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Virology
1. Tell the feature of a virus.
Features of virus:
1) Viruses are the smallest microscopic organism.
2) Obligate intracellular parasite.
3) Contain either DNA or RNA but not both.
4) They are acellular organisms.
5) All viruses do not have enzymes for energy metabolism.
6) They can not synthesize protein due to absence of ribosome.
7) Viruses are generally resistant to antibiotics.
8) Viruses are sensitive to interferon.
9) Viruses are found in plants, animals and bacteria.
10) Viruses are transmissible.
11) Isolation and identification of viruses can be done by living tissue culture.
12) Can not be culture in artificial media.

2. Tell the difference between virus and bacteria.

Difference between virus and bacteria:
Traits
1. Cells
2. Approximate
diameter(m)
3. Nucleic acid
4. Type of nucleus
5. Ribosome
6. Nature of outer surface
7. Motility
8. Method of Replication

Virus
No (Acellular)
0.02-0.2 m

Bacteria
Yes (Cellular)
1-5 m

Either DNA or RNA

None (No nucleus)
Absent
Protein capsid & lipoprotein
envelope
None
Not binary fission

Both DNA or RNA

Prokaryotic
70S
Rigid wall containing
peptidoglycan.
Some
Binary fission

3. Define virus? Why viruses are called obligatory intracellular parasite?

Virus: Virus is smallest obligatory intracellular parasite with one type of nucleic acid either RNA or DNA
in their genome & due to their extreme small size they are beyond the resolution of light microscope.
Viruses are called intracellular:
Viruses have no mitochondria & no ribosome. So, they can not generate energy or synthesize protein
due to absence of enzyme. They replicate within the cell by using the enzyme and energy yielding ()
apparatus of host cells. So outside the cell they can not exist.
Thats why, they are called obligate intracellular parasite.
4. What are the criteria for classification of virus?

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Criteria for classification of virus:

According to the suggestion of ICNV (International Committee of Nomenclature of Viruses) classification
counts the following basis:
1) Type of nucleic acid
2) Strandedness (Whether nucleic acid is single stranded or double stranded)
3) Presence of envelope
4) Character of nucleic acid (Positive or negative strand)
5) Symmetry of genome
6) Ether sensitivity
[Add a virus figure to easy understanding]
5. Identify DNA viruses: Rotavirus, Varicella Zoster virus (VZV), Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis B virus,
Influenza virus, EB virus.
DNA viruses are:
Rota virus
Hepatitis B virus
RNA viruses are:
Hepatitis A virus
Influenza virus

6. Name the viruses transmitted vertically.

Viruses transmitted vertically: [Mnemonic: ESR-pH-cH]
1) Epstein bar virus
2) Herpes Simplex
3) Rubella virus
4) Parvo virus
5) HIV
6) Cytomegalo virus
7) Hepatitis B & C virus
7. What is prion? What are the diseases produced by them?
Prion:
Prions are the infectious particles that are composed solely of protein.
i.e. they contain no detectable nucleic acid.
Disease produced by prion:
In human: Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
In sheep: Scrapie
8. What are viruses transmitted from mother to fetus?
Viruses transmitted from mother to fetus: [Mnemonic:ESR-pH-cH]
1) Epstein bar virus
2) Herpes Simplex
3) Rubella virus

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4)
5)
6)
7)

Parvo virus
HIV
Cytomegalo virus
Hepatitis B & C virus

9. What are the organisms screened in blood bank?

Organisms screened in blood bank:
1) HIV-1
2) HIV-2
3) HTLV-1 [Human T-lymphotropic virus]
4) HTLV-2
5) Hepatitis B virus
6) Hepatitis C virus
7) T. pallidum (Syphilis)
8) T. cruzi (Chagas disease)
9) West Nile virus
10) Cytomegalo virus ( In case of immunocompromised recipients, Usually not screen)
[Ref: Wikipedia]
10. What do you mean by defective virus? Give example.
Defective virus:
A defective virus is one which is lack of one or more functional gene for their replication & requires help of
other virus for replication.
Example:
Hepatitis-D virus needs help of Hepatitis B virus.
11. Enumerate the phases of virus replication.
Phases of virus replication: (Ref: Prof Adhikary)
1) Attachment & penetration
2) Uncoating of viral genome
3) Early viral mRNA synthesis (Transcription).
4) Early viral protein synthesis. (Translation )
5) Viral genome replication.
6) Late viral mRNA synthesis.(Transcription)
7) Late viral protein synthesis. (Translation)
8) Assembly/ Progeny virion assembly.
9) Virion release from the cell
12. What is cytopathic effect (CPE)
Cytopathic Effect: (Ref: Wikipedia)
Cytopathic effect or cytopathogenic effect (CPE) refers to degenerative changes in cells, especially
in tissue culture, and may associate with the multiplication of certain virus.
13. Name some viruses that have chronic carrier state.

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Viruses that have chronic carrier state:

1) HIV
2) Hepatitis B virus
3) Hepatitis C virus
4) Hepatitis D virus
14. Why there are fewer antiviral drugs than antibacterial drugs?
Causes of fewer antiviral drugs than antibacterial drugs:
1) Selective toxicity against virus is difficult. Because, their replication is intimately involved
with the normal synthetic process of the host cells.
2) The drugs are relatively ineffective. Because their replication occur during the incubation
period, when the patient is well. By the time the patient has a recognizable systemic viral
disease, the virus has spread throughout the body.
3) Some viruses become latent within cells. No antiviral drug can eradicate them.
15. What are the types of viral vaccine? Give example
Types of Viral vaccine with example:
A. Live vaccine: ( mnemonic: MMR)
a. Mumps vaccine
b. Measles vaccine
c. Rubella vaccine
B. Killed vaccine: (mnemonic: AIR)
a. Hepatitis A vaccine
b. Influenza vaccine
c. Rabies vaccine
C. Both (Live & Killed) vaccine:
a. Polio vaccine
D. Sub-unit vaccine:
a. Hepatitis B vaccine (Made by recombinant DNA technology)
16. What is interferon? How it works? What is its use in clinical practice?
Interferon:
Interferons are host coded glycoproteins of cytokine family tha inhabit viral replication by inhibiting
early and late translation (synthesis of protein from mRNA).
Mechanism of Action (How it works):
1) It acts by interfering with virus replication within the cell.
2) It causes virus infected cell to produce a protein which is called Translation Inhibiting Protein
which interfere with viral mRNA in the cell to synthesize viral proteins.
Uses: (Therapeutic use)
a) Chronic active hepatitis by HCV
b) Cancer therapy- Kaposis sarcoma
c) Chronic granulomatous lesion
d) Hairy cell leukaemia

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17. What is herd immunity? How it is achieved? Give example.

Herd immunity (or community immunity) describes a form of immunity that occurs when the vaccination
of a significant portion of a population (or herd) provides a measure of protection for individuals who have
not developed immunity.
18. What do you mean by hepatotropic viruses? Give example
Hepatotropic Virus:
Vruses that primarily affect the liver, such as the hepatitis viruses.
Example: [N:B: Just say up to number 5, if teacher ask about other hepatitis virus , then say number 6]
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Hepatitis A Virus
Hepatitis B Virus
Hepatitis C Virus
Hepatitis D Virus
Hepatitis E Virus
Other hepatitis Virus: (Mnemonic: CHERY-A)
a. Cytomegalo virus
b. Herpes virus
c. Epstein Barr Virus
d. Rubella virus
e. Yellow Fever Virus
f. Adeno Virus

19. Name hepatitis viruses that can be transmitted through blood & blood product.
Hepatitis viruses that transmit through Blood and Blood Products:[Mnemonic: Consonants- BCD out of
Hepatitis ABCDE]
a) Hepatitis B virus
b) Hepatitis C virus
c) Hepatitis D virus
Hepatitis Viruses that transmit through Faeco-oral route: [Mnemonic: Vowels- AE out of Hepatitis
ABCDE]
a) Hepatitis A virus
b) Hepatitis E virus
20. Name hepatitis viruss that have chronic carrier state.
Hepatitis Viruses that have chronic carrier state:[ Mnemonic: Consonant: BCD]
a) Hepatitis B virus
b) Hepatitis C virus
c) Hepatitis D virus
21. Mode of transmission of HAV
Transmission of HAV (Hepatitis A Virus):
[In short]: Faeco-oral route

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22. How hepatitis A can be prevented?

Prevention of Hepatitis A virus:
A. Control of reservoir: by
1) Notification
2) Complete bed rest
3) Disinfection of faeces and fomites.
B. Control of transmission:
1) Hand washing after toilet
2) Hand washing before eating
3) Sanitary disposal of excreta
4) Purification of community water supply.
C. Control of Susceptible population:
Human immunoglobulin is indicated to induce passive immunity in1) Susceptible persons traveling to highly endemic area.
2) Close personal contacts of patient with HAV.
3) To control the outbreak in institutes. Doses 0.02 ml/kg body weight.
23. How hepatitis viruses are transmitted to human?
Transmission of Hepatitis Viruses in human:
HAV and HEV are transmitted by faeco-oral route.
Where as HBV,HCV and HDV are transmitted by parenteral route (blood and blood products).
[Mnemonic: Vowel = A,E= Faeco-oral route,
consonant = B,C, D = Through Blood ]
24. How can you diagnose a case of acute hepatitis A infection in the laboratory?
Diagnosis of Hepatitis A infection in the laboratory:
1) Detection of antiHAV(IgM) is the most important.
2) A-4 fold rise of IgG antibody titre.
25. Mode of transmission of hepatitis B virus.
Mode of transmission of HBV:
Short Answer: Through Blood and Blood Products
Actual Answer:
A. Parenteral Transmission:
a. Blood and Blood products
b. Contaminated needles
c. Contaminated syringes and surgical instrument.
d. Drug abusers.
B. Perinatal transmission/ vertical (mother to baby):
a. Before birth: has not been documented
b. During birth: most of the transmission occurs, when placenta is separated, leakage of
blood infect the baby.
c. After birth: through breast milk.
C. Sexual route:
a. Homosexual
b. Heterosexual

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26. Name the antigens present in HBV virion. Mention their importance.
Antigens present in HBV virion:
1) HBsAg
2) HBcAg
3) HBeAg
[ N:B: Detection of Ag in serum: HBsAg, HBeAg ]
Importance:
1) HBsAg: is the indication of recent or chronic infection (If >6 month = carrier state)
2) HBeAg: is the indication of replication stage of virus and the patient is highly infectious.
27. What are the serological markers of hepatitis B infection?
Serological markers of hepatitis B virus infection:
A. Detection of Ag in the serum:
a. HBsAg
b. HBeAg
B. Detection of Ab in serum:
a. Anti HBcIgM
b. Anti HBsIgG [mnemonic: sG= Singapore]
c. Anti HBcIgM
Importance:
1) Detection of HBsAg is the indication of recent or chronic infection. (If > 6 months = carrier state)
2) Detection of HBeAg is the indication of replication stage of virus and the patient is highly infectious.
3) Detection of HBcIgM is the most reliable test for active hepatitis B infection. ( Recent and in
window period)
4) Detection of Anti HBsIgG indicates protective immunity against HBV infection ( life long
immunity)/ vaccination/ post infection/ passive immunity.
5) Detection of Anti HBeIgM, indicates recovery & low transmissibility.
28. Give interpretation:
1) HBsAg +ve
2) Total anti-HBc positive
3) IgM anti-HBc negative
Interpretation:
Chronic hepatitis
29. Give interpretation:
1) HBsAg (-)ve, Anti-HBs (+)ve
2) HBsAg (-)ve, Anti HBs (+)ve, Anti HBc (+)ve
Interpretation:
1) Post infection/ vaccination
2) Window period
30. What is window period in case of hepatitis B? How can you diagnose acute hepatitis B in this period?

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Window period:
During infection by HBV, there is a period of several weeks, then HBsAg has disappeared but
HBsAg is not yet detectable. This period is called window phase/ window period. In this time IgM of Anti
HBc Ab is always positive and can be used for diagnosis.
Diagnosis of Acute hepatitis B in window period:
Serological test: Anti HBc IgM is always positive in window period.
31. How can you diagnose acute hepatitis B?
Diagnosis of Acute hepatitis B:
Detection of HBsAg in the serum:
If HBsAg (+)ve it indicate acute or chronic HBV infection.
If HBsAg ()ve, we will do, Anti HBcIgM in the serum, If Anti HBcIgM (+)ve it indicate the
window period of hepatitis B infection.
32. Mention outcomes of hepatitis B virus infection?
Outcome of hepatitis B virus infection: [Ref: Lange]
1) Subclinical infection Recovery
2) Acute hepatitis
a. Recovery
b. Fulminant hepatitis Death
3) Chronic carrier:
a. Asymptomatic/ healthy carrier
b. Chronic active hepatitis leads to cirrhosis and death.
33. Mode of transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV).
Mode of transmission (Routes) of hepatitis C virus:
1) Blood transmission
2) Contaminated syringes and needles (drug abusers)
3) Needle stick injury
4) Sexual transmission
5) From mother to child (Prenatal through placenta, during delivery in birth canal, post natal)
[Ref: Lange]
34. What are the possible outcomes of HCV infection?
Possible outcomes of HCV infection: (Complications)
1) Chronic hepatitis/CLD
2) Cirrhosis of liver
3) Fulminant hepatitis (Rare)
4) Hepatocellular carcinoma
5) Death
35. How can you diagnose an acute HCV infection in the laboratory?
Diagnosis of Acute Heptitis C infection:
[In short: ELISA, RIBA, PCR]
Actual answer:
1) Specimen: Blood

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2) Serological test:
a. Antibody (IgM/IgG) detection by ELISA
b. RIBA (Recombinant immunobolt assay) confirmatory test
3) Nucleic acid base technique:
a. PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) Detects the presence of viral RNA in serum.
Ref: Lange
36. Why HDV is called defective virus?
HDV is called defective virus:
Because hepatitis D virus can not infect without the help of hepatitis-B virus.
37. Mode of transmission of HDV.
Mode of transmission of HDV:
1) Parenteral route
2) Sexual
3) Vertical
38. What do mean by superinfection and coinfection in case of hepatitis D virus (HDV)?
Coinfection:A patient can acquire hepatitis D virus infection at the same time as he/she is infected with
the hepatitis B virus. This is called co-infection.
Superinfection:A patient with hepatitis B can be infected with hepatitis D virus at any time after acute
hepatitis B virus infection. This is called super-infection.
Ref: http://www.natap.org/2002/Dec/120602_2.htm
39. Name neurotrophic viruses.
Neurotrophic viruses: [Mnemonic: pH-RH-MAN of Japan]
1) Polio
2) Herpes simplex-1, Herpes zoster
3) Rabies
4) HIV
5) Measles
6) Arbovirus
7) Nipah virus
8) Japanese B encephalitis
40. How rabies virus is transmitted to human?
Mode of transmission of rabies virus:
1) Animal bites
2) Licks
3) Aerosols of bat secretions containing rabies virus.
4) Person to person
a. Child biting to parents
b. Corneal and organ transplantation
[Ref: Lange 11th/259]

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41. Tell pathogenesis of rabies.

Pathogenesis of Rabies:
Bite of Rabid animal

Rabid virus are introduced into susceptible host

Initially multiply in the local muscles

Infect sensory neurons.

Travel via the nerves through retrograde axonal flow

Reach the CNS

Start multiplying within the nerve cells

Encephalitis develops with damage of nerve cells

Produce neurological signs and symptoms of rabies.

[Ref: Lange]
42. Define street virus and fixed virus. What is the use of fixed virus?
Street virus:
Freshly isolated virulent virus from rabid animals is called the Street virus.
Fixed virus:
Brain to brain serial passages of a street virus in rabbits modifying the virus to form fixed virus .
Uses of fixed virus:
To produce anti rabies vaccine (ARV) .
43. How can manage the bite of a rabid animal?
Management of the bite of a rabid animal:
A. Wound management:
a. Cleaning of the wound
b. Chemical treatment by alcohol or tincture iodine.
c. Suturing if needed.
d. Antibiotics and anti-tetanus measures.
B. Post-exposure prophylaxis:
Passive: Human rabies immunoglobulin.
Rabies immunoglobulin human
Anti-rabies serum equine.
**Active:
I. Human diploid cell vaccine.
Dose:- 1ml (0,3,7,14, 30 & 90 days)
II. Inactivated sheep brain vaccine:
Dose: Slight risk: 2ml x 7 days
Moderate risk: 5ml x 14 days

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Great risk: 10ml x 14 days

44. What types of vaccine are available against rabies?
Types of vaccine available against rabies:
1) Human diploid cell vaccine (safe than other vaccine)
2) Nerve tissue vaccine (Sheep brain vaccine)
3) Rabies vaccine absorbed.
4) Purified chick embryo cell vaccine
5) Duck embryo vaccine
6) Monkey lung vaccine.
[Ref: Lange]
45. What is polio? How polio virus is transmitted to human?
Polio:
Disease caused by the polio virus is called polio or poliomyelitis.
Transmission:
Faeco-oral route (By ingestion of contaminated food and drinks)
46. What are the clinical types of poliomyelitis?
Clinical types of poliomyelitis:
1) Asymptomatic infection
2) Abortive poliomyelitis
3) Non-paralytic poliomyelitis (Aseptic poliomyelitis)
4) Paralytic poliomyelitis.
47. Tell pathogenesis of paralytic poliomyelitis.
Pathogenesis of paralytic poliomyelitis:
Polio virus

Enter into the body by faeco-oral route

Multiply in the lymphoid tissue in the oropharynx & small intestine (Peyers patches)

Go to the CNS (spinal cord & brain) via blood steam and also by retrograde spreading along nerve axons.

Replicate in the motor neurons of anterior horn of spinal cord.

Death of nerve cells

Paralysis of the muscles innervated by those neurons.

48. What are the types of polio vaccine? Mention advantage and disadvantage of each type.
Types of polio vaccine:
1) Injectable polio vaccine (IPV)/Salk vaccine/Killed polio vaccine

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2) Oral polio vaccine (OPV)/ Sabin vaccine or live attenuated polio vaccine
Advantages (Merit) of live vaccine/OPV:
1) Cheaper
2) Easy to administer
3) Produce local immunity. (Produce local gut immunity by provoking production of intestinal IgA)
4) Passive immunity by contamination with environment.
Disadvantages (Demerit) of live vaccine/OPV:
1) It may revert to virulence
2) It can also spread from vaccine to contacts.
3) Presence of other viruses may interfere with gut colonization.
4) Can not be given in pregnancy & immunosuppressed persons.
5) Multiple doses are necessary to establish immunity.
6) Must be kept refrigerated to prevent heat-inactivation.
Advantages (Merit) of Killed vaccine/IPV/Salk vaccine:
1) It does not revert to virulence.
2) It does not interfere with replication of virulent virus in gut.
3) Does not require refrigeration.
4) Does not cause disease in immunocompromised person.
Disadvantages (Demerit) of Killed vaccine/IPV/Salk vaccine:
1) Usually costly
2) Local pain during administration.
3) Duration of immunity is shorter.

49. What are the merits of OPV? What do you mean by viral interference during use of OPV?
Advantages (Merit) of live vaccine/OPV:
1) Cheaper
2) Easy to administer
3) Produce local immunity. (Produce local gut immunity by provoking production of intestinal IgA)
4) Passive immunity by contamination with environment.
Viral interference during use of OPV:
When OPV is given it interfere with non-polio viruses and can prevent otitis media.

50. Name the viruses causing diarrhea?

Viruses causing diarrhea: [Mnemonic: RACNA= ]
1) Rota virus (commonest)
2) Adeno virus
3) Calci virus
4) Norwalk virus
5) Astro virus
51. How can you diagnose rotavirus infection in the laboratory?

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Diagnosis of Rota virus infection:

1) Specimen:
a. Stool
b. Rectal swab
2) Microscopic examination:
a. Electron microscopy or immune electron microscopy.
3) Detection of viral antigen:
a. Latex agglutination test
b. Co-agglutination
c. Particle agglutination
4) Nucleic acid based technique:
a. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
52. What are the orthomyxo & paramyxo viruses?
Orthomyxo viruses:
Influenza TypeA, B, C.
Paramyxo viruses:
a) Mumps
b) Measles
c) Respiratory syncytial virus
d) Para-influenza virus
53. What do you mean by antigenic shift & antigenic drift?
(Influenza virus has the ability to change its antigenic characteristics in the Haemagglutinins (HA) and
Neuraminidases (NA). There are two types of change-- )
Antigenic Shift:
Major change in the structure of Haemagglutinins (HA) occurs only in influenza A virus. It occurs in
every 10-11 years intervals. (Gradual change)
Antigenic Drift:
Minor change in the structure of Haemagglutinins (HA) occur both influenza A and B virus. It
occurs in every year. (Sudden change)
54. What is the importance of antigenic shift?
Importance of Antigenic shift:
Vaccine development is very difficult due to this antigenic shift and antigenic drift.
55. What are the modes of transmission of rubella virus?
Mode of transmission of Rubella virus:
Through the inhalation.
56. Mention outcome of rubella infection in a pregnant women.
Outcome of Rubella infection in pregnant women:
[ A pregnant women is infected with rubella virus in 1st trimester of gestation virus may pass to
foetus through placenta teratogenesis (congenital rubella syndrome)]

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(Outcome of Rubella)Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS)- are1) Microcephaly

2) Mental defects
3) Deafness
4) Cataract
5) Heart abnormalities. E.g. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) and septal defects.
6) Death of the foetus.
57. What is congenital rubella syndrome?
Congenital Rubella Syndrome:
A pregnant woman is infected with rubella virus in 1st trimester of gestation, in which virus may
transmit to the foetus through placenta and causes teratogenesis, this is called congenital rubella syndrome.
58. What are the contraindications of rubella vaccine?
Contraindication of Rubella vaccine (GERMAN MEASLES):
Conditions:Dysgammaglobulinemia, Hypogammaglobulinemia, Spread of Malignant Cancer to the Bone
Marrow, HIV, Body Temperature More Than 101 Degrees F, Pregnancy, Active Tuberculosis that has Not
Been Treated, Malignant Lymphoma, Leukemia, Reduction in the Body's Resistance to Infection,
Malignancy of Bone Marrow Cells, Decreased Blood Platelets, Blood Disorder
[Ref: www.webmd.com]
59. How HIV is transmitted?
Mode of transmission of HIV:
A. Sexual transmission (75% - 85% ):
a. Homo sexual More common among male
b. Heterosexual
B. Parenteral transmission:
a. By blood & blood product
b. By contaminated needles
c. By drug abusers
C. Vertical transmission:
a. Trans-placental
b. During birth
c. Breast feeding
D. Probable other methods:
a. Organ transplantation
b. Any skin piercing injection, ear & nose piercing, tattooing, Acupuncture,
c. By sharing sharp razors, combs and tooth brush. (rarely)
60. What are the cells and organs infected by HIV?
Cells:
1) CD4+ T cells (Helper T cell)
2) Certain monocytes & macrophages, which contain CD4 molecules on their surface. CD4 acts as a
high affinity receptor for gp-120 molecule of HIV.

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Organs:
Lymphoid organs
61. Mention the stages of HIV infection.
Stages of HIV infection:
The clinical picture of HIV infection can be divided into three stages
1) An early, acute stage: Fever, lethargy, sore throat and generalized lymphadenopathy.
Maculopapular rash on the trunk, arms and legs( but sparing the palms and soles), leucopenia. This
stage resolves spontaneously in about 2 weeks.
2) A middle, latent stage: A long latent period, measured in years, usually ensues. In untreated
patient, this stage last for 7-11 years.The patient is usually asymptomatic during this period.
3) A late, immunodeficiency stage: The late stage is the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS). This stage is characterized by marked reduction in the CD4 cells and occurrence of
opportunistic infection.
[Ref: Lange 11th/303]
62. What are the features of AIDS related complex (ARS). Mention its importance.
Features of AIDS related complex (ARS):
1) Unexplained diarrhea lasting longer than a month
2) Fatigue
3) Malaise
4) Loss of more than 10 percent body weight
5) Fever
6) Night sweats
Importance:
Some patients with AIDS related complex subsequently develop AIDS.
63. Define AIDS. Mention opportunistic infection in AIDS.
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome):
It is a syndrome complex, which is caused by human immuno deficiency virus (HIV).
Opportunistic infection in AIDS:
A. Bacterial:
1) M. tuberculosis
2) M. avium intracellulare (MAI)
3) M. kansasii
4) Nocardia asteroids
5) Listeria monocytogenes
6) Salmonella
B. Viral:
1) Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
2) Herpes simplex virus
3) Herpes zoster
4) Hepatitis B virus (HBV)
C. Fungal:
1) Candida species

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2) Cryptococcus neoformans
3) Histoplasma species
D. Parasitic:
1) Pneumocystic carinii
2) Cryptosporidium species
3) Isospora belli
4) Strongyloides stercoralis
5) Sarcocystic species
Causes of opportunistic infection in AIDS:
HIV infects CD4 + T-cells. As a result there is loss of T-cell response to form cytotoxic T-cell and
proliferation and differentiation of B cell. So both the cell mediated and antibody mediated immunity is lost.
For this reason opportunistic pathogens cause severe disease.
64. How can you diagnose HIV infection in the laboratory?
Diagnosis of HIV infection:
1) Detection of antigen by ELISA
2) Confirmatory test by western blot.
[Specimen: Blood for serological test & culture]
65. What is dengue? Name vector & type of dengue virus.
Dengue ( breakbone fever):
Dengue is a mosquito-borne is an infectious tropical disease caused by the dengue virus.
Vector: Female Aedes aegypti mosquito
Types of dengue virus:
4 serological types:
1) DEN-1
2) DEN-2
3) DEN-3
4) DEN-4
66. Mention clinical types of dengue.
Clinical types of Dengue:
1) Primary Dengue (Classical dengue fever): When the patient is infected with any of four strain (DEN1, DEN-2, DEN-3, DEN-4)
2) Secondary Dengue (Dengue haemorrhagic fever): When the patient become infected with any of the
rest 3 strains again.
67. Tell pathogenesis of dengue shock syndrome.
Pathogenesis of dengue fever:
A. Classical dengue fever (First exposure of dengue virus):
Dengue infection by one of the four serotypes

Antibody is formed

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Formation of immune complex & activation of compliment

Increased vascular permeability and thrombocytopenia

B. Dengue haemorrhagic fever (Re-exposure of dengue virus):
Patient infected with another serotype of dengue virus

An anamnestic, heterotypic response occurs

Large amount of cross-reacting antibody to the first serotype are produced

There are two hypotheses about what happens next

a) Immune complexes composed of virus and antibody are formed that activate
complement, causing increased vascular permeability and thrombocytopenia.
Ultimately shock and haemorrhage result.
b) Antibodies increase the entry of virus into monocytes and moacrophages with the
consequent liberation of a large amount of cytokines. Ultimately shock and
haemorrhage result.
th
[Ref: Lange /11 /283]
68. Tell microbiological diagnosis of dengue virus infection.
Microbiological diagnosis of dengue virus infection:
A. Specimen collection:
a. Blood
B. Isolation: By cell culture
a. Acute phase protein
b. Plasma
C. Serological Test: [ This is enough for VIVA]
a. Antibody detection:
1. ELISA
2. ICT (Immuno chromatography test)
3. Immmuno blot (Western blot)
b. Antigen detection:
1. Fluorescence microscopy in tissue
2. EIA in blood and plasma (Enzyme Immuno Assay)
c. Routine blood test:
1. Platelet count Thrombocytopenia (<100,000/mm3)
2. Haematocrit
3. Prothrombin time increased
d. Nucleic acid based technique:
1. Plymerase chain reaction (PCR)
69. What is oncogenic virus?
Oncogenic virus:
The viruses which are capable of producing tumour are known as oncogenic viruses.
[Classification / Example: See question number: 70, 71]

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70. Name the DNA viruses that cause tumor in human.

DNA viruses that causes tumour in human (Human oncogenic DNA virus):
1) Papovavirus (Papilloma virus) Genital herpes
2) EB virus Burkitts lymphoma
3) Hepatitis B virus Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)
71. Name the RNA viruses that cause tumor in human.
RNA viruses that cause tumor in human (Human oncogenic RNA viruses):b
1) Hepatitis C virus Hepatocellular carcinoma
2) Human T-cell Lymphotrophic virus type-1 (HTLV-1)
Some terms:
vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV)
Trophic: (Primarily affecting organ. E.g. Hepatotrophic : affect primarily liver, neurotrophic : primarily
affect CNS)

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