rises,
4.Bell crank lever moves down and simultaneously the piston of the control valve moves down in
the cylinder.

The movement of bell crank lever brings the deflector in front of the jet. The deflector
diverts a portion of the water jet away from the runner buckets. Thus, rapid closure of
the nozzle opening is eliminated and at the same time the quantity of water striking
the runner is reduced. The rapid closing of the nozzle increases the pressure of water which
may result in water hammer problems .The downward movement of the piston in the control valve
forces oil under pressure from the control valve to the left side of the piston in the
servomotor. The piston of the servomotor moves to the right pushing the spear
forward. The oil in the right side is returned to the oil sump. The forward motion of the
spear reduces the opening of the nozzle. Consequently, the rate of flow is decreased and normal
speed is restored. Once the normal turbine speed is restored, the main lever returns to its initial
position. The deflector is brought to its original position by means of cam arrangement. When the
load on the generator increases, the turbine speed decreases. This causes the following actions to
take place one after another.
1.Fly balls move downward,
2.Sleeve moves downward, 3.Left hand end of the main lever
lowers down,
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4.The piston in the control valve moves upward in the cy binder,

5.Oil under pressure is forced from the control valve to the right side of the piston in the
servomotor,
6.Servomotor piston moves to the left pushing the oil in the less side to the oil sump.
Simultaneously, the spear moves backward. The backward movement of the spear increases the
opening of the nozzle outlet. Thus, a large quantity of water strikes the runner and the normal
speed of the turbine is restored.
Governing of Francis Turbine
In Francis turbine, guide blades are used for governing. These guide blades are pivoted and they
are connected to a regulating ring by means of levers and links. Two regulating rods are connected
to the ring and these rods actuated by the servomotor governor as shown in Figure.

The actuator or pendulum is driven by the turbine. When the load on the generator
decreases, the turbine speed increases. The increased speed of the runner causes the following
actions to take place one after another
1.The fly balls are moved upward.
2.The sleeve is raised.
3.Piston of the distributor valve (control valve) is moved downwards in the cylinder and opens the
port B.
4.Oil under pressure enters the left side of the piston in the servo meter.
5.Piston in the servo meter moves to the right.
6.Oil in the right side of the piston returns to the oil sump through port 'A'.
7.At the same time, the regulating ring is rotated and the guide blades are moved.
This reduces the area of flow passage between the guide vanes. Thus the rate of flow of water
striking the runner is reduced. When the speed comes to the normal, the main lever, actuator
and distribution valve attain their original position. Similarly, when the load on the turbine
increases, the regulating ring moves in the opposite direction. This increases the flow
passage between the guide blades. Hence more quantity of water strikes the runner to
meet the increased load demand. Thus, the governor maintains a constant speed irrespective of
the load on the turbine.
PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR TURBINES
Turbines are always designed and fabricated for a given set of specifications
containing variables, like speed, power output, head and discharge. And the efficiency of the unit
is maximum when it operates under designed conditions. But in practice, it operates under varying
conditions because the level and quantity of water in a storage reservoir does not remain constant
throughout the year, and also the load on the turbine is variable. Thus, it is essential
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that the exact behaviour of the unit under varying working conditions are pre-determined.
These are obtained by manufacturers by conducting experiments on models in a laboratory and
by doing field tests on the site. The physical parameters controlling the performance of a turbine
are speed N,power output P, head H, discharge Q, the position of gate opening (nozzle opening
or guide blade opening)G, and the efficiency of the turbine. The behaviour of the units are
represented by curves called turbine characteristics.
The characteristics of turbines are obtained under three different categories-'
(a) Main characteristics (Head constant)
(b) Operating characteristics (Speed constant)
(c) Muschel curves (Efficiency constant)
A. Main characteristics:
In this case, the head is kept constant and the speed is varied by varying the load on the turbine.
The governing mechanism is disconnected from the system so that the experiments are
performed at constant gate openings. Three set of curves: speed-discharge, speed-power and
speed-efficiency,
each for Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines, have been shown in Figure (a), (b) and (c).
Speed vs discharge curve:
For a given area of flow, the discharge depends upon H 1/2 for a Pelton turbine. Since H
is constant, the peripheral speed of the turbine is constant and therefore, the
discharge is independent of speed. In reaction turbines, discharge depends upon the
velocity of flow. The peripheral speed of the turbine varies with the speed and the blade angles
(that is constant for a Francis turbine), the velocity of flow will decrease with increasing
speed. Thus, discharge decreases with the increase in speed. In Kaplan turbines, the
reverse is true and therefore, discharge increases with the increase in speed.
Speed vs power curve:
Power is proportional to angular speed. When N is zero, the angular speed is zero and when N
equals runaway speed, the output power is again zero. Thus, the speed-power curves for turbines
are parabolic in nature.
Speed vs efficiency curve:
The speed-efficiency curves for turbines are similar to speed-power curves.
B. Operating Characteristics:
In a hydroelectric power station, turbines are coupled with electrical alternators for producing
electricity at a constant frequency and therefore, they must run at constant speed. The
head and discharge depends upon their availability in the storage reservoir. The power output
depends upon the demand from the locality, and the power output-efficiency, discharge-power
and efficiency curves are important and have been shown in Figure (a)and (b).
C. Constant efficiency curve:
It is evident from speed-efficiency and speed-power curves that there are two values of speed
for the same power-output and efficiency, except for the point of maximum efficiency occurring at
the designed speed. Thus, we should locate the region of constant efficiency so that the
turbines are operated with maximum efficiency. The efficiency curves are plotted in
Figure

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Q1.How to make the manometer more sensitive?

1.by using narrow tube as manometer.
2. by using non-stick fluid like mercury.
3. making the manometer inclined
2. Define Surface Tension.
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of the liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the
contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension.
Surface Tension, = Force/Length (N/m)
water = 0.0725 N/m Mercury = 0.52 N/m
3. Surface tension on liquid droplet,
= pd/4
Surface tension on a hollow bubble, = pd/8
Surface tension on a liquid jet, = pd/2
surface tension (N/m)
d diameter (m)
p pressure inside (N/m2)
ptotal = pinside + patm patm = 101.325 x 103 N/m2
4. Define Capillarity.
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube
relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the
liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of liquid
surface is known as capillary depression.
Capillary Rise or fall, h = (4 cos) / gd
= 0 for glass tube and water = 130 for glass tube and mercury
5. Define Vapour Pressure.
When vaporization takes place, the molecules start accumulating over the free liquid
surface exerting pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as Vapour
pressure of the liquid.
6. Define Control Volume.
A control volume may be defined as an identified volume fixed in space. The
boundaries around the control volume are referred to as control surfaces. An open
system is also referred to as a control volume.
7. Write the continuity equation.
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The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called continuity

equation.
u/x + v/y + w/z = 0 ----- three dimensional flow
u/x + v/y = 0 ----- two dimensional flow
Q = a1v1 = a2v2 ----- one dimensional flow
8. List the types of fluid flow.
Steady and unsteady flow
Uniform and non-uniform flow
Laminar and Turbulent flow
Compressible and incompressible flow
Rotational and ir-rotational flow
One, Two and Three dimensional flow
9. What are the factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow?
Frictional resistance for the turbulent flow is,
i. Proportional to vn where v varies from 1.5 to 2.0.
ii. Proportional to the density of fluid.
iii. Proportional to the area of surface in contact.
iv. Independent of pressure.
v. Depend on the nature of the surface in contact.
10. Write the expression for loss of head due to sudden enlargement of
the pipe.
hexp = (V1-V2)2 /2g
Where, hexp = Loss of head due to sudden enlargement of pipe.
V1 = Velocity of flow at pipe 1; V2 = Velocity of flow at pipe 2.
11. Write the expression for loss of head due to sudden contraction.
hcon =0.5 V2/2g
hcon = Loss of head due to sudden contraction. V = Velocity at outlet of pipe.
12. Write the expression for loss of head at the entrance of the pipe.
hi =0.5V2/2g
hi = Loss of head at entrance of pipe. V = Velocity of liquid at inlet of the pipe.
13. Write the expression for loss of head at exit of the pipe.
ho = V2/2g
where, ho = Loss of head at exit of the pipe.
V = Velocity of liquid at inlet and outlet of the pipe.
14. Give an expression for loss of head due to an obstruction in pipe
Loss of head due to an obstruction = V2 / 2g ( A/ Cc (A-a ) -1 )2
Where, A = area of pipe, a = Max area of obstruction,
V = Velocity of liquid in pipe A-a = Area of flow of liquid at section 1-1
15. What is compound pipe or pipes in series?
When the pipes of different length and different diameters are connected end to
end, then the pipes are called as compound pipes or pipes in series.
16. What is mean by parallel pipe and write the governing equations.
When the pipe divides into two or more branches and again join together
downstream to form a single pipe then it is called as pipes in parallel. The governing
equations are:
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 hf1 = hf2
17. Define equivalent pipe and write the equation to obtain equivalent
pipe diameter.
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The single pipe replacing the compound pipe with same diameter without
change in discharge and head loss is known as equivalent pipe.
L = L 1 + L2 + L3
(L/d5) = (L1/d15) + (L2/d25) + (L3/d35)
17. Define the terms a) Hydraulic gradient line [HGL] b) Total Energy line
[TEL]
Hydraulic gradient line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure
head and datum head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect the reference line.
HGL = Sum of Pressure Head and Datum head
Total energy line: Total energy line is defined as the line which gives the sum of
pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect
to some reference line.
TEL = Sum of Pressure Head, Datum head and Velocity head.
18. What are fluid machines or Hydraulic machines?
The machines which use the liquid or gas for the transfer of energy from fluid to
rotor or from rotor to fluid are known as fluid machines.
20. How are fluid machines classified?
Fluid machines are classified into two categories depending upon transfer of
energy:
1. Turbines hydraulic energy is converted to mechanical energy and then electrical
energy. 2. Pumps electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy and then
hydraulic energy.
21. What are called turbines?
Hydraulic turbines are the machines which use the energy of water and convert it
into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy developed by a turbine is used in
running the electrical generator which is directly coupled to the shaft.
22. What is known as Eulers equation for turbo-machines?
The general expression for the work done per second on impeller is
Q[Vw1u1 + Vw2u2]
23. Define Gross Head of a turbine.
The difference between head race level and tail race level is known as Gross Head
24. Define Net head of a turbine.
It is also called effective head and is defined as the head available at the inlet of the
turbine. H = Hg hf
25. What are the efficiencies of a turbine?
Hydraulic efficiency Mechanical efficiency
Volumetric efficiency Overall efficiency
26. Define Hydraulic efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of the power given by water to the runner of a turbine to
the power supplied by the water at the inlet of the turbine.
Power delivered to runner (runner power)
h = -----------------------------------------------------------Power supplied at inlet (water power)
Water power = QH = (1/2) m v2
27. Define Mechanical efficiency.
The ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power delivered to
the runner is defined as mechanical efficiency.

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m=

28. Define volumetric efficiency.

The ratio of the volume of the water actually striking the runner to the volume of
water supplied to the turbine is defined as volumetric efficiency.
29. Define Overall efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the
power supplied by the water at the inlet of the turbine.
Power available at the shaft (shaft power)
o = ---------------------------------------------------------Power supplied at inlet (water power)
o = h m v (or) o = h m
30. What are an impulse turbine and a reaction turbine?
Impulse Turbine:
If at the inlet of the turbine, the energy available is only kinetic energy, the turbine
is known as impulse turbine. The pressure at the inlet of the turbine is atmosphere.
This turbine is used for high heads. The water strikes the bucket along the tangent
of the runner. Ex: Pelton Wheel Turbine.
Reaction Turbine:
If at the inlet of the turbine, the water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure
energy, the turbine is known as reaction turbine. As the water flows through the
runner, the water is under pressure and the pressure energy goes on changing into
kinetic energy. The runner is completely enclosed in an air-tight casing and the
runner and casing is completely full of water. This turbine is used for medium heads.
Ex: Francis Turbine.
31. Define Jet Ratio.
It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the Pelton wheel to the
diameter of the jet (d). It is denoted by m and is given as m = D/d
14. Classification of hydraulic turbines:
(a) Based on type of energy available at inlet
Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel)
Reaction turbine (Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine)
(b) Based on head available at inlet
High head turbine [ > 250 m ] - (Pelton wheel)
Medium head turbine [ 60 to 250 m ] - (Francis turbine)
Low head turbine [ < 60 m ] (Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine)
(c) Based on specific speed
High specific speed turbine (Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine)
Medium specific speed turbine - (Francis turbine)
Low specific speed turbine - (Pelton wheel)
(d) Based on direction of flow through runner
i.Tangential flow turbine ii. Radial flow turbine
iii.Axial flow turbine iv .Mixed flow turbine
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32. Define Radial flow reaction turbine and their types.

If water flows in the radial direction in the turbine then it is referred as radial flow
turbine.
Types:
Inward radial flow reaction turbine: If the water flows from outwards to inwards
through the runner, the turbine is known as inward radial flow reaction turbine. Here
the outer diameter of the runner is inlet diameter whereas the inner diameter of the
runner is outlet diameter.
Outward radial flow reaction turbine: If the water flows from inwards to outwards
through the runner, the turbine is called as outward radial flow reaction turbine.
Here the outer diameter of the runner is outlet diameter whereas the inner
diameter of the runner is inlet diameter.
33. What is mean by Draft Tube?
The draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connects the outlet of
the runner to the tail race. One end of the draft tube is connected to the outlet of
the runner while the other end is sub-merged below the level of water in the tail
race.
34. Why do draft tubes have enlarging passage area in the direction of
flow?
The pressure at the exit of the reaction turbine is generally less than atmospheric
and this makes the water NOT to discharge directly to the tail race. By the
introduction of draft tube, which has enlarged area in the direction of flow, the
kinetic head reduces and pressure head increases. There by discharge of water to
the tail race safely.
35. Uses of draft tube:
Discharges water to tail race safely
Converts a large proportion of rejected kinetic energy into useful pressure energy
Net head of the turbine is increased.
36. Types of draft tube:
Conical draft tube, Simple elbow tube, Moody spreading tube and Elbow draft tube
with circular inlet and rectangular outlet.
37. Define specific speed of a turbine.
It is defined as the speed of the turbine which is geometrically similar and it will
develop unit power when working under unit head.
Ns = N P/ (H)5/4
38. Define Runaway speed of Turbine.
The max speed reached by the turbine after the removal of the external load is
called runaway speed of turbine. The various rotating components of the turbine
should be designed to remain safe at the runaway speed.
39. Define Centrifugal pump.
Hydraulic pump means it converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. If the
mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy means of centrifugal force
acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called Centrifugal Pump.
40. Define Specific speed of a centrifugal pump.
The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the speed of a geometrically
similar pump which would deliver 1 m3/s against a head of 1 m.
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Ns = N Q/ (H)3/4 (OR) Ns = N P/ (H)5/4

41. Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump:
Manometric Efficiency:
The ratio of the manometric head to the head imparted by the impeller to the water
is known as manometric efficiency.
Manometric Head
g Hm
mano = ------------------------------------------------------- = ----------Head imparted by impeller to water
Vw2u2
Head imparted by impeller to water = Vw2u2/g
Mechanical Efficiency:
The ratio of the power available at the impeller to the power at the shaft of the
centrifugal pump is known as mechanical efficiency.
Power at the impeller
mech = --------------------------------Shaft Power
Power at the impeller = workdone by impeller per sec = Q Vw2u2
Overall Efficiency:
The ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the pump is called as
overall efficiency.
Weight of water lifted x Hm
o = -----------------------------------------Shaft Power
42. Define Manometric Head.
The manometric head is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has
to work.
Hm = head imparted by the impeller to the water loss of head
Hm = Vw2u2/g - loss of head
Hm = hs + hd + hfs + hfd + vd2/2g
43. Differentiate static head & manometric head.
Sl. No. Static Head
Manometric Head
1
The vertical head distance to liquid surface in Total head that must
sump to overhead tank.
be produced by pump
to satisfy the external
requirements.
2
Loss of head in the pump is not considered.
The friction head loss
& kinetic head are
considered.
3
H = Hs + Hd
Hm = Hs + Hd + hfd +
vd2/2g
45. Distinguish between impulse turbines and reaction turbines.
Impulse turbine
Reaction turbine
1. All the available fluid energy is Only a portion of fluid energy is
converted in kinetic energy. 2. converted into kinetic energy.
Blades are in action only when Blades are in action all the time.
they are in the front of the
nozzle.
Water
is
admitted
over
the
3. Water may be allowed to enter circumference of the wheel.
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a part or whole of the wheel

circumference.
Water completely fills the vane
4. The wheel does not run full passages throughout the operation of
and air has free access to the the turbine.
buckets.
Unit is kept entirely submerged in
5. Unit is installed above the tail water below the tail race.
race.
There is always a loss when the flow is
6. There is no loss when the flow regulated.
is regulated.
44. Show that the maximum hydraulic efficiency of a pelton bucket is 100%.
Ans.

V = Absolute velocity,

=V-v

Hydraulic efficiency=

1.Path line
Path line is the line traced by a given particle. This is generated by injecting a dyeinto
the fluid and following its path by photography or other means
2.Streak line
Streak line concentrates on fluid particles that have gone through a fixed station o
rpoint. At some instant of time the position of all these particles are marked and a line
is drawn through them. Such a line is called a streak line
3.Stream lines
Stream lines are a series of curvesdrawn tangent to the mean velocity vectors of a
number of particles in the flow.Since stream lines are tangent to the velocity vector at
every point in the flow field,there can be no flow across a stream line
4.Circulation
circulation is defined as the line integral of velocity about this closed path. The symbol
used is
5.Vorticity
Vorticity is defined as circulation per unit area. i.e., Vorticity = circulation per
unit area, here area
UNIT V : POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MACHINES
1) What is a reciprocating pump?
Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump. This means the liquid is first
sucked into the cylinder and then displaced or pushed by the thrust of a piston.
2) What is single acting pump and double acting pump?
If the water is in contact with one side of the piston the pump then it is known as
single acting reciprocating pump. For one complete revolution one suction stroke
and one delivery stroke occurs.
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If the water is in contact with both sides of the piston the pump then it is called
double acting reciprocating pump. For one complete revolution two suction strokes
and two delivery strokes occurs.
3) What is Discharge through a Reciprocating Pump?
For Single acting Reciprocating Pump: Discharge (QT)=ALN/60
For Double acting Reciprocating Pump: QT =2ALN/60
A=Area of the Cyclinder (m2), L=Length of Stroke (m), N=Speed of Crank (rpm)
4) What is the Workdone by Reciprocating Pump per sec?
For Single acting Reciprocating Pump: Workdone = gALN(hs+hd)/60
For Double acting Reciprocating Pump: Work done= 2gALN(hs+hd)/60
Where, =Density of Water (kg/m3), A=Area of the Cylinder (m2),
L= Stroke Length (m), N=Speed (rpm), hs, hd=Suction and Delivery head (m).
5) Define slip and % slip.
The difference between the theoretical discharge (Q T) and actual discharge (Qact) is
known as slip of the pump.
Slip = QT - Qact
% Slip = [ (QT - Qact)/QT ] x 100
If Qact is more than the QT then slip will be ive.
If Qact lesser than QT then the slip will be +ive.
6) Define coefficient of discharge of reciprocating pump?
It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge of reciprocating
pump. Cd=Qa/Qth. If Cd > 1 then ive slip occurs and if Cd < 1 then +ive slip occurs.
7) Write the expression for pressure head due to acceleration in suction
and delivery pipes.
Pressure head due to acceleration in suction pipe, has = (ls/g) (A/as) 2r Cost
Where, ls - length of suction pipe; A area of piston cylinder,
as area of suction pipe; angular velocity; r radius of crank.
Pressure head due to acceleration in delivery pipe, had = (ld/g) (A/ad) 2r Cost
Where, ld - length of delivery pipe; A area of piston cylinder,
ad area of delivery pipe; angular velocity; r radius of crank.
Max pressure head due to acceleration, ha = (l/g) (A/a) 2r
8) Write the expression for head due to friction in suction and delivery
pipes.
Head loss due to friction in suction pipe is,
hfs = (4fls/2gds) [ (A/as) 2r Sint ]2
Where, f coefficient of friction; l s - length of suction pipe; A area of piston
cylinder, as area of
suction pipe; ds diameter of suction pipe; Angular
velocity; r radius of crank.
Head loss due to friction in delivery pipe is,
hfs = (4fls/2gds) [ (A/as) 2r Sint ]2
Where, f coefficient of friction; ls - length of delivery pipe; as area of delivery pipe;
ds diameter of delivery pipe;
9) Define indicator diagram?
The indicator diagram for a reciprocating pump is defined as the graph drawn
between the pressure head in the cylinder and the distance traveled by the piston
for one complete revolution of the crank.
10) Define ideal indicator diagram?
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It is defined as the graph between pressure head in the cylinder and stroke length
of the crank under ideal condition is known as ideal indicator diagram.
During the suction stroke, the pressure in the cylinder is below atmospheric
pressure.
During the delivery stroke, the pressure in the cylinder is above atmospheric
pressure.
11) What is the relation between Work done of a Pump and Area of
Indicator Diagram ?
Work done by the pump is proportional to the area of the Indicator diagram.
12) What is the Work done by the Pump per sec due to acceleration and
friction in the suction and delivery Pipes?
For single acting : Workdone/sec = gALN(hs+hd+0.67hfs+0.67hfd)/60
For Double acting : Workdone/sec = 2gALN(hs+hd+0.67hfs+0.67hfd)/60
Where, hfs, hfd =loss of head due to friction in suction and delivery pipes.
StrokeLengthHatm
Delivery
strokeSuctionstrokePressure
headhdhsL
=
StrokeLength
13) What is an air vessel?
An air vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the top portion and
liquid at the bottom of the chamber. At the base of the chamber there is an opening
through which the liquid may flow into the vessel or out from the vessel. When the
liquid enters the air vessel, the air gets compressed further and when the liquid
flows out of the vessel, the air will expand into the chamber.
14) What is the purpose of an air vessel fitted in the pump?
o To obtain a continuous supply of liquid at a uniform rate.
o To save a considerable amount of work in overcoming the frictional
resistance in the suction and delivery pipes, and
o To run the pump at a high speed with out separation.
15) What is the work saved by fitting an air vessel in a single acting,
double acting pump?
Work saved by fitting air vessels in a single acting pump is 84.87%, In a double
acting pump the work saved is 39.2%.
16) Define Cavitation.
If the pressure in the cylinder is below the vapour pressure, the dissolved gases will
be liberated from the liquid and air bubbles are formed. This process is termed as
cavitaion.
17) Define separation pressure and separation pressure head.
Due to caviation process the continuous flow of fluid will get affected and
separation takes place. The pressure at which separation takes place is known as
separation pressure and the head corresponding to separation pressure is called
separation pressure head.
For water the limiting value of separation pressure head is,
hsep = - 7.8 m (Gauge pressure)
hsep = 10.3 7.8 = 2.5 m (Absolute pressure)
18) How will you obtain the maximum speed during suction stroke?
The absolute pressure head will be minimum at the beginning of suction stroke.
Thus, in the cylinder the separation taking place at the beginning of suction stroke
only. In this case, the absolute pressure head will be equal to the separation
pressure.
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hsep = Hatm (hs + has) [or] has = Hatm hs hsep

But maximum pressure head due to acceleration in suction pipe is ,
has = (ls/g) (A/as) 2r
Equating both the angular velocity() and Speed (N) are obtained. This N is the
maximum speed of the pump during the suction stroke without separation.
19) How will you obtain the maximum speed during delivery stroke?
The absolute pressure head will be minimum at the end of delivery stroke. Thus, in
the cylinder the separation taking place at the end of delivery stroke only. In this
case, the absolute pressure head will be equal to the separation pressure.
hsep = Hatm + hs - had [or] had = Hatm + hd hsep
But maximum pressure head due to acceleration in delivery pipe is ,
had = (ld/g) (A/ad) 2r
Equating both the angular velocity () and Speed (N) are obtained. This N is the
maximum spped of the pump during the delivery stroke without separation.
20) What is mean by Maximum speed of a Reciprocating Pump?
The maximum speed at which no separation flow is taking place in the cylinder is
called maximum speed of a reciprocating pump. It will be the least value of speeds
obtained from maximum speed during suction stroke and maximum speed during
delivery stroke.
21) Write the workdone saved by fitting the air vessel in reciprocating
pump.
By fitting the air vessel the head loss due to friction in suction and delivery pipe is
reduced. This reduction in the head loss saves a certain amount of energy.
Therefore, the workdone saved is given by,
Workdone saved by workdone against friction workdone against friction
Fitting airvessel without airvessel with airvessel
22) Write the formula for workdone against friction with air vessel in
reciprocating pump.
Workdone against friction with airvessel = [K/] gQ [4fl/2gd] [(A/a) r]2
Where, K = 1 for single acting reciprocating pump
K = 2 for double acting reciprocating pump
Q = theoretical discharge (m3/s)
Q = ALN/60 for single acting reciprocating pump
Q = 2ALN/60 for double acting reciprocating pump
f = coefficient of friction
l = length of pipe (m)
d = diameter of pipe (m)
A = area of piston (m2)
a = area of pipe (m2)
= angular velocity (rad/s)
= 2N/60
r = radius of crank
23) What will be the total % work saved by fitting the air vessel?
For single acting reciprocating pump = 84.8 %
For double acting reciprocating pump = 39.2 %

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