The Tools

Basic Principles

ELIAS ABLLAH
OCTOBER 2011
UKM

Physical Properties
Lithology

Boundary
Velocity

Density
Porosity
Clay content
Fracture
Dipping

Fluid Type
Water
Saturation

Probe / Sonde Types

Caliper Log

Electric Logs

Radioactivity

Sonic
Acoustic Log

Probe / Sonde Types

Caliper Log

Electric Logs

Radioactivity

Sonic
Acoustic Log

Self Potential; SP
Resistivity Log
Normal
Laterolog
Induction

Probe / Sonde Types

Caliper Log

Electric Logs

Radioactivity

Sonic
Acoustic Log

Gamma Ray
Total
Spectrometry U, Th, K
Neutron Log
Density Log
Lithodensity

Probe / Sonde Types

Caliper Log

Electric Logs

Radioactivity

Sonic
Acoustic Log

Caliper
Measure the
borehole
diameter
Borehole
diameter
changes due to

Profile Log

Drill bit shakes

Cave in

3 arms @ 6 arms

Caliper

Gamma Ray Logs

measures both
natural & induced
radioactivity
characteristic of the
formations

Profile Log

U, Th. Po, Total

Gamma

Geiger Muller
counter @
scintillation
detector
Stand alone @
combination with
others (sonic,
neutron, Density,
Induction)
1 or more receiver

GR Application
Defining Bed
boundary

Shale indicator
Correlation for
open hole &
cased hole

Gamma Ray Logs

Another common log
Records radioactivity of a formation
Shales have high gamma radioactive
response
Gamma ray logs infer grain size (and
so subsequently inferred
depositional energy)
Gamma ray logs are most
commonly used logs for sequence
stratigraphic analysis

Electric Logs
L

Measure the
resistance of the
earth layer

Resistance / Conductivity

Dry Solid rock

=0

No salt
No conductivity
High Resistivity

Porous
rock
oil

No salt
No conductivity
High Resistivity

Resistance / Conductivity
(same porosity; diff. fluid)

Porous rock
Fresh water

No salt
No conductivity
High Resistivity

Porous rock
Salty water

salt present
high conductivity
low Resistivity

Resistance / Conductivity
(same porosity; diff. salinity)

Porous rock
Moderate salt

Porous rock
High salt

salt present

salt present

moderate
conductivity

High
conductivity

Resistance / Conductivity
(diff. porosity; same fluid)

Small porosity
Salty water

salt present
small conductivity
high Resistivity

Highly Porous rock

Salty water

salt present
high conductivity
low Resistivity

Resistance / Conductivity
(same porosity; diff. fluid ratio)

Porous rock
20% Salt water
80% oil

Low conductivity
High Resistivity

Porous rock
80% Salt water
20% oil

high conductivity
low Resistivity

Borehole condition

Borehole condition

Rt
Rxo

Rmc
Rm

Rm > Rmc > Rxo > Rt

 To determine Rt accurately, tools

were designed with different
depths of investigation
Shallow investigation tools
Microresistivity resistiity of invaded
zone

Deep investigation tools

Laterolog, Inductions resistivity of
uninvaded zone

Resistivity Logs

The most commonly used logs

Measures resistance of flow of
electric current
Is function of porosity & pore fluid
in rock
Frequently used to identify lithology

SP Logs
SP curves are
caused by
electromotive
force in the
formation

Profile Log

Electro Chemical
Membrane
potential

Re

Electro Kinetic
of the
movement

Re

Tr

1 or more receiver

SP Logs
Difference in
salinity creates
an electrical
potential
The magnitude
of deflection
indicate the
difference in
salinity between
the drilling fluid
and the
formation water.

Shale
to
+ Impervious
Cl-

- High NaCl
sand Contentration

less
Salty
wate
r

+ Salty water

SP Logs
Shale base
line

The value is also

influenced by
the thickness of
the beds, the
shaliness of the
permeable beds,
and others

Mud filled hole

deep
Salinity of mud <
salinity of
formation water

NORMAL
SP

SP Logs

intermediate
Salinity of mud =
salinity of
formation water

SUPPRESSED
SP

shallow
Salinity of mud >
salinity of
formation water

REVERSE
SP

SP
Application
Define Boundary
Detection of
permeable beds
Correlation
Evaluate
formation water
resistivity
Bed shaliness

Spontaneous Potential
(SP) Logs
Next most common log
Measures electrical current in well
Result of salinity differences
between formation water and the
borehole mud
Separates bed boundaries of
permeable sands & impermeable
shales.

Neutron Logs
Radioactive tool
(2)
Radioactive
source
bombards the
rock around well
bore
Neutron
bombardment
causes rocks to
emit gamma
rays in
proportion to
their hydrogen
content.
The gamma ray
will be detected
by the sonde

 Hydrogen exist in
all formation
fluids (oil, gas,
water), but not
in the minerals
Thus indirect
indicator on the
Porosity

Problem shale
(bounded water)

Profile Log

1 or more receiver

Neutron Logs
Another common log
Measures porosity of formation
Uses quantity of hydrogen present
Measures lithology when used with
Density Log

Density Logs
Radioactive tool
(3)
Radioactive
source emit
gamma radiation
& records the
gamma
returning from
the formations
Gamma-gamma
tools

Profile Log

1 or more receiver

Density Logs
A common log
Measures formations bulk density
Used as a porosity measure
Differentiates lithologies with
Neutron Log
Used with Sonic Logs to generate
synthetic seismic traces to match to
seismic lines

Common Density
g/cm3
Sandstone

2.65

Limestone

2.71

Dolomite

2.87

Shale

1.9 2.7

Acoustic Logs
Measure time
taken for sound
wave to travel
through different
material
Acoustic velocity
depends on
Rock type &
Porosity

Profile Log

Re

Re

Tr

1 or more receiver

Sonic (Acoustic) Logs

Another common log
Measures of speed of sound in
formation
Tied to porosity and lithology
Used with Density Logs to generate
Synthetic Seismic traces to match to
Seismic traces

Lithology
(porosity = 0)

velocity
ft/s

m/s

Sandstone

18,00021,000

5,400 6,300

Limestone

21,00023,000

6,300 7,000

Dolomite

23,000

7,000

Anhydrite

20,000

6,000

Halite

15,000

4,500

Fluid
(fresh water / oil)

5,300

1,500

Composite Log

Other Logs

Temperature
Pressure
Televiewer
Image
NMR
Dip Meter

Dip meter
Measure the
formation dips

Profile Log
(tadpole)

3 arms @ 4 arms

Natural Gamma
Ray
Natural Radioactivity

Principles
Tools
Application
Environmental
Corrections
Evaluation Technique

Natural Gamma Ray

Natural Radioactivity

In the early 1900s, many atomic particles were discovered. These

i
n
c
l
u
d
e
d
:

Electron: An elementary particle consisting a negative charge

Proton: An elementary particle that is identical to the nucleus

of the hydrogen atom and is a constituent of all other atomic
nuclei. The proton carries a positive charge numerically equal
to the charge of an electron and is nearly 2000 times heavier
than an electron.

Neutron: An unchanged elementary particle that has a mass

nearly equal to the proton. The neutron is present in all
known atomic nuclei, except the hydrogen nucleus.

Natural Gamma Ray

Natural Radioactivity
During the same period it
was also discovered that,
as the atomic nuclei of
some
elements
disintegrated,
they
spontaneously emitted:

Alpha
particles:
positively charged
particles that are
made up of two
neutrons and two
protons, making it
identical to the
nucleus of a helium
atom.
Alpha
particles are easily
stopped by a thick
cloth.
Beta particles: either negative or positively charged particles
with the same mass and charge as an electron. Beta
particles are easily stopped by athin sheet of metal.

Gamma rays: electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed

of light having discrete energy levels. Gamma rays penetrate
farther than most particles, mainly because they lack
charge.

Natural Gamma Ray

Natural Radioactivity
Of the three particles
generated
during
natural
radioactive
decay, the gamma ray
is the only one that can
penetrate
a
rock
formation for any
appreciable distance
and as a result it is the
only one that can be
measured.
In nature, potassium
(K40), thorium (Th232)
and uranium (U238)
are the three main
radioactive elements.
Each
element
is
capable of producing
Gamma rays that can
be measured.
The figure shows the
different energies of
the
Gamma
rays
produced by these
radioactive materials.

Natural Gamma Ray

Principles

To measure the natural

Gamma rays emitted
from the formation, the
Gamma ray (GR) tool is
lowered in the borehole.

The GR tool consist of a

detector and associated
electronics to measure
the gamma radiation
originating in the volume
of formation near the
tool.

Natural Gamma Ray

Principles

The most commonly used detector for Gamma rays is the scintillation
detector. There are three main components of a scintillation detector:
Crystal Scintillator: convert the Gamma ray energy into visible
light flash.
Photomultiplier: converts the individual light flashes into
electrons, which are amplified to generate a detectable
electrical pulse..
Amplifier-Discriminator Circuit: differentiates between pulses
caused by Gamma rays from the formation and pulses caused
by background electrons.

Natural Gamma Ray

Principles

The standard GR tool measures the total number of gamma

rays coming to the detector, irrespective of the energy of the
Gamma ray.

The Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry (NGT) tool measures

both the number and the energy level of Gamma rays.

This permits the determination of the concentrations of

radioactive K40, Th232 and U238 in the formation rocks.

Natural Gamma Ray

Tools

Wireline: GR tools are available in various sizes and ratings for

various applications.

LWD: The GR sensor is part of the Resistivity Tool. The GR

sensor is also available as a part of the MWD tool. The
specifications of the Schlumbergers MWD Slim-1 system is
listed here as an example.

Natural Gamma Ray

Tools

Gamma Ray Tools

Depth of Investigation
10 15 (varies with deformation density)

Vertical Resolution
24 (varies with logging speed)

Natural Gamma Ray

Tools

The radioactive
decay is a random
process.

Because of the
random nature of
the process, it is
important to log
at speeds slow
enough
that
averaging
functions
can
reduce
these
fluctuations.

Schlumberger has
set logging speeds
for tools so that
accuracy
is
maintained and
logging speed is
maximized.

The appropriate
logging speed can
be found in the
Log
Quality
Control manual.

Natural Gamma Ray

Tools

The
American
Petroleum
Institute
(API) has created a
primary standard that
defines the Gamma ray
measurement
units
known as GAPI.

This unit has become

the
standard
throughout the world.

The GAPI represent

1/200 of the difference
between zones of high
and low radiation of
the
Gamma
ray
calibration pit of the
University of Houston.

Natural Gamma Ray

Tools

Since a tool cannot be run this calibration pit each

time it needs to be used, the calibration is reproduced
in the field using a secondary standard, which is a
wrap-around blanket containing radioactive monozite
sand with a predefined radioactivity.

Natural Gamma Ray

Applications

Gamma Ray Applications

Correlation

Well to well correlation

Depth matching between separate trips in the

well

Positioning of open-hole sampling tools

Providing the depth control needed for cased

hole perforation

General Lithology indicator

Discriminate between reservoir & non reservoir

(Net/Gross)

Quantitative shaliness evaluation of the

reservoir rock

Natural Gamma Ray

Applications

Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry

Applications

Lithology identification

Study of depositional environments

Investigation of shale types

Correction of the GR for clay content

evaluation

Identification of organic material and

source rocks

Fracture identification

Geochemical logging

Study of rocks diagenetic history

Natural Gamma Ray

Environmental corrections

Corrections to GR logs

Hole size

Stand-off of the tool from the bore

hole wall

Barite content of the mud

Potassium content of the mud

(only NGS data can be corrected)

Cased hole operations

Natural Gamma Ray

Environmental corrections

Schlumberger Charts GR-1, GR-2 & GR-3 contain the

corrections for the log acquired using the Wireline tools
under various open-hole and cased hole conditions.

These corrections are usually not a part of the standard log

data and have to be applied before using it formation
evaluation.

Natural Gamma Ray

Environmental corrections

The Schlumberger Chart GR-4 represents the correction for

the LWD-GR log.

The corrections illustrated by this chart are routinely applied

to the LWD data before delivery and therefore care should be
taken not to duplicate the correction.

Natural Gamma Ray

Evaluation Technique

For the evaluation of hydrocarbon in place, it is very

important to be able to discriminate between the reservoir
and non reservoir interval to compute the N/G.

The GR log is often used as a lithology indicator to achieve

this objective

Natural Gamma Ray

Evaluation Technique

In
sedimentary
formations,
radioactive elements
tend to concentrate
in shales, causing a
high GR log reading.

Clean
formations,
such as sandstones
or
limestones,
usually have a very
low
level
of
radioactivity
and
consequently, a low
GR log reading.

Thus, the GR log

reflects the shale
content.

Natural Gamma Ray

Evaluation Technique
To discriminate reservoir
and non-reservoir rock:
A GR level in thick
shale
beds
is
identified.
This
reading is assumed to
represent 100% shale
and is called shaleline.
A
sand
line
is
constructed
by
reading the average
GR level of thick clean
sands (sands with the
lowest GR)
A vertical line in the
middle of the shale
line and the sand line
is constructed for an
initial quick-look (cutoff line).
All intervals where the
GR log is on the left of
this cut-off line are
assumed
to
be
reservoir.
The actual GR level within the reservoir interval is the measure of
shaliness

Natural Gamma Ray

Evaluation Technique

The actual cutoff level for the

reservoir might
be
different
from 50%.
Hence,
using
the 50% level
can
prevent
certain shalier
zones,
which
are
good
reservoir
sections, from
being included
as part of the
reservoir.

This
figure
shows
the
effect
of
changing
the
cut-off level.

Natural Gamma Ray

Evaluation Technique

Sometimes sands themselves contain radioactive minerals, like

uranium.

Using the GR log radioactive sands will be misinterpreted as

a shaly-sand.

In such cases, the Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Log (NGS)

Natural Gamma Ray

Evaluation Technique

The NGS log provides the concentrations of K40, Th232 and U238
in the formation and the total formation GR (SGR).

Uranium can be present in both clean and shaly formations.

Thus, a corrected Gamma Ray (CGR) curve is also provided

which is SGR with the effect of uranium removed.

This curve should be used for identifying reservoir and nonreservoir rock and for Vsh computation in the presence of
radioactive sands.

Natural Gamma Ray

Evaluation Technique
Unless there
is a complex
mixture
of
radioactive
minerals in
the
formation,
the
Schlumberge
r Chart CP-19
can be used
to
identify
the common
minerals.
As
an
example
a
sandstone
reservoir
with varying
amounts of
shaliness,
with illite as
the principal
clay mineral,
usually plots
in the illite
segment of
the
chart
Less shaly parts of the reservoir plot closer to
with
Th/K
the origin, and more shaly parts plot closer to
between 2.0
t h e
7 0 %
i l l i t e
a r e a .
and 2.5.

Natural Gamma Ray

Evaluation Technique

Spontaneous
P o t e n t i a l

Principles
Applications
Environmental Corrections
Evaluation Technique

Spontaneous Potential
Principles

The SP currents are

developed from
interactions which are
Electrochemical or
Electrokinetic in
nature.

The Electrokinetic
potential exists due to
the flow of a saline
mud through the mudcake.

This flow exists

because of the
differential pressure
between the mud
column and the
formation.

Electrokinetic potential
is normally very small
and will stop as soon as
the mud-cake becomes
permeable.

Spontaneous Potential
Principles

The electrochemical
component can be
broken into two
components-the
Membrane Potential
and the Liquid
Junction Potential.

The Membrane
Potential exists
because shales behave
as ion selective
membranes.

In this case, the shale

is permeable to the
Na+ ions.

These ions move

through the shale
from the higher
salinity formation
water in the sand to
the lower salinity
mud.

This results in a flow

current through the
shale as indicated,
inducing a potential.

The flow is reversed if

Rmf < RW (salt mud)

Spontaneous Potential
Principles

Liquid Junction Potential

exists due to a difference
in salinity between two
fluids that are in contact
with each other.

The mobility difference

between the Cl- ions
from the Na+ ions results
in a net migration of Clions from higher salinity
fluids to lower salinity
fluids.

In this example, the

invaded zone salinity is
lower than the virgin
zone salinity.

This results in a positive

charge in the virgin zone
and a negative charge in
the invaded zone.

The potential is reversed

when RXO < Rt (salt mud)

Spontaneous Potential
Principles

The SP log is recorded by placing a movable electrode in the

borehole and measuring the difference between the electrical
potential of this movable electrode and the electrical potential of
a fixed surface electrode.

Spontaneous Potential
Applications

The Static SP (SSP) is

defined as the sum of
the Membrane
Potential and the Liquid
Junction Potential.

The SP log measures

only the potential drop
from the SP currents in
the borehole fluid,
which may not
represent the total SP
because there are also
potential drops in the
formation.

In practice, the
recorded SP log
approaches the SSP
value only in thick
permeable beds.

Spontaneous Potential
Principles

Spontaneous Potential
Objective
To explain how SP is created in the
formation and how it is measured

Spontaneous Potential
Applications

Spontaneous Potential Applications

Correlation
Depth matching between separate trips in the
well
Positioning of open-hole sampling tools

Differentiate
potentially
porous
and
permeable reservoir rocks from impermeable
clays.
Quantitative shaliness evaluation of the
reservoir rock

Determine RW in both salt and fresh mud

(SP can only be acquired in open hole, conductive mud
environment with Rmf RW)

Spontaneous Potential
Environmental Corrections

Corrections to SP log
Bed Thickness
Resistivity of invaded zone
Diameter of invasion
Resistivity of adjacent shale beds
Resistivity of mud and borehole
diameter

Spontaneous Potential
Environmental Corrections

The Schlumberger
Chart SP-3
provides the
corrections charts
for the SP log.
Charts SP-4 and
SP-4m provide an
empirical
correction to the
SP log.

Spontaneous Potential
Evaluation Technique

We want to
determine the
SSP.

First the SP
level in thick
shale beds is
identified.

This reading is
assumed to
represent
100% shale.

Similarly, a
sand line is
constructed
by reading the
lowest SP
level in thick
clean sands.

The SSP is the

deflection
seen on the
SP log from
the Shale Base
Line to the
Sand Line.

Spontaneous Potential
Evaluation Technique

SP can provide
anomalous
responses under
various
circumstances.

Highly resistive
formations
interbedded
between shales
and permeable
beds significantly
alter the
distribution of SP
currents and
change the
expected shape
of the curve,
making it difficult
to define bed
boundaries in its
vicinity.

Spontaneous Potential
Evaluation Technique

A shift in shale baseline

can occur when the
formation waters of
different salinities are
separated by shale beds
thet are not a perfect
cationic membrane.

This figure shows the SP

log recorded in a series
on sandstones (B,D,F,H)
separated by thin shales
or shaly sandstones
(A,C,E,G)

It is difficult to define
the shale baseline for
the determination of SSP
in such cases.

Spontaneous Potential
Evaluation Technique

The SP log can be

affected by a
number of
surface effects as
it relies on a
surface electrode
to be the
reference for the
measurement.

Power lines,
electric trains,
electric welding
and radio
transmitters can
create ground
currents which
can induce noise
on this reference,
resulting in a
poor, sometimes
useless, log.

Spontaneous Potential
Evaluation Technique

Other Limitations
No SP development for Rmf = RW

No SP development
conductive mud

in

non-

Cannot be recorded in cased hole

Resolution of SP log varies with Rt/

Rm

POROSITY
Sonic:

Principles
Tools
Applications
Evaluation Technique

Sonic
Principles

Acoustic waves are pressure waves that propagate

through the earth in a manner and velocity that is
dependent upon the caharacteristics and geometry
of the formation.

Acoustic waves move through a medium in

wavefronts.

Sonic
Principles
The
wavefronts
are
classified by how they
move in raletion to the
particle movement. There
are two types of wave
fronts:
Compressional wavefronts
(P waves) move in the
direction
of
particle
displacement.
Shear
wavefronts
(S
waves) move in a direction
perpendicular
to
the
direction
of
particle
displacement.

Shear waves can only exist

in a medium that has
elastic properties such as
solids or highly viscous
fluids.
Shear wavefronts are
slower than compressional
wavefronts,
sometimes
only half as fast as the
compressional wave.

Sonic
Principles
The typical sonic logging tool
will consist of transmitter and
receivers placed in the
wellbore.

The transmitter generates a

pressure pulse in the borehole
fluid.
When this pulse reaches the
borehole wall, P & S wavefronts
are generated in the formation.
As the waves travel away from
the source in the formation,
the portions near the wellbore
create pressure disturbances in
the borehole fluid.
These fluid waves are called
headwaves.
The headwaves move at the
same
velocity
as
the
wavefronts that created them.
It is these headwaves that are
recorded by sonic logging tools.

Sonic
Principles

Acoustic Wave
Propagation
Objective
To illustrate the modes of acoustic wave
propagation and how these waves
propagate in a borehole environment.

Sonic
Principles

In the single receiver and single transmitter sonic tool, the

acoustic pulse is generated by the transmitter.

The pulse then travels through the mud (ray a). It is refracted
along the borehole wall (ray b) and is refracted back through
the mud (ray c)

The sonic waveform received by the receiver is analyzed to

detect only the time of the first negative arrival which
represents compressional transit time.

But, the transit time by itself does not provide the formation
velocity or the slowness.

Sonic
Principles
The next
configuration is
the Single
Transmitter and
Two Receivers
configuration.
The effects of the
mud are
cancelled from
the measurement
by placing two
receivers close
together.
This configuration
works for
situations where
the tool is parallel
with the borehole
wall.
When the tool is
tilted in the
borehole, the
travel times ofc
at R1 and R2 are
no longer equal.

Sonic
Principles

Adding
an
additional
transmitter solves
the tilt problem
but the paths that
the waves take to
each receiver are
different.

Therefore,
the
formation being
measured is not
the same for each
transmitter and
receiver
pair
combination.

Sonic
Principles

The next configuration is Two Transmitter and Four

Receivers.
The zones investigated by the Two transmitter and
receiver pairs are the same and the measured slowness
is independent of changes in borehole diameter such as
wash-outs or bit size changes.
The measurement is known as Borehole Compensated
Sonic (BHC)

Sonic
Principles

Sonic
Principles

The previously discussed tools record can only extract the

compressional slowness.
The Array Sonic tool consists of a transmitter and eight
receivers which record the complete waveforms to extract
the compressional, shear and Stoneley slowness.

The slowness-time-coherence processing is used to extract

the various formation slowness values.

Sonic
Tools

Sonic
Tools

Sonic
Tools

Sonic
Tools

Sonic
Tools

Sonic
Tools

Sonic
Tools

The waveforms are recorded in

down-hole memory, and the transit
times are sent up-hole in real time.
The tool can support a rate of
penetration of up to 350 ft/ht with
6 sampling

The
Schlumbergers
ISONIC tool
incorporates a
sonic transmitter
and a 2 ft array of
receivers in a drill
collar.

During drilling,
the transmitter is
fired and acoustic
waves are
propagated
through the mud
and formation to
four receivers.

The
compressional
transit time of
the formation is
extracted from
the waveforms
recorded by the
electronics
section of the
tool.

Sonic
Applications

Sonic
Applications

Sonic
Applications

This figure outlines the relationship of the various elastic

constants to the compressional slowness, shear slowness
and the b

Sonic
Evaluation Technique
The sonic tools
only measure
primary
porosity and
they do not
see vugs or
fractures.
M.R.J. Wyllie
proposed a
Time-Average
relationship
between
porosity and
interval transit
time for clean
and
consolidated
formations
with uniformly
distributed
small pores.

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

Wyllies equation gives values which are too high in

unconsolidated and under-compacted sands in geologically
young formations, particularly at shallower depths.

Under-compaction should be suspected where the adjacent

shales have slowness greater than 100 s/ft.

An empirical correction factor needs to be applied in such

cases.

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

At high porosities, Wyllies equation, even with a

compaction factor, has problems.

This lead L.L. Raymer, E.R. Hunt and J.S. Gardner to

propose an alternative equation

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

The
Schlumberger
Chart Por-3
converts the
sonic log
interval transit
time into
using Wyllies
equation (TimeAverage) or the
Raymer-Hunt
equation (Field
Observation)

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

When the sonic tool

is run centralized in
large holes, the mud
signal may arrive at
the receiver before
the formation signal.
Such a log can not
be recovered, even
if the waveforms
have been recorded.

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

In unconsolidated shaly formations, the formation has been

invaded so radically that measurements made with the short
spacing tool cannot accurately estimate the formation slowness.

To properly calculate the slowness of the formation, long

spacing sonic must be used for the acoustic wave to propagate
deeper into the formation before arriving at the receiver.

POROSITY
Density:

Gamma Ray Interactions

Principles
Tools
Applications
Environmental Corrections
Evaluation Technique

Density
Gamma Ray Interactions

Density
Gamma Ray Interactions

Compton scattering occurs when a -ray collides

with an electron, the electron is ejected from its
orbit, and the -ray loses part of its energy.

Compton scattering predominates in the 75 keV to

10 MeV energy range.

Density
Gamma Ray Interactions

The conversion of a -ray into an electron and positron as

they enter the strong electric field near an atoms nucleus
is called pair production (predominates at -ray energy
levels > 10 MeV)

The disappearance of a low energy -ray as it collides with

an atom, causing the ejection of an orbital electron, is
called photoelectric absorption (predominates at energies
< 75 keV).

Density
Principles

The more electrons there are in the formation, the more

likely -rays will undergo photoelectric absorption & Compton
scattering and therefore lose energy.
By measuring the number of -rays and their energy levels at
a given distance from the source, the electron density of the
formation can be predicted.
Understanding the relationship between electron density and
bulk density is an essential part of the density measurement.

Density
Principles

Density
Principles

A tool with a
chemical
-ray
source (662 KeV)
and
-ray
detectors
is
placed in front of
the formation.

The
-rays
emitted from the
source interact
with
the
formation
and
are
scattered
back
to
detectors.

Density
Principles

The scattered -rays are detected by a scintillation

detector which convert the -rays into electrical signals.

The electrical signal is proportional to the energy of the

detected -ray.

Density
Principles

The electrical pulses are analyzed and converted to the

Gamma ray count rate versus their energy.
The number of Gamma rays in the region:
A is related to the amount of photoelectric absorption
B is related to the amount of Compton scattering
taking place in the formation

Density
Principles

As the density
of
the
formation
increases, the
counts across
the
whole
spectrum
decrease.

Thus,
the
density
tool
utilizes
the
Gamma
rays
spectrum and
an algorithm to
produce
the
apparent bulk
density output ,
a

Density
Principles

The relationship
between e, b, a for
common elements and
formations is listed
here.

Density
Tools

Ever since density tools were developed, they have been an

integral part of Wireline logging.
Almost every well evaluated today is logged with some kind of
formation density tool.
The FDC tool is an older generation tool with no spectrum
analyzer and relied on total -ray counts for density
determination.
The LDT and the TLD tools have a spectrum analyzer which can
determine the energy of the detected -ray to compute the PEF of
the formation.

Density
Tools

Two commonly used wireline tools:

The LDT has a radioactive cesium Gamma ray source and two
scintillation detectors.

The LDT is part of the Schlumberger PEx tool string and has an
additional detector (back-scatter detector) placed closer to the
source, producing higher count rates and yielding improved
statistical variation. Both the tools are pad type tools and are
run with the pad touching the borehole walls.

Density
Tools

The source-to-detector
spacing must be great
enough to allow -rays
to
have
multiple
interactions with the
formation electrons and
must not be so great
that all the GR lose their
energy prior to reaching
the detector.

The tool incorporates

more than one detector.

Each detector spacing

results in a different
depth of investigation
and
enables
compensation for the
effects of mud-cake.

The LDT has only two

detectors while the TLD
has an additional back
scatter detector very
close to the source
which improves the mud
compensation.

Density
Tools

Density
Tools

This figure compares a

log from a well where
the LDT was run at
18000 ft/hr and the TLD
was run at 3600 ft/hr.

Density
Tools

Primary calibration standards for density tools are

limestone formations of high purity with an accurately
known density and filled with fresh water.

Field calibration is done with large aluminum and

magnesium blocks manufactured to consistent purity and
shape.

Density
Tools

The Schlumbergers AND tool houses a cesium source and

two detectors.

Since the tool is a part of the rotating drilling string, it

allows the recording in all quadrants of the borehole while
it is being drilled.

Density
Tools

Density
Applications

Density
Environmental Corrections

The algorithms
used to produce
the a output
from the tool is
not perfect.

A
small
correction
is
needed between
the tools bulk
density output
(a) and the true
formation bulk
density (b). a =
b only when the
formation
is
water-filled
limestone.

Density
Environmental Corrections

The LDT tool has two

detectors measuring
the same density.

If there is no mud
cake, both will read
the same, if there is
mud cake, there will
be a slight difference
which
can
be
computed and hence
the
measurement
corrected.

The Spine and Ribs

plot is the graphical
representation of the
method used.

In the case of the TLD,

a forward modeling
algorithm is used to
compute
the
formation and mud
cake densities and the
mud-cake thickness.

The provided density

output is corrected for
the mud-cake effect.

Density
Environmental Corrections

The measuring pad curvature is designed for an optimum

borehole fit in an 8 hole.

In a borehole with a significantly different diameter, an

additional correction may be needed which is provided by
Schlumberger Chart Por-15a

Density
Evaluation Technique

The density tools measure primary as well as secondary

porosity.

In a clean formation of known ma and f, the is defined

by the given equation.

Density
Evaluation Technique

The density tool has a very shallow depth of investigation

and primarily measures the invaded zone.

The saturating fluid will be a mixture of mud filtrate and

unmoved hydrocarbons.

Density
Evaluation Technique

The
Schlumberger
Chart Por-5
converts the
density log
reading into
porosity for
various matrix
densities and
average
densities of the
saturating
fluids.

Density
Evaluation Technique

Density
Evaluation Technique

A rugose borehole
makes
the
detectors see a
volume of mud
which cannot be
corrected easily.
The rugosity effects
can usually be seen
on the (erratic and
off scale) DRHO
curve rather than
the caliper.

Density - PEF
Gamma Ray Interactions

Principles
Tools
Applications
Evaluation Technique

Density - PEF
Gamma Ray Interactions

When the Gamma ()

Rays pass through
matter,
they
experience a loss of
energy
due
to
collisions with other
atomic particles which
can be divided into
three basic categories:
Pair production
Compton
scattering
Photoelectric
absorption
Fcr the determination
of
lithology
the
photoelectric
absorption is the
interaction of interest
to us.

Density - PEF
Gamma Ray Interactions

Photoelectric absorption is the disappearance

of a low energy -ray as it collides with an
atom, causing the ejection of an orbital
electron
This interaction is a factor at -ray energies
below 100 keV and predominates at energies
below 75 keV

Density - PEF
Principles

A tool with a
chemical Gamma
ray source (662
KeV) and Gamma
ray detectors is
placed in front of
the formation.

The Gamma rays

emitted from the
source interact
(photoelectric
absorption and
Compton
scattering) with
the formation
and are scattered
back to
detectors.

The probability of
absorption
occurring is
known as the
photoelectric
absorption cross
section of the
target atom.

Density - PEF
Principles

The scattered Gamma rays are detected by scintillation

detector which converts the Gamma rays into electrical
signals.

The electrical signal is proportional to the energy of

detected Gamma Ray.

Density - PEF
Principles

The electrical pulses are analyzed and converted to the

Gamma ray count rate versus their energy.
The number of Gamma rays in the region:
A is related to the amount of photoelectric absorption
B is related to the amount of Compton scattering
taking place in the formation

Density - PEF
Principles

With the density held constant as the PEF is increased, the

spectrum shows a decrease only in the low energy area.
This shows that the PEF is inversely proportional to the
number of Gamma rays in the lower energy area.

Density - PEF
Principles
Plot-1 shows the
effect of changing
bulk density on the
spectrum.

As the density is
increased,
the
spectrum drops in
both the window.
Plot-2 shows the
effect of changing
the lithology on
the spectrum.
Here the effects of
changing
the
lithology can be
seen only in the
window
A
changes in both
cases.
As a result of this,
the window A
must
be
normalized against
the window B to
obtain the density
independent PEF.

Density - PEF
Tools

Two commonly used wireline tools:

The LDT has a radioactive cesium Gamma ray source and two
scintillation detectors.

The LDT is part of the Schlumberger PEx tool string and has an
additional detector (back-scatter detector) placed closer to the
source, producing higher count rates and yielding improved
statistical variation. Three detectors allow for a new signal
processing method that results in a better PEF measurement.

Both the tools are pad type tools and are run with the pad touching
the borehole walls.

Density - PEF
Tools

The source-to-detector
spacing must be great
enough to allow Gamma
rays to have multiple
interactions with the
formation electrons and
must not be so great
that all the GR lose their
energy prior to reaching
the detector.

The tool incorporates

more than one detector.

Each detector spacing

results in a different
depth of investigation
and
enables
compensation for the
effects of mud-cake.

The LDT has only two

detectors while the TLD
has an additional back
scatter detector very
close to the source
which improves the mud
compensation.

Density - PEF
Tools

Density - PEF
Tools

This figure compares a log

from a well where the LDT
was run at 1800 ft/hr and
the TLD was run at 3600
ft/hr.

Density - PEF
Tools

The Schlumbergers AND tool houses a cesium source and

two detectors.

Since the tool is a part of the rotating drilling string, it

allows the recording in all quadrants of the borehole while
it is being drilled.

Density - PEF
Tools

Density - PEF
Tools

Density - PEF
Applications

PEF Applications
Lithology Indicator for:
Mono-mineral simple matrix (alone)
2-mineral matrices (in combination with
density)

3-mineral matrices (in combination with

density & neutron log)
Clay mineral identification (in combination
with NGS log)

Density - PEF
Evaluation Technique
Lithology identification using PEF

The PEF is a good matrix indicator.

As can be seen from this figure, the PEF
responds mainly to the lithology and
has very little effect due to changes in
or fluid content.
Hence a safe interpretation of matrix
lithology can be made dealing with
simple lithologies.

Density - PEF
Evaluation Technique
The
Schlumberger
Chart CP-21
(Lithology
identification
Plot),
identifies
rock
mineralogy
through
comparison
of the maa
(chart CP-14)
and Umaa
(chart CP-20).
The lithology
identification
plot will help
determine
the
percentage of
the three
minerals
present in the
formation.

This technique is the basis of the three

mineral model available for processing at
the well-site acquisition unit.

Density - PEF
Evaluation Technique

Density - PEF
Evaluation Technique

Limitations
Presence of Barite in the mud
Presence of thick mud-cake
Poor quality data in rugose
holes

Density - PEF
Evaluation Technique

This example from a

well drilled in Texas
with heavy bariteweighted
mud
illustrates
the
improved
compensation for the
PEF
measurement
from the TLD.

There is a thick buildup of heavy mud-cake

in
front
of
the
premeable zones at
X70-X895, X905-X930
and X995-X020 ft.

The PEF recorded by

the LDT reads too high
in these zones and is
too erratic to be used
quantitatively.

The TLD-PEF is much

more stable and can
be
used
for
interpretation.

POROSITY
Neutron:

Neutron Interactions
Principles
Tools
Applications
Environmental Corrections
Evaluation Technique

Neutron
Neutron Interactions

Neutrons have no electric charge and their mass is similar to that of the
proton. This lack of charge allows the neutron to penetrate into the
formation and makes it ideal for logging applications.

Neutron interact with matter in a wide variety of ways. There are four
important interactions between a bombarding neutron and a target
nucleus:

Neutron absorption is said to occur when it strikes the nucleus

and is absorbed. Depending on the energy of the incident
neutron, the interaction can be described as thermal or fast.

Neutron scattering is said to occur when it interacts with a

nucleus, but both particles reappear after the interaction. In
elastic scattering, the total kinetic energy of the two colliding
particles is conserved but redistributed. In elasting scattering,
part of the kinetic energy from the neutron is transferred to the
nucleus as excitation energy.

Neutron
Neutron Interactions

Neutron
Neutron Interactions

The neutron
energy loss
for any
particular
collision
depends
upon the
mass of the
neutron and
the mass of
the element
of or particle
being struck.
The
maximum
loss energy
occurs when
the neutron
collides with
formation
nuclei with
nearly the
same mass.

Neutron
Principles
This figure shows that
the neutron slows
down to a thermal
energy level at a fairly
quick rate
The
similarity
between the neutron
and hydrogen masses
means that hydrogen
is the most effective
element
in
the
slowing down.
The length of time
that a neutron stays
at the thermal energy
level is determined by
the capture cross
section
of
the
formation.
The population of
epithermal
or
thermal neutrons at a
certain distance from
the
source
is
determined by the
quantity of hydrogen
atoms.

Neutron
Principles

The quantity of hydrogen

atoms per unit volume of
the formation is known as
the Hydrogen Index (HI).

Since hydrogen atoms are

primarily present in the
fluids in the pore spaces,
formation porosity can be
determined using the
measured HI.

The HI of fresh water = 1.

Gas has very low HI as it
has far fewer hydrogen
atoms per unit volume
than oil or water.

It is important to
remember that neutrons
will be affected by the
hydrogen in both the
formation fluids and the
formation, even thogugh
hydrogen
is
more
commonly found in the
fluids.

Neutron
Principles

Neutron
Principles

During neutron logging

the number of thermal
neutrons
in
the
formation is about 10
times greater than the
number of epithermal
neutrons.

This gives thermal

neutron
detectors
higher count rates and
therefore
better
counting statistics than
epithermal detectors.

The chemical neutron

source is used in
standard
neutron
porosity tools which
detect
thermal
neutrons.

The tools which rely on

detecting epithermal
neutrons use a mintron
as it can produce many
more neutrons than a
chemical source.

Neutron
Principles

Neutron porosity tools use He3 gas proportional detectors.

Depending on the desired output and application, He3 detectors

can be set up for either thermal or epithermal neutron detection.

Neutron
Principles

Neutron
Principles

Neutron
Tools

Neutron
Tools

Neutron
Tools

Neutron
Tools

The primary
calibration
standard for the
neutron logging
tool is a series of
water-filled
laboratory
formations with
accurately known
porosities.
The secondary
standard is a
water-filled
calibrating tank
of precisely
defined
geometry

Neutron
Tools

NPHI is the classic neutron

porosity output.

The near-to-far detector

count rate ratio is taken,
borehole size correction
applied and appropriate
algorithm for cased-hole or
open-hole used to compute
NPHI.

The
output
is
often
presented assuming the
matrix to be limestone, but
a different matrix can be
used
(logging
constant
MATR)

Neutron
Tools

The
standard
neutron porosity
logging tools have
source
and
detector spacing
such that the
resolution
and
depth
of
measurement of
the two detectors
are different.

NPHI: The two

detectors count
rates are not
matched.

TNPH:
The
detectors counts
are corrected and
calibrated,
matched for depth
and resolution.

Environmental
corrections
can
also be applied.

NPOR: Computed
using
Alpha
processing

Neutron
Tools

It is
important
to note that
the porosity
is
computed
for the
specified
matrix type.
Typically
the matrix
type is
limestone,
which
means that
the
presented
porosity is
correct for
a pure
water-filled
limestone

Neutron
Tools

Neutron
Applications

Neutron
Environmental Corrections

Neutron
Environmental Corrections

The effects of the borehole are numerous but well known and
characterized.
The Schlumberger Chart POR-14c can be used to apply the
environmental corrections to the thermal neutron porosity
uncorrected data.

Neutron
Environmental Corrections

Schlumberger Chart Por-14a provides for the corrections to the cased

hole thermal neutron porosity for borehole diameter, casing and
cement thickness and Chart Por-14c for the borehole salinity, mud
weight, borehole temperature and pressure and formation salinity.

Neutron
Evaluation Technique

Neutron
Evaluation Technique

Neutron
Evaluation Technique

POROSITY
Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance:

Principles
Tools
Applications
Evaluation Technique

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, NMR refers to a physical

principle of the response of atomic nuclei to magnetic fields,
and to the techniques for measuring and interpreting those
responses.

The Nuclear Magnetic Resonance measurement is obtained

by manipulating the hydrogen nuclei with the magnetic
field.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

A permanent magnet mounted on the tools applies a

strong magnetic field-B0

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

The B0 field aligns all the nuclei with magnetic moment

including the hydrogen protons present in the pore fluid.

This is known as polarization or longitudinal relaxation.

This process occurs in an exponential manner with time

constant T1 the longitudinal relaxation time constant/

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

An oscillating magnetic field B1 is now applied which is at

90 to B0.

This causes only the hydrogen protons in the pore fluids to

tip and precess about the axis of B1 and at the same
frequency as B1. This frequency is known as the Larmor
frequency.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

This decay is reversed by applying a 180o oscillating magnetic

field. The precessing hydrogen protons change phase so that the
fastest proton, which had precessed the farthest has the farthest
to return. When the protons re-phase, they again induce a signal
at the receiver called echo/

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

The echo disappears quickly and the hydrogen protons are rephased again by the same technique.

This sequence is repeated thousands of times producing

thousands of echoes.

With time, the protons lose energy and permanently de-phase

causing the echo signals to decrease exponentially.

The pulse sequence is referred to as a CPMG, after Carr, Purcell.

Meiboom and Gill, who discovered it.

This permanent de-phasing known as transverse relaxation, is

due to the formation properties and is defined by transverse
relaxation time constant-T2.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Three independent relaxation mechanism cause the hydrogen

proton to relax:

Surface relaxation

Bulk Fluid relaxation

Diffusion relaxation

T1 is only affected by bulk and surface relaxation mechanism.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

The echo signal measured by the tool is the sum of the

contributions of all pores in the formation and the initial
signal amplitude will represent the formation porosity.

Converting it to the T2 distribution curve will give three

peaks with the sum of the peaks representing the formation
porosity and the T2 values representing the pore sizes.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

In reality, the volume measured by an NMR tool contains

millions of pores with a distribution of T2 values.

The area under the T2 distribution is proportional to

formation porosity and is independent of matrix, since only
the formation fluids are measured.

The shape of the T2 distribution can be related to pore size

distribution if the surface relaxation is dominant.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Tools

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Tools

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Tools

The cross section of the CMR shows two powerful magnets

which create a field so that 90% of the signal comes from
the sensed region.

This region is 0.75 to 1.25 from the tool face and 6

along the tool length.

The blind zone is 0.5, making the tool insensitive to mud

cake and some levels of rugosity.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Applications

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Applications

Porosity Tool Response

Objective
To illustrate the origins of different
porosity types, their petrophysical
descriptions and logging tool response to
each

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique
The value of the T2 free
fluid cut-off can be
found by measuring the
T2
relaxation
distribution on water
saturated cores before
and after they have
been centrifuged in air
to expel the producible
water.
Before centrifuging, the
relaxation distribution
corresponds to all pore
sizes.
After centrifuging, the
relaxation distribution
corresponds to the
water that could not be
expelled, indicating the
non-producible fluids.
The T2 free fluid cut-off
is the value below
which pores contain
only
non-producible
fluids.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique

Observations of many sandstones samples showed that a cut-off

time of 33 ms for T2 distributions would distinguish between
free-fluid porosity and bound-fluid porosity.
For carbonates, relaxation times tend to be three times longer
and a cut-off of 100m is used.
However, both these values will vary if reservoir capillary
pressure differs from the 100PSI used on the centrifuged
samples.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique

Borehole NMR measurement made with the CMR tool have

been successfully compared with conventional core
measurements and with NMR measurements performed on
cores in the laboratory to verify their accuracy

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique
This example
shows that the
CMR tool
provides a
lithologyindependent
porosity useful
in complex
lithologies.
The lower half
of the log is
predominantly
limestone, and
density porosity
on a limestone
matrix overlays
CMR porosity.
At 935 feet the
reservoir
changes to
dolomite and
the density
porosity on a
dolomite matrix
overlays CMR
porosity.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique
Here, CMR data
are used to
calculate the SWirr.
The conventional
logs shows SW
ranging from 60%
to 90%.
The CMR
measurement
shows this rock to
have very small
pore sizes
containing a high
volume of
irreducible water,
so the
predominant
movable fluid is
the hydrocarbons.
After hydraulic
fracturing and
completion, this
well is producing
gas, oil and a small
fraction of water.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique

PERMEABILITY
Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance:

Principles
Tools
Applications
Evaluation Technique

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles

Theoretical studies of NMR phenomena predict that T2 in water

saturated rocks is closely related to pore size.
The plot of the Berea sandstone shows that the T2 and the V/S are
directly related by the 2 of the sandstone.
Thus the T2 distribution can be related to the pore size distribution
with the short T2 times indicating small pores while the longer T2
times indicate larger pores

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Principles
The algorithm
to estimate
permeability
from the pore
size
distribution is
based on the
assumption
that larger
pores flow
fluid more
easily than
smaller pores.
This figure
shows two
rock samples
that have
about the
same porosity
and thus have
the same area
under the T2
distribution
curve.
But there is a
considerable
difference in
the T2
distribution
which clearly
identifies the
sample with
higher
permeability.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Tools

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Tools

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Tools
The cross
section of
the CMR
shows two
powerful
magnets
which create
a field so
that90% of
the signal
comes from
the sensed
region.
This region
is 0.75 to
1.25 from
the tool face
and 6 along
the tool
length.
The blind
zone is 0.5,
making the
tool
insensitive
to mud-cake
and some
levels of
rugosity.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Application

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique

The permeability calculation is based on the fact that permeability

generally increases with both pore size and porosity.
NMR brine permeability measurements on core samples have resulted
in several empirical correlations.
Two commonly used equations are presented here. The constant in
these equation vary with the lithology and the field and should be
verified for each lithology and field.
The constant are determined by calibrating the NMR permeability to
the laboratory-measured core brine permeability in a few wells of a
field.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique

Permeability calculated from NMR lab spectrometer

measurements are compared with the conventional core brine
permeability of sandstone core samples from two wells.

The excellent correlation between the conventional brine

permeability measurements and the NMR-derived permeability
measurements shows that good permeability values can be
computed from NMR measurements.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique
This example is
over a productive
shaly sand
sequence where
sand lenses of
equivalent
porosity can have
large changes in
permeability.
A full diameter
core was taken
over this interval
to identify the
permeable
sections.
The CMR tool
was also run over
this section to
obtain a
continuous
permeability for
comparison to
conventional
core
permeability.
The constant c
of the
permeability
equation had to
be adjusted over
a few samples to
match the corederived and
CMR-derived
permeability.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Evaluation Technique

P E R M E AB I L I T Y
Sonic:

Principles
Tools
Applications
Evaluation Technique

Sonic
Principles

Permeability is one of the most difficult measurement to

acquire. Some measurements provide only a few points
along the well, as is the case with well testing, wireline
testers and core measurements.

The evaluation from the Stoneley wave and nuclear

magnetic resonance can provide a continuous
measurement of permeability along the well.

Sonic
Principles

At low frequency the Stoneley mode becomes the tube wave and
propagates as a piston like compression of the borehole fluid in the
borehole.

When the borehole crosses permeable zones or permeable fractures,

some fluid movement occurs between the borehole and the
formation.
This results in some energy loss, hence attenuation, and a slowing
down of the wave, hence increased Stoneley wave slowness.
In effect, the parameter measured by the Stoneley wave is not exactly
the formation permeability, but rather the fluid mobility (the ratio of
permeability to fluid viscosity, k/).
The energy of the Stoneley wave peaks at around 500Hz and
gradually decreases at higher frequencies, providing a signal up to
about 4 KHz.

Sonic
Tools

Sonic
Applications

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

Sonic
Evaluation Technique
The Stoneley
slowness alone is
inadequate to
evaluate fluid
mobility.
This figure shows
the effect of
permeability on
slowness and
attenuation as a
function of
frequency.
Increased
permeability leads
to increased
dispersion and
increased
attenuation.
The effect is larger
on slowness at low
frequencies,
whereas it is larger
on attenuation at
high frequencies.
Thus, the Stoneley
slowness and
attenuation
together will
provide a better
method to

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

The
mud-cake
flexibility
is
modeled
by
adding
a
membrane
stiffness on the
borehole wall.

It is characterized
by a membrane
impedance

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

Obtaining fluid mobility from Stoneley complex phase

slowness is an inverse problem.

The process described in the figure uses inversion and

modeling to estimate the fluid mobility using slowness and
attenuation over a wide frequency band.

Sonic
Evaluation Technique

The
Stoneley
modeling
and
inversion
technique
provides
quantitative
determination of
the pore fluid
mobility and does
not
require
calibration from
external
information.

The model is
suitable
for
distributed
permeability
in
clastic type rocks.

In
fractured
reservoirs, other
techniques
are
more appropriate.

H Y D R O C A R B O N
S A T U R A T I O N

Resistivity

Resistivity

Resistivity

Resistivity

The resistivity tools are designed to read at various depths of

investigation.

The shallow reading is used to measure the SXO. The deep

reading is affected by the invasion and is often not the Rt.

The medium reading, together with the shallow reading, is

used to correct the deep reading to obtain the Rt.

Resistivity

Resistivity

Resistivity

Resistivity

H Y D R O C A R B O N
S A T U R A T I O N
Micro Resistivity:

Principles
Tools
Applications
Environmental Corrections
Evaluation Technique

Micro-Resistivity
Principles

Micro-Resistivity
Principles

Micro-Resistivity
Principles

Micro-Resistivity
Principles

Micro-Resistivity
Tools

Micro-Resistivity
Applications

Micro-Resistivity
Environmental Corrections

The Schlumberger Chart Rxo-3 provides the mud-cake thickness

and resistivity corrections to the MSFL.

Micro-Resistivity
Evaluation Technique

Micro-Resistivity
Evaluation Technique

Micro-Resistivity
Evaluation Technique

H Y D R O C A R B O N
S A T U R A T I O N
Induction:

Principles
Tools
Applications
Environmental Corrections
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Principles

Induction
Principles

Induction
Principles

Induction Principles
Objective
To understand the application of physical
principles used in induction measurement

Induction
Principles

Induction
Principles

Induction
Principles

Born Function
Objective
To illustrate how the induction response of
a formation is transformed to its wireframe using a Born function

Induction
Tools

Induction
Tools

Induction
Tools

Induction
Tools

Induction
Tools

Induction
Tools

Induction
Applications

Induction
Environmental Corrections

Induction
Environmental Corrections

Induction
Environmental Corrections

Induction
Environmental Corrections

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

Induction
Evaluation Technique

H Y D R O C A R B O N
S A T U R A T I O N
Laterolog:

Principles
Tools
Applications
Environmental Corrections
Evaluation Technique

Laterolog
Principles

Laterolog
Principles

Laterolog
Principles

Laterolog
Principles

Laterolog
Principles

Laterolog
Principles

Resistivity and
Geometrical Factor
Objective
To understand that mostly tools read
resistance and compute formation resistivity
using their geometrical (k) factor

Laterolog
Principles

Laterolog
Principles

Laterolog Principles
Objective
To illustrate how electrode and current flow can
be configured to selectively measure volumes of
formation and to demonstrate the concept of
equipotential

Laterolog
Principles

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Tools

Laterolog
Applications

Laterolog
Environmental Corrections

Laterolog
Environmental Corrections

Laterolog
Environmental Corrections

Laterolog
Environmental Corrections

Laterolog
Environmental Corrections

Laterolog
Evaluation Technique

Laterolog
Evaluation Technique

Laterolog
Evaluation Technique

Laterolog
Evaluation Technique

Laterolog
Evaluation Technique

Laterolog
Evaluation Technique