BASIC CONCEPTS OF INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

After you have studied this unit you will

define key systems terminology and describe their

application to information systems;

identify the purpose of an information system;

distinguish between data and information;

 describe the process by which data is transformed into

information;
differentiate between quantitative and qualitative
information;
compare and contrast the major approaches to
gathering quantitative data, e.g., surveys, censuses,
routine data collection;
define the characteristics of good information.

What is a system?
A set of interrelated components.
A set of objects with relationships between the

objects and their attributes.

A set of interrelated components that

function together in a meaningful way.

An array of components designed to

accomplish a particular objective

according to plan.

The Systems Approach

Also known as systems thinking
It is a method or framework which helps us to analyze

and explore the operation and interactions which exist

in the systems around us.

Key features of systems

Composed of inter-related parts or subsystems;

Systems have synergy. i.e., the whole is more
than the sum of parts;
Systems are hierarchical. i.e., parts or subsystems are made up of smaller parts;

Key features of systems

The parts of the system cannot be altered without

affecting other parts;

The sub-systems should work towards the goal of

their higher systems and not pursue their own

objectives independently and to the detriment of
higher objectives;

Key features of systems

A system receive inputs at its boundaries from the

environment around it; processes them and sends the

transformed outputs past the boundaries out into the
environment. This is referred to as the Transformation
Process

An information system is
A set of hardware,
software, data, human,
and procedural inputs
brought together with
the objective of
providing the right
information to the
right person at the
right time.

Purpose of an information system

Provides information to help us to:
Make decisions
Formulate policies and plans
Monitor the achievement of goals & targets

Distinction between data and

information
Data
Facts obtained by observation or research, that
are recorded. Also known as raw or basic data.
Data frequently comprise records of the day-today transactions of an organization.

Information
Data that has been processed, analysed,
interpreted and understood by the recipient of
the message. It is the user who determines
whether a report contains information or just
processed data.

 A system receive inputs at its boundaries from the

environment around it; processes them and sends the

transformed outputs past the boundaries out into the
environment. This is referred to as the Transformation
Process

THE THE
HEALTH
HEALTH
SYSTEM
SYSTEM

THE TRANSFORMATION PROCESS

Steps in the Transformation Process

1
System
receives inputs
from the
environment
at its
boundary

5
Inputs adjusted
based on
Feedback

2
System processes
inputs to
produce outputs

3
System produces
outputs and sends
past the boundary
to the
environment

4
Information on
output (feedback)
is compared
with expectation
(control)

Inputs are
The resources or factors of production
used in the production of an
organizations or systems output.

Examples of inputs
Raw material, equipment, supplies,
facilities, utilities, furniture,
training, labour, skills,
competencies, technology,
procedures, data.

What is a process?
An activity that changes a system in
some way.

Examples of processes
Manufacturing, mining, construction, cultivating,
quality checks, sorting, packing, labelling, organizing
service delivery, data manipulation

What is an output?
A generic term for a tangible good or an intangible
service or entity that is the end result of the
production/ transformation process.

Examples of outputs
Finished goods, services, information

Feedback refers to
The generation of information on the systems output.
If the feedback suggests a deviation from what is
expected (the control), the system reacts by
attempting to adjust itself.

The environment as it relates to systems

External elements whose changes in attitudes,
behaviour or properties affect the state of the system
and those external elements that are changed by the
systems behaviour.

Examples of environmental
influences
Technology

Population

The environment as it relates to systems

External elements whose changes in attitudes,
behaviour or properties affect the state of the system
and those external elements that are changed by the
systems behaviour.

Closed and Open Systems

Closed System

Open system

One that is isolated from

its environment. It is self
contained, so that the
external environment does
not influence functioning
of the system, nor does
the system influence its
environment

One that interacts with its

environment. It receives
inputs and influences from the
environment and, in turn
passes back outputs and
influences to the environment.
An open system is selfregulating & capable of
growth, development &
adaptation.

Examples of closed and open

systems
Closed System

Open system

A rock

Living organisms

Machinery

All social organizations

A watch

COLLECT DATA INPUTS

The data
transformation
cycle

PROCESS

Data in patient records,

tally sheets, registers

Check quality

Accounting / personnel
records

Store and retrieve

Market & supply data

Aggregate, summarise

Environmental data

Calculate indicators

Classify & code

Abstract

Compare

Management plans,
goals, targets
USE INFORMATION
Monitor, evaluate, adjust
Plan
Budget

Identify trends
PRODUCE INFORMATION
OUTPUTS
Tables & graphs
Reports
Forecasts, models

Quantitative vs. Qualitative information

Quantitative information

refers to information in the

form of numbers.

When one uses a

quantitative approach to
collecting and processing
data it is assumed that the
data lends itself to being
manipulated
mathematically and that the
information produced will
objectively and accurately
reflect reality.

 Qualitative
information is
information in the
form of words,
pictures, sounds,
visual images or
objects.

Quantitative data collection methods

Sample survey

collects data from

subjects selected from a
larger pool (the target
populaton) in order to
draw conclusions about
the larger pool.
Systematically asks
people the same
questions then records
and analyses their
answers.

 Census - any study of the

entire population of a
particular set of objects. These
objects could include the
human residents of a country or
village, the students at a school,
the patients in a hospital ward
at a particular point in time or
the population of a species of
animal found in a particular
location.

 Routine data collection - data

produced as a by-product of
routine operations of an
organization. The data describes
the activity or transaction itself,
e.g., immunisation, antenatal
examination, environmental
inspection and important
features of the target of these
activities, e.g., patients and
clients. Sometimes it captures
data on the providers as well.

Qualitative data collection

methods
In-depth interview - a dialogue between a

skilled interviewer and an interviewee. Its

goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that
can be used in analysis.

It is conducted with individuals or with a

small group. The interviewer does not

follow a rigid form but encourages free and
open responses. In-depth interviews also
encourage capturing of respondents
perceptions in their own words. This allows
the researcher to present the experience
from the respondents perspective.

 Focus group a type of

group interview in which
the interviewer asks
questions to the group
and answers are given in
an open discussion
among group members.
Usually 7-10 persons.

 Observation - method by which researchers

and other data gatherers gather firsthand data
on programmes, processes, or behaviors.

By directly observing behaviours and activities,

the researcher can develop an understanding of
the context within which they occur. For
example, a researcher may "shadow" a
professional for a day to understand how he or
she works. The environmental health inspector
visually observes the physical facilities being
inspected and may sometimes observe
processes being carried out to determine
whether sanitary methods are being followed.
Observation also allows the researcher to learn
about things the participants or staff may be
unaware of or that they are unwilling or unable
to discuss in an interview or focus group.

What is a management information

system?
A system using formalised procedures to provide

management at all levels, in all functions with

appropriate information, based on data from both
internal and external sources. The information
produced by the MIS enables managers to make
timely and effective decisions for planning,
directing and controlling the activities for which
they are responsible.

What is a geographic information

system (GIS)?
A GIS is a computer system capable of capturing, storing,

analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced

information; that is, data identified according to
location. The definition of a GIS also includes the
procedures, operating personnel, and spatial data that go
into the system.
The data used in a GIS describes population
characteristics, socioeconomic conditions, and the
landscape, and analyzes the spatial relationship of these
factors.
In addition to integrating and analyzing data, e.g., health
related data, GIS technology promotes data sharing
through the use of standard formats and a highly
efficient communication tool--the map.

Self review questions

1.

Define the following: data, information, information

system, management information system,
geographic information system.

2.

For any organization or part of an organization with

which you are familiar, do the following:
a.

List 5 items of raw data that are collected;

b.

Describe how each item is collected and recorded;

c. Describe the process by which each item of

data is transformed into information;

d. Explain the use to which the information

outputs are put.

3
a.

give an example of information not at present

available which you think would be useful to you or an
organization.

b.

Explain why it would be useful to have this

information?

c.

How could the information be produced?

d.

Why is it not produced at present?

Key points to remember

All system definitions contain the essential elements of
parts and relationships.
Our understanding of how systems function provides us
with a method for analysing and exploring the systems
around us. This is the Systems Approach

 The relevant environment of a system consists of those

elements with which it has some meaningful
relationship
All systems comprise inputs, processes and outputs

Closed systems have rigid boundaries and do not have any

exchanges with their environment
Open systems have a dynamic relationship with their
environment which is vital to ensure adaptability

 Data are facts that have been recorded;

Information is processed data which is understood by

the user;

The value of information comes from its use;

 Information may be in quantitative or qualitative form;

Effective use of information is enhanced when

different types are used to complement one another;

 An information system comprises the hardware, software, data,

human, and procedural inputs brought together with the objective

of providing the right information to the right person at the right
time.

A management information system provides managers at all levels

with appropriate information for planning, control and decisionmaking;

A geographic information system is a special type of computer-

based information system that integrates the processes of

capturing, storing, analyzing and displaying geographically
referenced information through the use of standard formats and a
highly efficient communication tool--the map.

Self review questions

1.

Use the systems approach to explain how any public

health system with which you are familiar functions.

2.

List the inputs, processes and outputs of the system

described at (1) .

3.

Define the following terms and give public health

related examples of each: transformation process,
inputs, processes, outputs, feedback, environment

4.

Define the following: data, information, information

system, management information system,
geographic information system.

5.

For any organization or part of an organization with

which you are familiar, do the following:
a.

List 5 items of raw data that are collected;

b.

Describe how each item is collected and recorded;

c. Describe the process by which each item of

data is transformed into information;

d. Explain the use to which the information

outputs are put.

6
a.

give an example of information not at present

available which you think would be useful to you or an
organization.

b.

Explain why it would be useful to have this

information?

c.

How could the information be produced?

d.

Why is it not produced at present?

END OF UNIT 1