Hardware Implementation: 3.1 Block Diagram & Components Description

CHAPTER 3
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM & COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION:
ARDUINO CONTROLLER
SINGLE PAHSE ACCENTRE

SUPPLY TAPPED TRANSFORMER
230V, 50Hz
O/P: (9-0-9) V
CYCLOCONVERTER
LOAD
Fig: 3.1 Block diagram of cyclo-converter using microcontroller
Here the single phase 230 V 50Hz supply is given to the centre tapped
transformer (9-0-9) V. The output of the centre tapped transformer voltage is supplied
to the cycloconverter module as input and the same output of the centre tapped
transformer of 5 volts is supplied to the Arduino controller as input supply. By
Arduino controller the gate triggering pulses of cycloconverter is controlled according
to the required output voltage and frequency.
3.2 CENTRE TAPPED TRANSFORMER:
A Centre Tapped transformer works in more or less the same way as a usual
transformer. The difference lies in just the fact that its secondary winding is divided
into two parts, so two individual voltages can be acquired across the two line ends.
The internal process is the same, which is when an alternating current is
supplied to the primary winding of the transformer it creates a magnetic flux in the
core, and when the secondary winding is brought near, an alternating magnetic flux is
also induced in the secondary winding as the flux flows through the ferromagnetic
iron core and changes its direction with each and every cycle of the alternating
current. In this way an alternating current also flows through the two halves of the
secondary winding of the transformer and flows to the external circuit.
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The primary difference that is evident here is that a normal transformer

provides you with only one voltage, for example, say 240 V. But a center tapped
transformer will provide you with two voltages each of 240/9-0-9V, so that we can
drive two independent circuits.
3.3 THYRISTOR:
Thyristors or Silicon Controlled Rectifiers, SCR are find many uses in
electronics, and in particular for power control. These devices have even been called
the workhorse of high power electronics. Thyristors are able to switch large levels of
power are accordingly they used in a wide variety of different applications. Thyristors
even finds uses in low power electronics where they are used in many circuits from
light dimmers to power supply over voltage protection. The term SCR or silicon
controlled rectifier is often used synonymously with that of thyristor - the SCR or
silicon controlled rectifier is actually a trade name used by General Electric.
The thyristor is a four-layered, three terminal semiconductor devices, with
each layer consisting of alternately N-type or P-type material, for example P-N-P-N.
The main terminals, labelled anode and cathode, are across all four layers. The control
terminal, called the gate, is attached to p-type material near the cathode. (A variant
called an SCSSilicon Controlled Switchbrings all four layers out to terminals.)
The operation of a thyristor can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly
coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause a self-latching action:
Fig: 3.2 Structure on the physical and electronic level, and the thyristor symbol
Thyristor have three states:
Reverse blocking mode Voltage is applied in the direction that would

be blocked by a diode
Forward blocking mode Voltage is applied in the direction that would

cause a diode to conduct, but the thyristor has not been triggered into
conduction
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Forward conducting mode the thyristor has been triggered into

conduction and will remain conducting until the forward current drops
below a threshold value known as the "holding current".
When the anode is at a positive potential VAK with respect to the cathode with
no voltage applied at the gate, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, while junction
J2 is reverse biased. As J2 is reverse biased, no conduction takes place (off state).Now
if VAK is increased beyond the breakdown voltage VBO of the thyristor, avalanche
breakdown of J2 takes place and the thyristor starts conducting (On state).
If a positive potential VG is applied at the gate terminal with respect to the
cathode, the breakdown of the junction J2 occurs at a lower value of VAK. By
selecting an appropriate value of VG, the thyristor can be switched into the on state
quickly. Once avalanche breakdown has occurred, the thyristor continues to conduct,
irrespective of the gate voltage, until: (a) the potential VAK is removed or (b) the
current through the device (anodecathode) is less than the holding current specified
by the manufacturer. Hence VG can be a voltage pulse, such as the voltage output
from a UJT oscillator. The gate pulses are characterized in terms of gate trigger
voltage (VGT) and gate trigger current (IGT). Gate trigger current varies inversely
with gate pulse width in such a way that it is evident that there is a minimum
gate charge required to trigger the thyristor.
3.3.1 Switching Characteristics:

In a conventional thyristor, once it has been switched on by the gate terminal,
the device remains latched in the on-state (i.e. does not need a continuous supply of
gate current to remain in the on state), providing the anode current has exceeded the
latching current (IL).
Fig: 3.3 Switching characteristics of thyristor
As long as the anode remains positively biased, it cannot be switched off until
14
the anode current falls below the holding current (IH).A thyristor can be switched off
if the external circuit causes the anode to become negatively biased (a method known
as natural, or line, commutation). In some applications this is done by switching a
second thyristor to discharge a capacitor into the cathode of the first thyristor. This
method is called forced commutation.
After the current in a thyristor has extinguished, a finite time delay must
elapse before the anode can again be positively biased and retain the thyristor in the
off-state. This minimum delay is called the circuit commutated turn off time (TQ).
Attempting to positively bias the anode within this time causes the thyristor to be selftriggered by the remaining charge carriers (holes and electrons) that have not
yet recombined.
3.3.2 Holding Current:The holding current (hypostatic) for electrical, electromagnetic and electronic
devices is the minimum current which must pass through a circuit in order for it to
remain in the 'ON' state. The term can be applied to a single switch or to an entire
device. A simple example of holding current is in a Spark gap. In the most basic of
circuits, if the current falls below the holding current even briefly, the circuit is turned
'OFF' (becomes blocked). However, complex circuits and devices may have different
delays built-in between the time the current falls below this level and the time the
device turns 'OFF'. Whether a device turns 'ON' when current is restored is a design
issue. The current necessary to restore the circuit to the 'ON' state, called the
"threshold current" (See threshold voltage), may be much greater than the holding
current, or only very slightly more.
Nevertheless, where the device is designed to turn back 'ON' upon restoration
of the current and where the device is running at or about the holding current level,
slight variations in the current can cause flicker as the device cycles 'OFF' and 'ON.
If flicker is undesirable, it can be reduced by the use of capacitors or other circuits; on
the other hand, flicker can be used to measure small events as in a GeigerMuller
tube.
3.3.3 Latching Current:

15
A related term is latching current, which is the minimum additional current

that can make up for any missing input (gate) current in order to keep the device 'ON',
in other words to keep the device's internal structure latched.
3.4 ARDUINO:
Arduino is a tool for making computers that can sense and control more of the
physical world than your desktop computer. It's an open-source physical computing
platform based on a simple microcontroller board, and a development environment for
writing software for the board. Arduino can be used to develop interactive objects,
taking inputs from a variety of switches or sensors, and controlling a variety of lights,
motors, and other physical outputs.
Fig: 3.4 Arduino board
Arduino can be used to develop interactive objects, taking inputs from a

variety of switches or sensors, and controlling a variety of lights, motors, and other
physical outputs. Arduino projects can be stand-alone, or they can communicate with
software running on your computer (e.g. Flash, Processing, and Max MSP.)
The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a similar
physical computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia
programming environment. Handy board and many others offer similar functionality.
All of these tools take the messy details of microcontroller programming and wrap it
up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also simplifies the process of working with
microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage for teachers, students, and interested
amateurs over other systems. Open source and extensible hardware. The Arduino is
based on Atmel ATMEGA8 and ATMEGA168 microcontrollers. The plans for the
modules are published under a creative common license, so experienced circuit
designers can make their own version of the module, extending it and improving it.
16
Fig: 3.5 ATMEGA328P-PU Microcontroller
It comes with a simple integrated development environment (IDE) that runs on

regular personal computers and allows users to write programs for Arduino using C or
C++.
The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-platform
application written in Java, and derives from the IDE for the Processing programming
language and the Wiring projects. It is designed to introduce programming to artists
and other newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a code editor
with features such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation,
and is also capable of compiling and uploading programs to the board with a single
click. A program or code written for Arduino is called a sketch.
3.4.1 Pin Configuration:
VIN (input voltage):

The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power
source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the
power jack, access it through this pin.
Vcc5V:
This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can
be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector
17
(5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins
bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.
3V:
A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is
50 mA.
GND (ground): Ground pins.

I/O REF (input output reference):
This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the
microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the I/O REF pin
voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the
outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.
Memory:
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the boot loader). It also has
2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the
EEPROM library).
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Fig: 3.6 ATMEGA328P-
PU
Microcontroller pin
description
Input and Output:

Each of the
digital pins on the
14
Uno
can be used as an
input
or
output,
using pin Mode ( ),

digital Write ( ), and digital Read ( ) functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can
provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 kilo-ohms. In addition, some pins have specialized
functions:
Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX):
Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins are
connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
External Interrupts: 2 and 3:

These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value, a rising or
falling edge, or a change in value. See the attach Interrupt () function for details.
PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11.
Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog Write () function.
SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK).
These pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.
19
LED 13:
There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH
value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off. The Uno has 6 analog inputs,
labelled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024
different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible
to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analog Reference
( ) function. Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:
TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin:
Support TWI communication using the Wire library.
There are a couple of other pins on the board:
AREF: Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog Reference ( ).
Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller.
3.4.2 Arduino Board Ratings:

Micro controller
ATMEGA 328
Operating voltage
5V
Input voltage (recommended) -
7-12V
Input voltage (limits)
6-20V
Digital I/O pins
14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog input pins
DC current per I/O pin
40mA
DC current for 3.3V pin
50mA
20
Flash memory
32KB (Atmega328) of which 0.5 KB

used by boot loader
SRAM
2KB (atmega328)
EEPROM
1 KB (Atmega328)
Clock speed
16MHz
3.4.3 USB over current Protection:

The Arduino Uno has a resettable poly fuse that protects your computer's USB
ports from shorts and over current. Although most computers provide their own
internal protection, the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500mA
is applied to the USB port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the
short or overload is removed.
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CHAPTER 3

SINGLE PAHSE ACCENTRE

Fig: 3.1 Block diagram of cyclo-converter using microcontroller

The primary difference that is evident here is that a normal transformer

Thyristor have three states:

Reverse blocking mode Voltage is applied in the direction that would

Forward blocking mode Voltage is applied in the direction that would

Forward conducting mode the thyristor has been triggered into

3.3.1 Switching Characteristics:

Fig: 3.3 Switching characteristics of thyristor

3.3.3 Latching Current:

A related term is latching current, which is the minimum additional current

Fig: 3.4 Arduino board

Arduino can be used to develop interactive objects, taking inputs from a

Fig: 3.5 ATMEGA328P-PU Microcontroller

It comes with a simple integrated development environment (IDE) that runs on

VIN (input voltage):

GND (ground): Ground pins.

Fig: 3.6 ATMEGA328P-

Input and Output:

using pin Mode ( ),

External Interrupts: 2 and 3:

3.4.2 Arduino Board Ratings:

Input voltage (recommended) -

Input voltage (limits)

Digital I/O pins

14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

Analog input pins

DC current per I/O pin

DC current for 3.3V pin

32KB (Atmega328) of which 0.5 KB

3.4.3 USB over current Protection:

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