B R E N DA H .

S P E N C E R
A N D R E A M . G U I L L AU M E

Integrating curriculum through the

learning cycle: Content-based reading
and vocabulary instruction
To increase students retention of
vocabulary words, a learning cycle approach
is useful. The cycle builds background
knowledge and improves comprehension in
an engaging manner.
But words are things, and a small drop of ink,
Falling like dew, upon a thought, produces
That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think.
(Lord Byron, 1821, Don Juan, canto III, stanza 88)

his article highlights the importance of vocabulary development to literacy and argues
that the content areas, particularly science,
provide rich contexts for developing vocabulary. It
presents an effective lesson model for fostering science learning outcomesthe learning cyclethat
can be used to systematically develop vocabulary
while building understanding in the content areas.
The rationale for this article draws from literature
on the importance of vocabulary development,
facets of vocabulary acquisition, prevalent practices
in vocabulary instruction, and the potential of content areas as a context for vocabulary instruction.

The importance of vocabulary

development
Researchers have described the powerful, positive relationship between vocabulary and comprehension (Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Davis,

206

1944; National Institute of Child Health and

Human Development, 2000). Children who know
the meaning of most of the words they hear and
read comprehend more than those who do not
(Freebody & Anderson, 1983). It has been estimated that children who are immersed in oral and written language learn 2,500 or more words a year
without the help of direct instruction (Beck &
McKeown, 1991).
There are important differences in the depth
and range of the vocabulary knowledge of children
as they enter school that affect their ability to comprehend what they hear and read (Nagy & Scott,
2000). Those who already know most of the words
they are exposed to will not only be able to understand more but also can use that understanding to
acquire new knowledge and the vocabulary to represent that knowledge. Children who have poor vocabularies not only may not understand much of
the oral and written language they are exposed to,
but they will be less able to learn new words.
Children from low socioeconomic groups and
those who are learning a second language appear to
be especially at risk and may not be able to catch
up unless direct intervention in learning words is
provided.

Facets of vocabulary acquisition

Studies of how children acquire vocabulary indicate that it is a complex process. In their review
of vocabulary processes, Nagy and Scott (2000)
described the complexity of word knowledge.
Among the factors that they identified were that

2006 International Reading Association (pp. 206219) doi:10.1598/RT.60.3.1

word knowledge is incremental, words have multiple meanings, word knowledge is multidimensional, and word knowledge is interrelated.
Word knowledge is incremental. Because there
are limits to how much information children can
learn about a word in a single exposure, word
learning usually takes place in small steps over
time. In order for their knowledge of a word to approximate that of an adult, children need to encounter the word in many different contexts.
Words have multiple meanings. Often, the words
that occur most frequently in language have multiple meanings. For example, the noun place can
mean the space occupied by a person or thing, a
rank, or the position of a numeral in a series.
Students need to expect that words may have multiple meanings and be given instruction in how to
use a dictionary effectively.
Word knowledge is multidimensional. Knowledge
about words has many dimensions. To know a word
means knowing what it means, how it is related to
other words, how to pronounce it, and how to use it
in a sentence. These aspects of word knowledge are
relatively independent. Thus, a student might recall
the meaning of a word but be unable to use it correctly in a sentence.
Word knowledge is interrelated. Because words
are not isolated units, how well a word is understood is related to how much background knowledge the person has about the domain in which the
word is used. For example, someone who is familiar with the word rabbit will be better prepared to
understand the word hare upon first encounter.

Prevalent practices in vocabulary

instruction
Studies of teachers beliefs about vocabulary
indicate that they realize its importance to understanding text, and do allocate time to vocabulary
instruction. However, that instruction often does
not address the complexity of word knowledge
(Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000). Typically, teachers
use either an instructional context approach
(Herman & Dole, 2005) or a definitional approach

(Ogle & Blachowicz, 2002) for vocabulary instruction. In the instructional context approach, teachers
use sentences found in the teachers edition of their
reading programs to introduce vocabulary before
students read the assigned story. Students are either
told what the word means or are asked to try to figure out the meaning of the word from the context.
In the definitional approach, students are given a
list of words and asked to look up the definitions
in a dictionary. Although studies suggest that any
information about a word can potentially help students build knowledge about that word over time
(Nagy & Herman, 1987), both approaches assume
students have enough background knowledge
about the topic to use the context of the sentence
to figure out the meaning or to choose the correct
definition from the dictionary.
The success of these methods also depends on
how much the student needs to know about the
word in order to maintain comprehension
(Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000). For example, it may
be sufficient for a student to know that scamper
means to run quickly, if the student does not need
to remember the word or needs the definition to understand only a portion of the text. However, if the
word is essential for instruction, superficial knowledge of a word will not suffice. Take the words force
and pole, for example. It would be difficult for a student to understand magnetism without a clear understanding of these terms. In science and other
content areas, terms are often building blocks for
further understanding and need to be remembered.
Most reading and vocabulary instruction in the
United States takes place with literature found in
reading programs (Ogle & Blachowicz, 2002).
Although there have been efforts to include more
informational text in reading programs, the majority of the material tends to be stories written to provide direct instruction in specific reading skills.
Research in word learning indicates that in order
to enhance vocabulary, students need multiple exposures to words in different contexts and opportunities to build background knowledge in the
domains in which the vocabulary is likely to occur. However, the selections in reading programs
generally skip from topic to topic and are not intended to build knowledge about a domain in any
coherent way. If the words suggested for vocabulary instruction in the teachers manual are not
essential for understanding the entire text, then stu-

Integrating curriculum through the learning cycle 207

dents may need only a superficial understanding

of the word to construct meaning. There is little
need for students to remember the word over time
(Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000). Such is not the case
in the content areas.

The content areas as a context for

vocabulary development
The content areas provide rich contexts for vocabulary development in the elementary grades.
Content areas provide especially fertile ground for
three of the six tasks of learning new words suggested by Graves (1987): learning new meanings
for familiar words, new terms for familiar concepts, and new words for new concepts. The content areas also can provide opportunities to clarify
and enrich the meanings of known words which,
with effective instruction, can enable students to
move words from their receptive (words they understand) to their expressive (words they use) vocabularies.
The content areas offer an additional opportunity for vocabulary development. In the content areas, new words and concepts are central to
instruction, and thus students need to learn specific meanings, to understand the terms when they
hear and read them, to use them correctly in both
oral and written communication, and to remember
them over time (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000). All
content areas have specialized vocabulary and provide a context in which students will have multiple exposures to words and concepts over time.
For a number of reasons, the science content
area provides a rich environment for vocabulary
development. Science describes the natural world,
so each of its concepts is observable, either directly or through inference. Science is an empirical endeavor that focuses on questions such as, What is
the evidence? and Does it work when we try it?
The empirical nature of science makes it possible
for teachers to build background knowledge and
recreate phenomena for students own experience.
Much of the science content that elementary
students are expected to learn can be easily demonstrated. As a result, immediate, concrete representation of concepts and terms is likely.
Elementary teachers can reap the instructional
benefits of science as fertile ground for vocabulary

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development by capitalizing on common principles

of literacy and science instruction and by exploring
lesson models that foster learning in both domains.
The remainder of this article presents some shared
principles that can guide literacy and science instruction, and a lesson model (the learning cycle)
that can be used to enact these principles to enhance vocabulary development.

Some shared principles of literacy

and science instruction
Research in the fields of reading and science
education suggest a number of principles that support reading and language artsparticularly vocabulary developmentand science goals. Four
principles, in particular, have wide applicability.
1. Use both firsthand experiences and print resources to enhance learning. Firsthand experiences in which students observe or manipulate
some object or event are a critical ingredient of
science learning and can enhance vocabulary
learning. It is through the observation and manipulation of objects in the natural world that students
come to understand the properties of such objects
and how those can be expected to interact with
others (Piaget, 1937/1954). Through firsthand experiences, students build the foundation for more
sophisticated explanations of the natural world.
Providing students with rich, firsthand experiences, then, provides them with a bank of concepts
that become their vocabulary store. The richer and
more varied students experiences related to particular concepts, the more finely detailed and nuanced their understanding of related terms can be
expected to be.
Direct experience with the environment also
serves other important instructional purposes.
When students are engaged in firsthand experiences they spontaneously activate their prior
knowledge, which helps to prepare them for new
learning. In addition, they are more likely to generate fully formed and relevant questions than other
students. Engagement in activities that encourage
hands-on learning increases motivation and a sense
of ownership of the information being learned
(Guthrie & Ozgungor, 2002).

November 2006

Text resources also are a critical component of

the science curriculum. The benefits for vocabulary
development are many, as reading experiences help
to more fully develop students understanding of
words. First, content area reading experiences can
provide labels for newly developed concepts.
Second, they can provide additional exposure to
terms introduced through teacher talk and classroom discussion. Third, the experiences can add to
students understanding of words multiple meanings and show words in a variety of contexts so that
students can build shades of meaning. Finally,
when students are provided text resources that are
relevant to the topics they are investigating, they
can extend firsthand experiences, providing a new
but related context for students to apply effective
strategies for gaining knowledge and increasing
understanding (Guthrie & Ozgungor, 2002).
2. Promote student interaction. From a sociocultural perspective, learning is a social activity
(Vygotsky, 1934/1978). When students have the
opportunity to work together, they are more likely
to be actively engaged and have more positive attitudes (Almasi & Gambrell, 1994; Guthrie et al.,
1996). Social interaction has clear benefits for vocabulary development. Nagy and Scott (2000, p.
237) posited that knowing a word means being
able to do things with it. Interaction provides students with an opportunity to use newly acquired
terms in engaging contexts. In so doing, they have
the opportunity to hear new terms and to use new
terms, thus moving the terms from their receptive
language to their expressive language.
3. Guide student learning. Much research on
student thinking in science indicates that students
enter school with preconceptionsor alternative
conceptionsabout the natural world, conceptions
that do not always match accurate or fully formed
scientific explanations (Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, 2000). Furthermore, research suggests
that students often resist changing their preconceptions, so that students notions may survive instruction intact (Driver, 1981). Careful teacher guidance
is required to support student learning and conceptual change. By challenging or extending students
preinstructional ideas through thoughtful instruction, teachers can guide students to construct more
accurate and sophisticated concepts and explana-

tions (Bransford et al.). Teacher guidance may be

particularly important in the development of accurate and multidimensional knowledge of the large
numbers of terms found in the content areas.
Explicit teacher guidance can help students develop an interest in words, relate new words to experiences they may have had, build relationships among
new terms, develop deep meanings of words, and
learn how to learn new words (Gunning, 2004).
4. Take a metacognitive approach to instruction.
In science and in reading education, as in education
in general, a major goal is for students to become
lifelong learners. In order for this to occur, students
must develop the motivation and skills necessary to
take charge of their own learning. They need to be
able to set learning goals, monitor their thinking, and
modify their behavior when problems arise (Baker
& Brown, 1984; Bransford et al., 2000). In science
and other content areas, vocabulary words are of primary importance because they are often labels for
major concepts. In order to be successful, independent learners, students need to develop the skills to
monitor their word knowledge by being aware of the
varying depth of knowledge they have of terms,
know how to find and use resources to enrich and
clarify their knowledge when needed, and reflect on
changes in understanding as their word knowledge
grows. Teachers can support growth in these
metacognitive skills by providing explicit instruction
and modeling, such as in the think-aloud technique
(Baumann, Jones, & Seifert-Kessel, 1993), and by
providing opportunities for students to use and refine
their metacognitive skills.
These principles, in summary, encourage teachers to facilitate vocabulary development in the context of science instruction by providing a variety of
experiences, including both text-based and concrete
activities; encouraging student interaction; guiding
students learning; and fostering the development of
students control over their own thinking and
knowledge.

The learning cycle

One instructional model that can be used to incorporate shared instructional principles is the
learning cycle. Developed in the latter half of
the 20th century during science curricula reform

Integrating curriculum through the learning cycle 209

in the United States (specifically, for the National

Science Foundationfunded Science Curriculum
Improvement Study; Karplus, 1964), the learning
cycle is backed by research to suggest that its use
can result in greater science achievement (including greater concept retention) and enhanced scientific attitudes and processes (Abraham, 1997;
Martin, 2004). It also has positively affected comprehension of science text (Musheno & Lawson,
1999).
Although many versions of the learning cycle
exist, most involve inductive instruction that embeds learning within real-world contexts. The
learning cycle proceeds first by eliciting students
prior knowledge and building a purpose for learning; it then moves to exploration; to carefully consolidating new concepts, terms, and information;
and finally to applying the new knowledge.

Potential benefits for vocabulary

development
Although many positive outcomes have been
documented for instruction through a learning cycle,
we appear not yet to have capitalized on its potential for enhancing vocabulary development. The
learning cycle can be a useful instructional tool for
teaching content-specific vocabulary in conceptually rich ways by supplying a number of possible benefits. It fosters student motivation by embedding
vocabulary study in personally relevant contexts. A
learning cycle approach allows students to build
concepts through varied experiences before labeling them with formal vocabulary terms. It provides
opportunities for direct teacher intervention and for
the reading of content text after motivation is high
and concepts have been built. Social interaction, embedded at various points in the learning cycle, encourages exploring ideas and using terms in
meaningful conversation. The learning cycle fosters
language development for English-language learners
by increasing motivation to learn through lowering
stress, by using concrete referents, and by encouraging context-embedded language use. The learning cycle allows for multiple exposures to target
terms and can allow for practice with those terms.
The cycle builds in the use of new concepts and
terms in different applications. Finally, it provides
opportunities for the development of metacognitive
awareness of vocabulary knowledge.

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Phases of the learning cycle

One particularly useful version of the learning
cycle has four phasesengage, explore, develop,
and apply.
The engage phase. During the engage phase, students are presented with an interesting real-world
question or phenomenon. The phenomenon might,
for instance, be a demonstration of a puzzling
event, or it might be a question about something
within the students life experience. The engage
phase must sufficiently interest students in the topic so that they are motivated to continue its exploration. This phase serves two purposes: It brings
to the surface students prior knowledge, and it
sparks interest in learning.
Vocabulary development in the engage phase. In
terms of vocabulary development, the engage
phase elicits the language that students bring to the
question or phenomenon. Because students can
have very different background experiences and
word knowledge, eliciting students language can
expose them to rich language from their peers. The
engage phase also can be used to set the stage for
developing concepts and labels for target terms.
Pictures and other visuals often are useful for
accessing background knowledge and creating rich
conversations about a topic. For example, during
the engage phase of a learning cycle that teaches
how birds feeding habits are related to their physical structure, third-grade students were shown pictures of common birds. Their teacher fostered a
discussion wherein students shared their ideas
about the pictures: Heres a picture of an interesting
bird I saw at the park yesterday. Have you seen this
type of bird before? Which of these other birds
have you seen? Where did you see the bird? What
do you know about it? The teachers final question
focused the topic: Is there anything about the way
that the bird looks that could help us determine
what kinds of food it might eat?
Information from students discussions during
the engage stage can be recorded using graphic organizers such as semantic maps or webs with the
questions asked by the teacher serving as category
headings. Data retrieval chartsgraphic organizers
used frequently in science and social studies instruction (Brem & Subotnik, 1988)also can be

November 2006

FIGURE 1
Data retrieval chart on birds
Bird

Where it lives

How it looks

effective for organizing students initial ideas and

terms and the ongoing efforts of their research. The
data retrieval chart in Figure 1 helped students
think about birds forms in conjunction with their
feeding habits. Some cells are left blank until students gain more information.
Graphic organizers help students see and question relationships among terms and allow the
teacher and students access to the groups pooled
knowledge, including word knowledge. Information on the organizer can help build students background knowledge and help the teacher decide on
the kinds of experiences that can be used to clarify
and enrich student knowledge. Organizers can be
modified as new learning occurs. Table 1 presents
vocabulary activities for different phases of the
learning cycle; see the first row of the table for specific vocabulary activities that can be used during
the engage phase.
The explore phase. During the explore phase, students participate in hands-on exploration directly
related to the question(s) raised during the engage
phase. The explore phase allows students to investigate the properties of relevant materials and to begin forming nascent ideas about the concept. No
explicit instruction on concepts is given during this
phase. However, as students engage in exploration,
they develop new ideas about the topic and use
terms that help them express relationships among
these new concepts. In addition, the explore phase
deepens their understanding of emerging concepts
that were expressed in the engage phase.
Vocabulary development in the explore phase.
Vocabulary development here focuses on developing conceptsnot labels. Teachers can pay partic-

What it eats

ular attention to recording students own labels for

target terms. If students ideas during the engage
phase were collected in data retrieval charts or other graphic organizers, then new ideas and students
terms for expressing them can be added to the existing graphic organizer. Often, when students have
opportunities to engage in hands-on experiences,
previous ideas about concepts change. Teachers
and students should work together to modify and
add to the graphic organizer as new understanding
is developed. Teachers should help students develop rich representations of the concepts so that vocabulary knowledge will be deep and sophisticated
rather than superficial and simple.
Drawing is a useful technique for helping students record new understanding as it develops during the explore phase. As fourth-grade students
observed pill bugs with hand lenses, their teacher
asked them to carefully record what they saw in
drawings. Many students chose to label their drawings. An example is found in Figure 2. As students
drew, their teacher monitored their work and noted
that they were developing and using accurate
knowledge of some of the scientific vocabulary relevant to pill bugs (e.g., antennae, body, segmented, legs). She also noted the inaccurate term insect
on a few of the students drawings. As a result, the
teacher planned to address the terms insect and
crustacean during the develop phase. Terms found
in students drawing labels were added to the classroom word wall that was developed in the engage
phase. In addition, three students duplicated their
drawings on the board for later discussion. See the
second row of Table 1 for additional vocabulary activities that can be used during the explore phase.

Integrating curriculum through the learning cycle 211

TABLE 1
Vocabulary activities for each phase of the learning cycle
Engage

Photographs or artifacts (discuss objects that heighten curiosity about topic)

Student questions (list things that make students curious about the topic)
Graphic organizers such as pictorial maps, semantic maps, data retrieval charts, and Venn diagrams (record students initial ideas)
Cooperative learning strategies such as think-pair-share (Lyman, 1981; elicit student ideas about
the question or topic)
Word banks (make lists of student-generated terms related to question or topic)
Possible sentences (Moore & Moore, 1986; predict word meanings by constructing possible sentences using them)
Predict-o-grams (Blachowicz, 1986; predict word meanings by placing terms in conceptually relevant categories)
Brainracing (Brown, Phillips, & Stephens, 1993; write as many ideas about the topic as can be recalled in a short time)
Factstorming (Hennings, 1982; list students known facts about the topic)
10 most important words (Stephens & Brown, 2000; Yopp & Yopp, 2002; for topics that are
somewhat familiar to students, predict or select from a list those that will be the most important
to the topic)
Drawings (sketch initial ideas related to the topic; label as appropriate)

Explore

Use student questions (from engage phase) to guide explorations

Continue to record ideas, facts, and words using activities from engage phase:
Graphic organizers such as pictorial maps, semantic maps, and Venn diagrams
Word banks
Brainracing (Brown et al., 1993)
Factstorming (Hennings, 1982)

Develop

Revisit activities from engage phase, check predictions, revise to correct misconceptions, elaborate with additional information, and systematize new knowledge:
Data retrieval charts (check facts and add more)
Possible sentences (check sentences for plausibility; revise)
Predict-o-grams (revise the grams)
Graphic organizers (revise and elaborate on organizers)
Drawings (revise sketches and labels, elaborate, or create new drawings and compare)
Word banks (revise and then manipulate terms to reflect new understandings through
strategies such as word sorts or list-group-label [Taba, 1967])
Pursue vocabulary development as primary objective
Semantic feature analysis (e.g., Pittelman, 1991; chart features of important concepts)
OPIN (opinion) strategy (Vacca & Vacca, 1998; students argue for their choice of terms to
complete a cloze passage)
Sketch-to-stretch (Short, Harste, & Burke, 1996; draw, with an emphasis on inference)
Word treasure hunts (Haggard, 1989; an expert discovers everything there is to be known
about one chosen vocabulary term)
Vocabulary maps (choose from many varieties; one has the categories of word, definition, picture
or sentence, synonym, and antonym)
Analogies
Classification of pictures or words on cards, perhaps developing glossary or cloze based on classification
Dramatizations of terms
Exploration of word histories
Use of reference sources to build word knowledge

Apply

Use terms from word banks and other study in writing letters, books, poems, multimedia presentations, songs, and other products
Word chains (Stephens & Brown, 2000; link terms by explaining their semantic connections)
I-Search paper (Macrorie, 1998; investigate new, personally relevant issues)
Readers Theatre (Flynn, 2004/2005)

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November 2006

The develop phase. During the develop phase,

teacher and students build upon and systematize
the knowledge gained during exploration. They review students efforts and reflect on the success or
failure of any empirical tests. They review the initial question, determine the extent of their ability to
answer it, and consider questions of emerging relevance. Teachers explicitly address misconceptions
during this phase. Typical activities during the develop phase include reading, teacher presentation
of information, student-led instruction, and technologically assisted instruction such as video or multimedia presentations. The answers to the questions
raised during the engage phasealong with the
careful development of knowledge underlying the
questionsare the point of the develop phase.
Vocabulary development in the develop phase. It
is during the develop phase that the teacher explicitly guides students to attach terms to new concepts
and to formally structure and enhance concepts that
began forming during the explore phase. Because
most word knowledge comes from reading
(Anderson & Nagy, 1992), it is appropriate for
teachers to include opportunities for students to
read in the develop phase. For example, teachers
can provide students with texts, websites, and other print resources to structure and enhance the concepts that emerged during the explore phase and to
guide students in extending their learning.
However, learning words from context is not easy
for many students, especially when those words are
found in content area texts that have a dense concept load. Three strategies are of particular benefit
in helping students become independent word
learners: using context clues, using word parts, and
using the dictionary. Students who receive instruction in these strategies and receive ongoing reminders to use them are more successful in
learning new vocabulary (Anglin, 1993; Fukkink &
de Glopper, 1998).
Think-alouds (Baumann et al., 1993) can teach
students how to use strategies effectively. The purpose of think-alouds is to encourage students to
monitor their own understanding of text and to use
strategies that help to facilitate their comprehension. In think-alouds the reader stops periodically
and thinks aloud how a text is being understood
and what strategies are being employed. Initially,
the students observe the teacher modeling the pro-

FIGURE 2
Students labeled drawing of a pill bug, created
during the explore phase

cedure. Then students engage in guided practice

until they are ready to use the think-aloud strategy
independently. For example, in a think-aloud on
how to use context clues, the teacher would read
aloud a section of text, stopping at an appropriate
vocabulary word. Then the teacher explains what is
going on in his or her mind while trying to figure
out the meaning of the word from the context. The
teacher would continue modeling the think-aloud
procedure using several examples before asking the
students to join in, first as a group and then in pairs.
Once students have had ample opportunity to practice the procedure, the teacher encourages them to
use think-alouds whenever they encounter unknown words in text. The procedure would be used
similarly in teaching students to determine if using word parts could help them to recognize the
correct meaning of a word and to choose the best
definition for a term from the dictionary.
Another activity that requires students to consider their understanding of terms is 10 Most
Important Words (Stephens & Brown, 2000; Yopp
& Yopp, 2002). In Yopp and Yopps version of this
activity, studentsin small groups or pairsare

Integrating curriculum through the learning cycle 213

asked to reflect on what they have learned so far

and to choose 10 words that they believe are critical
to understanding the topic. Each word is written
on a sticky note and students share their words by
constructing a class bar graph. Identical words are
placed above one another to form bars that represent the number of times the word was suggested.
After all the words have been shared, the teacher
asks questions about the words: Why did you (or
did you not) choose words that are alike? Which
words represent big ideas about the text? Which
represent important details? How can we organize
or sort the words to reflect the structure of what
we have learned? Students can be asked to write
summary statements about each word. In addition,
words selected from classes 10 Most Important
Words recommendations can be used to restructure or reflect on graphic organizers or semantic
maps developed in earlier phases of the learning
cycle. See the third row of Table 1 for other specific vocabulary activities that can be used during
the develop phase.
The apply phase. Finally, during the apply phase,
students use their new knowledge in a different situation, typically a realistic one. This allows students to transfer their learning to new contexts and
test its implications in other settings. For example,
fourth-grade students who learned about electromagnets might, during the apply phase, invent devices using an electromagnet that have some
practical use. They can write placards to accompany their machines and then display them. In their
placards, they make use of newly acquired vocabulary terms such as temporary magnet, magnetic
field, coil, and insulation.
Vocabulary development in the apply phase.
During this phase, students can use new terms in
readings or writings that take them into different
contexts. This will allow multiple repetitions of
the terms and allow them to use terms in novel (expressive) ways. For example, Flynn (2004/2005)
suggested that Readers Theatre can be an effective
technique for encouraging students to apply what
they have learned in a new context. Readers
Theatre requires students to create an interesting
situation in which to present what they have
learned, write a script, and present it to their peers.
In order to be successful, students must present ac-

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curate, comprehensible information using the vocabulary associated with the topic and must be able
to read the script accurately and with appropriate
speed. As students write the script the teacher monitors the process, providing an opportunity to assess learning, correct misperceptions, and make
suggestions or modifications. Students prepare for
the presentation by rereading orally their parts of
the script and by listening to their peers. Rereading
promotes fluency (Samuels, 1979/1997) and requires active participation, improving retention of
important concepts and the vocabulary words that
describe them (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986).
Other types of writing activities also can be
used effectively to provide students with creative
contexts for applying their knowledge. Students
can compose books, poetry, songs, presentations,
and letters that target a variety of audiences. For example, third graders studying our solar system extended their learning by composing cinquain
poems for greeting cards. A students poem,
Jupiter, is found in Figure 3. Figure 4 presents
Atoms, another content-based poemthis one a
shape poemcomposed by a fifth grader during
the apply phase. In completing their study of
forces, fourth-grade students composed a Did You
Know... class book to share what they learned with
their families during Open House. One students
discoveries about water pressure are found in
Figure 5.

A sample learning cycle that

emphasizes science vocabulary
development
What follows is a second-grade lesson on
sound, designed to address the generalization that
sound can be described by its properties, such as
volume and pitch. Target vocabulary terms include
vibrate, pitch, volume, frequency, high, low, loud,
and soft. Other terms such as the names of musical
instruments, places, people, and types of music
also may be addressed if they arise as important
from students experience. Instructional points in
science and vocabulary are included throughout the
description of the cycle.

November 2006

Engage
1. Ask students to view a variety of musical instruments. Record their thoughts about instruments, such as names of instruments,
where they have seen them, who they have
seen play them, or descriptions of the instruments.

FIGURE 3
Students cinquain poem, composed during the
apply phase of a study of the solar system

The science point: Finding out students background

experiences with things that make sound. The vocabulary point: Finding out words students already
have related to sound and making them part of the
classs shared knowledge.

2. As a review of the previous days lesson in

which the production of sound was discussed, ask what all of these instruments
have in common. Engage in a discussion to
review the generalization that anything that
makes sound makes it through vibrations.
(During the previous lesson, this term was
explored and labeled.)
3. Ask students to close their eyes. Tell them
to guess which instruments made the sounds
they are about to hear. Play one sound each
from two different instruments. After students succeed at identifying instruments,
play two sounds using one instrument, varying the volume. Then vary the pitch.
4. Ask how one instrument can make so many
different sounds. Record students initial
ideas.

FIGURE 4
Students shape poem, composed during the
apply phase of study of matter

The science point: Finding out what students already

know about volume and pitch and the relationships
between concepts such as vibration and pitch. The
vocabulary point: Determining what terms students
use for the concepts volume and pitch.

Explore
1. State the explore task: Students will invent
an instrument. They are to determine
whether it can make more than one sound,
and if it can, they are to see what they can
discover about how this single instrument
can make more than one sound.
2. Distribute materials to make straw horns
plastic drinking straws and scissors. Review
safety precautions for using scissors.

3. Invite students to make noise using the

straws, allowing first for open exploration.
As necessary, model how to make horns:
Cut one tip of the straw until it is pointed.
Flatten that end with teeth, then blow
through pointed tip.
4. Challenge students to change the sounds
straw horns make. Guide them to change
volume (by blowing more air through the

Integrating curriculum through the learning cycle 215

FIGURE 5
Students contribution to class book on water pressure

horn) and pitch (by changing the length of

the straw using scissorsthe shorter the
straw, the higher the pitch).
The science and vocabulary points: Adding to firsthand knowledge of the concepts of pitch and volume by exploring them with new instruments;
attaching additional meaning to the previous concepts of vibrate and vibration.

Develop
1. Gather students to discuss findings. Ask
them, How can we change the sound of our
straw horns? Invite students to talk with
their neighbors to answer that question. Take
some responses for the group.
2. Discuss pitch. Many student pairs will have
noticed that straws of different lengths produce different sounds. Ask all students to
replicate high and low pitches. Demonstrate

216

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Vol. 60, No. 3

as necessary. Cutting the straw shorter as

you blow will change the pitch in a visually
vivid way. Label that difference in sound as
pitch.
The vocabulary point: Labeling the new concept
pitch with a formal term.

3. Focus on the relationship between vibration

and pitch by leading a discussion. Suggest,
Lets use our idea of vibration from yesterday. Please talk to your neighbor about how
pitch and vibration go together. Lead students to conclude that the faster the vibration, the higher the pitch. (Shorter straws
have a shorter column of air, so the air molecules vibrate faster.)
The science point: Relating differences in the speed
of vibration to differences in pitch. The vocabulary
points: Moving an existing term (vibration) into ex-

November 2006

Figure 6
Partially completed wall book entitled Sound Words
Word
Pitch

Picture

Meaning

Sentence

high

The highness or
lowness of a sound

A throw in baseball
Black stuff at the
beach

low
Sound

Something a
person can hear

The harp makes

a beautiful sound.

Volume

Vibrate

What it also is

How much a cup holds

A button on the radio
One book in a set
When something
shakes or moves
back and forth
fast

pressive language; building relationships among

terms.

4. Discuss volume. A few students may note

that they could produce loud and soft sounds
with their straws. Ask all to demonstrate a
loud sound. Ask for a soft sound. Label that
difference as volume.
5. State the generalization that pitch and volume are two properties that can be used to
describe sound.

Apply
1. Refer back to the sample instruments. Ask
students to select their choice of instrument,
and ask the class to describe the sounds of
each in terms of volume and pitch.
The science point: Applying knowledge of the concepts of volume and pitch to real-world instruments.
The vocabulary point: Practicing new terms in authentic contexts.

2. Distribute a rubber band to each student. Tell

them that the rubber band is an instrument in
the making. Invite them to invent an instrument that produces sounds that vary in pitch
and volume.
3. Make a wall book about Sound Words.
See Figure 6 for a partially completed ex-

We watched the drum

vibrate by pouring
sand on it.

ample. Use target terms and a sampling of

those that arose during the listing process of
the engage phase. In groups, students tackle
one word of their choice. Sources such as
family members, class dictionaries, and the
Internet support students efforts to complete
the final column (What it also is). Students
enjoy revisiting the wall book in future lessons and reading it with a pointer during free
times throughout the day.
The vocabulary points: Reaffirming and practicing
terms, using information sources (such as dictionaries) to build word knowledge, learning new terms for
familiar concepts (such as vibrate for shake or rattle),
and learning a variety of new meanings for terms.

Try a learning cycle to build

vocabulary
We believe that learning cycles in science can
prove fruitful for developing content vocabulary.
Because science instruction and the learning cycle
model promote learning in real-world contexts, they
provide students with a motivating environment in
which to build new understanding and learn new
words. The engage, explore, develop, and apply
phases of the learning cycle create opportunities
for students to encounter and use words in multiple

Integrating curriculum through the learning cycle 217

contexts, making it more likely that they will make

the terms part of their receptive and expressive
vocabularies. We have provided examples of a number of effective vocabulary strategies that teachers
can use in the learning cycle. Many of these strategies have features that allow teachers to add new
terms and modify understandings as new learning
occurs. When teachers create an environment in
which students are motivated to learn vocabulary
and engage the students in shared experiences that
enhance their understanding, they build the skills
students need to be successful learners.
Spencer teaches at California State University,
Fullerton. She may be contacted there
(Elementary and Bilingual Education, P.O. Box
6868, Fullerton, CA 92834-6868, USA). Email [email protected]. Guillaume
teaches at the same university.
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