One-Way Analysis of Variance

Note: Much of the math here is tedious but straightforward. Well skim over it in class but you
should be sure to ask questions if you dont understand it.
I.

Overview
A.
We have previously compared two populations, testing hypotheses of the form
H0:
HA:

1 = 2
1 2

But in many situations, we may be interested in more than two populations.

Examples:
T Compare the average income of blacks, whites, and others.
T Compare the educational attainment of Catholics, Protestants, Jews.
B.
Q: Why not just compare pairwise - take each possible pairing, and see
which are significant?
A: Because by chance alone, some contrasts would be significant. For example,
suppose we had 7 groups. The number of pairwise combinations is 7C2 = 21. If = .05, we
expect one of the differences to be significant.
Therefore, you want to simultaneously investigate differences between the means
of several populations.
C.

To do this, you use ANOVA - Analysis of Variance. ANOVA is appropriate

when
T You have a dependent, interval level variable
T You have 2 or more populations, i.e. the independent variable is categorical. In
the 2 population case, ANOVA becomes equivalent to a 2-tailed T test (2 sample tests, Case II,
's unknown but assumed equal).
D.

Thus, with ANOVA you test

H0:
HA:

1 = 2 = 3 = ... = J
The means are not all equal.

E.
Simple 1-factor model: Suppose we want to compare the means of J different
populations. We have j samples of size Nj. Any individual score can be written as follows:
yij = + j + ij, where j = 1, J (# groups) and i = 1, 2, ..., Nj
That is, an observation is the sum of three components:
1.
The grand mean of the combined populations. For example, the overall
average income might be $15,000.

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 1

2.
A treatment effect j associated with the particular population from which
the observation is taken; put another way, j is the deviation of the group mean from the overall
mean. For example, suppose the average White income is $20,000. Then whites = $5,000.
3.
A random error term ij. This reflects variability within each population.
Not everyone in the group will have the same value. For example, the average white income
might be $20,000, but some whites will make more, some will make less. (For a white who
makes $18,000, ij = -2,000.)
F.

An alternative way to write the model is

yij = j + ij,
where j = mean of the jth population = + j.

G.

We are interested in testing the hypothesis

H0:

1 = 2 = 3 = ... = J

But if the J means are equal, this means that j = , which means that there are no
treatment effects. That is, the above hypothesis is equivalent to
H0:

1 = 2 = 3 = ... = J = 0

H.
Estimating the treatment effects: As usual, we use sample information to
estimate the population parameters. It is pretty simple to estimate the treatment effects:
J

= y =

Nj

y ij
j = 1 i= 1

Nj

j = y j =

y
i= 1

Nj

ij

T Aj

j = j

- = y - y
j

Nj

Example:
A firm wishes to compare four programs for training workers to perform a certain
manual task. Twenty new employees are randomly assigned to the training programs, with 5 in
each program. At the end of the training period, a test is conducted to see how quickly trainees
can perform the task. The number of times the task is performed per minute is recorded for each
trainee, with the following results:

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 2

Observation

Program 1

Program 2

Program 3

Program 4

10

12

12

14

14

11

11

11

13

13

10

11

TAj = yij

59

44

61

43

j = TAj/Nj

11.8

8.8

12.2

8.6

Estimate the treatment effects for the four programs.

Solution. Note that yij = 207, so = 207/20 = 10.35. Since j = j , we get

1 = 11.8 - 10.35 = 1.45,

2 = 8.8 - 10.35 = -1.55,
3 = 12.2 - 10.35 = 1.85,
4 = 8.6 - 10.35 = -1.75
I.
Computing the treatment effects is easy - but how do we test whether the
differences in effects are significant???
Note the following:

2
total

= s2 =

( y ij - y )2
N -1

SS Total
= MS Total
DF Total

where SS = Sum of squares (i.e. sum of the squared deviations from the mean), DF = degrees of
freedom, and MS = Mean square. Also,
SS Total = SS Within + SS Between

Where
( y ij - y j )2 = ij2 = SS Within = SS Errors = SS Residual

( y
j

y )2 = 2j = N j 2j = SS Between = SS Explained
j

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 3

SS Within captures variability within each group. If all group members had the same score, SS
Within would equal 0. It is also called SS Errors or SS Residual, because it reflects variability
that cannot be explained by group membership. Note that there are Nj degrees of freedom
associated with each individual sample, so the total number of degrees of freedom within = (Nj
- 1) = N - J.
SS Between captures variability between each group. If all groups had the same mean, SS
Between would equal 0. The term SS Explained is also used because it reflects variability that is
explained by group membership. Note that there are J samples, one grand mean, hence DF
Between = J - 1.
We further define
MS Within =

MS Between =

MS Total =

SS Within SS Within
=
,
DF Within
N-J

SS Between SS Between
=
,
DF Between
J -1

SS Within + SS Between SS Total

=
= Total Variance
N -1
N -1

Proof (Optional): Note that

y ij = y ij - y j + y j , and
y ij - y = y ij - y j + y j - y
We simply add and subtract y j. Why do we do this? Note that yij y j = deviation of the
individual's score from the group score = ij ; and y j y = deviation of the group score from the
total score = j . Hence,
SS Total = ( y ij y ) = ( y ij y j + y j y ) = ( ij + j ) = ij2 + 2j + 2 ij j
2

Let us deal with each term in turn:

( y ij - y j ) = ij2 = SS Within = SS Errors = SS Residual
2

SS Within captures variability within each group. If all group members had the same score, SS
Within would equal 0. It is also called SS Errors or SS Residual, because it reflects variability

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 4

that cannot be explained by group membership. Note that there are Nj degrees of freedom
associated with each individual sample, so the total number of degrees of freedom within = (Nj
- 1) = N - J.

( y
j

y )2 = 2j = N j 2j = SS Between = SS Explained
j

(The third equation is valid because all cases within a group have the same value for y j.) SS
Between captures variability between each group. If all groups had the same mean, SS Between
would equal 0. The term SS Explained is also used because it reflects variability that is
explained by group membership. Note that there are J samples, one grand mean, hence DF
Between = J - 1.
2 ( y ij y j )( y j y ) = 2 ij j = 2 j ij = 2 j * 0 = 0
j

(The latter is true because the deviations from the mean must sum to 0). Hence,
SS Total = SS Within + SS Between

J.
Now that we have these, what do we do with them? For hypothesis testing,
we have to make certain assumptions. Recall that yij = + j + ij. ij is referred to as a "random
error term" or "disturbance." If we assume:
(1) ij - N(0, 2),
(2) 2 is the same for all samples,
(3) the random error terms are independent (Note that these assumptions basically
mean that the 's are iid, independent and identically distributed);
Then, if H0 is true,

F=

MS Between
~ F(J - 1, N - J), and E(F) = 1
MS Within

That is, if H0 is true, then the test statistic F has an F distribution with J - 1 and N - J degrees of
Freedom.
See Appendix E, Table V (Hayes, pp. 935-941), for tables on the F distribution. See especially
tables 5-3 (Q = .05) and 5-5 (Q = .01).

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 5

K.

Rationale:
T The basic idea is to determine whether all of the variation in a set of data is
attributable to random error (chance) or whether some of the variation is attributable to chance
and some is attributable to differences in the means of the J populations of interest.
T First, the sample variance for the entire set of data is computed and is seen to
be composed of two parts: the numerator, which is a sum of squares, and the denominator, which
is the degrees of freedom.
T The total sum of squares can be partitioned into SS Between and SS Within,
and the total degrees of freedom can be partitioned into d.f. between and d.f. Within.
T By dividing each sum of squares by the respective d.f., MS between and MS
within are determined; these represent the sample variability between the different samples and
the sample variability within all the samples, respectively.
T But the variability within the samples must be due to random error alone,
according to the assumptions of the one-factor model.
T The variability between the samples, on the other hand, may be attributable
both to chance and to any differences in the J population means.
T Thus, if MS Between is significantly greater than MS Within (as measured by
the F-test), then the null hypothesis of zero treatment effects must be rejected.
L.

Comments on the F distribution:

T There are two sets of d.f., rather than 1.
T F is not symmetric. All values are positive.
T Like 2, we are only interested in values in the right-hand side of the tail.

T In the tables, columns give the d.f. for MS Between (J - 1), while the rows give
the d.f. for MS Within (N - J).
T Look at Table 5-3, column 1; compare with Table 3 for the T distribution, the
column labeled 2Q = .05. Note that F = T2. A two sample test, case II, 1 = 2 = , with a 2tailed alternative hypothesis, can also be tested using ANOVA.

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 6

M.
Computational procedures for ANOVA. The above formulas are, in practice, a
little awkward to deal with. When doing computations by hand, the following procedure is
generally easier:
One Way Anova: Computational Procedures
Formula

Explanation
TAj = the sum of the scores in group Aj, where A1 = first
group, A2 = second group, etc. Add up the values for the
observations for group A1, then A2, etc. Also sometimes
called just Tj.

Nj

T A j = y ij
i

(1) =

( y ij )2
N

= NY

(2) = y ij2

(3) =

T Aj

Square each observation. Sum the squared observations.

Square TA1, and divide by NA1. Repeat for each of the J

groups, and add the results together.

N Aj

SS Total = (2) - (1)

Total Sum of Squares

SS Between = (3) - (1). Or, if treatment effects have been

computed, use

Sum all the observations. Square the result. Divide by the

total number of observations.

N
j

Between Sum of Squares. This is also sometimes called

SSA, SS Treatment, or SS Explained

SS Within = (2) - (3)

Within sum of squares. Also called SS error, or SS

Residual

MS Total = SS Total / (N - 1)

Mean square total. Same as s2, the sample variance.

MS Between = SS Between / (J - 1)

Mean square between. Also called MSA, MS Treatment, or

MS Explained

MS Within = SS Within / (N - J)

Mean Square Within. Also called MS error or MS Residual

F = MS Between / MS Within

Test statistic. d.f. = (J - 1, N - J)

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 7

N.
The ANOVA Table. The results of an analysis of variance are often presented in
a table that looks something like the following (with the appropriate values filled in):

Source

SS

D.F.

Mean Square

A (or Treatment, or
Explained)

SS Between

J-1

SS Between/ (J - 1)

MS Between
MS Within

Error (or Residual)

SS Within

N-J

SS Within / (N - J)

Total

SS Total

N-1

SS Total / (N - 1)

O.
Hypothesis testing using ANOVA. As usual, we determine the critical value of
the test statistic for a given value of . If the test statistic is less than the critical value, we accept
H0, if it is greater than the critical value we reject H0.
EXAMPLES:
Again consider this problem: A firm wishes to compare four programs for
1.
training workers to perform a certain manual task. Twenty new employees are randomly
assigned to the training programs, with 5 in each program. At the end of the training period, a
test is conducted to see how quickly trainees can perform the task. The number of times the task
is performed per minute is recorded for each trainee, with the following results:

Program 1:
Program 2:
Program 3:
Program 4:
(a)
(b)

9, 12, 14, 11, 13

10, 6, 9, 9, 10
12, 14, 11, 13, 11
9, 8, 11, 7, 8

Construct the ANOVA table

Using = .05, determine whether the treatments differ in their effectiveness.

Solution.
(a) As we saw before, TA1 = 59, TA2 = 44, TA3 = 61, TA4 = 43. Also,
(1) =

( y ij )2
N

= 207 = 2142.45
20

(2) = y ij2 = 9 2 + 10 2 + 12 2 + ...+ 8 2 = 2239

(3) =
j

T Aj

= 59 + 44 + 61 + 43 = 2197.4
5
5
5
5
N Aj

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 8

SS Total = (2) - (1) = 2239 - 2142.45 = 96.55,

SS Between = (3) - (1) = 2197.4 - 2142.45 = 54.95; or,
2
SS Between = N j j = 5 * 1.452 + 5 * 1.552 + 5 * 1.852 + 5 * 1.752 = 54.95
SS Within = (2) - (3) = 2239 - 2197.4 = 41.6,
MS Total = SS Total/ (N - 1) = 96.55 / 19 = 5.08,
MS Between = SS Between/ (J - 1) = 54.95/3 = 18.32,
MS Within = SS Within/ (N - J) = 41.6/16 = 2.6,
F = MS Between / MS Within = 18.32 / 2.6 = 7.04
The ANOVA Table therefore looks like this:
Source

SS

D.F.

Mean Square

A (or Treatment, or
Explained)

SS Between =
54.95

J-1=
3

SS Between/ (J - 1)
= 18.32

MS Between =
MS Within

Error (or Residual)

SS Within =
41.6

N-J=
16

SS Within / (N - J) =
2.6

7.04

Total

SS Total =
96.55

N-1=
19

SS Total / (N - 1) =
5.08

NOTE: Most computer programs would not be nice enough to spell out "SS Between =", etc.;
that is, you would have to know from the location of the number in the table whether it was SS
Between, MS Within, or whatever. See the SPSS examples below.
(b) For = .05, the critical value for an F with d.f. (3, 16) is 3.24. Ergo, we reject the null
hypothesis. More formally,
Step 1:

H0:
HA:

1 = 2 = 3 = 4, i.e. treatments are equally effective

The means are not all equal.

Step 2:An F statistic is appropriate, since the dependent variable is continuous and there are 2 or
more groups.
Step 3: Since = .05 and d.f. = 3, 16, accept H0 if F3,16 # 3.24
Step 4:The computed value of the F statistic is 7.04
Step 5: Reject H0. The treatments are not equally effective.

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 9

There are several SPSS routines that can do one-way Anova. These include ANOVA (which,
alas, requires that you enter the syntax directly rather than use menus; but it will give you the
MCA table if you want it), MEANS, and ONEWAY. Which you use depends on any additional
information you might like as well as the format you happen to like best. Ill use ONEWAY but
feel free to try the others. If using the SPSS pull-down menus, after entering the data select
ANALYZE/ COMPARE MEANS/ ONE WAY ANOVA.
* Problem 1.

Employee training.

DATA LIST FREE / program score.

BEGIN DATA.
1
9
1 12
1 14
1 11
1 13
2 10
2
6
2
9
2
9
2 10
3 12
3 14
3 11
3 13
3 11
4
9
4
8
4 11
4
7
4
8
END DATA.
ONEWAY
score BY program
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES
/MISSING ANALYSIS .
Descriptives
SCORE

N
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
Total

5
5
5
5
20

Mean
11.8000
8.8000
12.2000
8.6000
10.3500

Std. Deviation
1.9235
1.6432
1.3038
1.5166
2.2542

Std. Error
.8602
.7348
.5831
.6782
.5041

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean
Lower Bound Upper Bound
9.4116
14.1884
6.7597
10.8403
10.5811
13.8189
6.7169
10.4831
9.2950
11.4050

Minimum
9.00
6.00
11.00
7.00
6.00

Maximum
14.00
10.00
14.00
11.00
14.00

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 10

ANOVA
SCORE

Between Groups
Within Groups
Total

2.

Sum of
Squares
54.950
41.600
96.550

df
3
16
19

Mean Square
18.317
2.600

F
7.045

Sig.
.003

For each of the following, indicate whether H0 should be accepted or rejected.

a.
A researcher has collected data from 21 Catholics, 21 Protestants, and 21 Jews.
She wants to see whether the groups significantly differ at the .05 level in their incomes. Her
computed F = 3.0.
Solution. Note that n = 63, j = 3. Hence, d.f. = 3 - 1, 63 - 3 = 2, 60. Looking at table V, we see
that for = .05 we should accept H0 if F # 3.15. Since the researcher got an F of 3.0, she should
accept H0.

b.
A manager wants to test (using = .025) whether the mean delivery time of
components supplied by 5 outside contractors is the same. He draws a random sample of 5
delivery times for each of the 5 contractors. He computes the following:
SS Between = 4
SS Within = 50
Solution. Note that n = 25 (5 delivery times for each of 5 contractors) and J = 5 (5 contractors).
Hence

MS Between = SS Between/(J - 1) = 4/4 = 1

MS Within = SS Within/(N - J) = 50/20 = 2.5
F = MS Between/MS Within = 1/2.5 = .4
D.F. = (J - 1, N - J) = (4, 20)
For = .025, accept H0 if F # 3.51.
Therefore, accept H0.

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 11

3.
An economist wants to test whether mean housing prices are the same regardless of
which of 3 air-pollution levels typically prevails. A random sample of house purchases in 3
areas yields the price data below.
MEAN HOUSING PRICES (THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS):
Pollution Level

Observation

Low

Mod

High

120

61

40

68

59

55

40

110

73

95

75

45

83

80

64

406

385

277

(a)
(b)
(c)
pollution.
Solution.

(a)

Compute the treatment effects

Construct the ANOVA Table
At the .025 level of significance, test whether housing prices differ by level of

1 = 81.2, 2 = 77, 3 = 55.4, = 71.2

1 = 81.2 71.2 = 10
2 = 77.0 71.2 = 5.8
3 = 55.4 71.2 = 15.8

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 12

(b)

TA1 = 406, TA2 = 385, TA3 = 277,

(1) =

( y ij )2
N

= 1068 = 76041.6
15

(2) = y ij2 = 120 2 + 612 + ...+ 64 2 = 83940

(3) =
j

T Aj

= 406 + 385 + 277 = 77958

5
5
5
N Aj

SS Total = (2) - (1) = 83940 - 76041.6 = 7898.4,

SS Between = (3) - (1) = 77958 - 76041.6 = 1916.4; or,
2
SS Between = N j j = 5 * 102 + 5 * 5.82 + 5 * -15.82 = 1916.4,
SS Within = (2) - (3) = 83940 - 77958 = 5982,
MS Total = SS Total/ (N - 1) = 7898.4 / 14 = 564.2,
MS Between = SS Between/ (J - 1) = 1916.4 / 2 = 958.2,
MS Within = SS Within / (N - J) = 5982 / 12 = 498.5,
F = MS Between / MS Within = 958.2 / 498.5 = 1.92
Source

SS

D.F.

Mean Square

A (or Treatment, or
Explained)

SS Between =
1916.4

J-1=
2

SS Between/ (J - 1)
= 958.2

MS Between =
MS Within

Error (or Residual)

SS Within =
5982.0

N-J=
12

SS Within / (N - J) =
498.5

1.92

Total

SS Total =
7898.4

N-1=
14

SS Total / (N - 1) =
564.2

(c)
For = .025 and df = 2, 12, accept H0 if the computed F is # 5.10. Since F = 1.92, do not
reject H0. More formally,
Step 1.

H0: The 's all = 0 (i.e. prices are the same in each area)
HA: The 's are not all equal (prices not all the same)
Step 2.

Appropriate stat is
F = MS Between/ MS Within.
Since n = 15 and j = 3, d.f. = 2, 12.

Step 3.

For = .025, accept H0 if F # 5.10

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 13

Step 4. Compute test stat. As shown above, F = 1.92

Step 5. Do not reject H0 [NOTE: the SPSS solutions follows later]

Here is how you could solve this problem using SPSS. If using the SPSS pull-down menus, after
entering the data select ANALYZE/ COMPARE MEANS/ ONE WAY ANOVA.
* Problem 3.

Housing Prices.

DATA LIST FREE / plevel price.

BEGIN DATA.
1 120
1
68
1
40
1
95
1
83
2
61
2
59
2 110
2
75
2
80
3
40
3
55
3
73
3
45
3
64
END DATA.
ONEWAY
price BY plevel
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES
/MISSING ANALYSIS .

Oneway
Descriptives
PRICE

N
1.00
2.00
3.00
Total

5
5
5
15

Mean
81.2000
77.0000
55.4000
71.2000

Std. Deviation
29.8781
20.5061
13.5019
23.7523

Std. Error
13.3619
9.1706
6.0382
6.1328

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean
Lower Bound Upper Bound
44.1015
118.2985
51.5383
102.4617
38.6352
72.1648
58.0464
84.3536

Minimum
40.00
59.00
40.00
40.00

Maximum
120.00
110.00
73.00
120.00

ANOVA
PRICE

Between Groups
Within Groups
Total

Sum of
Squares
1916.400
5982.000
7898.400

df
2
12
14

Mean Square
958.200
498.500

F
1.922

Sig.
.189

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 14

Comment: Some Anova routines would also report that R2 = .243. Note that R2 = SS Between
/ SS Total = 1916.4/7898.4 = .243. That is, R2 = Explained Variance divided by total variance.
We will talk more about R2 later.

F Test versus T Test. Finally, for good measure, we will do an F-Test vs. T-Test comparison.
We will do a modified version of problem 1, combining treatments 1 and 3 (the most effective),
and 2 and 4 (the least effective). Well let SPSS do the work.
* F test versus T-test comparison.
DATA LIST FREE / program score.
BEGIN DATA.
1
9
1 12
1 14
1 11
1 13
2 10
2
6
2
9
2
9
2 10
3 12
3 14
3 11
3 13
3 11
4
9
4
8
4 11
4
7
4
8
END DATA.
RECODE PROGRAM (1, 3 = 1) (2, 4 = 2).
ONEWAY
score BY program
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES
/MISSING ANALYSIS .

Oneway
Descriptives
SCORE

N
1.00
2.00
Total

10
10
20

Mean
12.0000
8.7000
10.3500

Std. Deviation
1.5635
1.4944
2.2542

Std. Error
.4944
.4726
.5041

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean
Lower Bound Upper Bound
10.8816
13.1184
7.6309
9.7691
9.2950
11.4050

Minimum
9.00
6.00
6.00

Maximum
14.00
11.00
14.00

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 15

ANOVA
SCORE

Between Groups
Within Groups
Total

Sum of
Squares
54.450
42.100
96.550

df

Mean Square
54.450
2.339

1
18
19

F
23.280

Sig.
.000

Note that the F value is 23.28.

T-TEST / GROUPS PROGRAM (1, 2) / VARIABLES SCORE.

T-Test
Group Statistics

SCORE

PROGRAM
1.00
2.00

N
10
10

Mean
12.0000
8.7000

Std. Error
Mean
.4944
.4726

Std. Deviation
1.5635
1.4944

Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances

F
SCORE

Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed

.010

Sig.
.921

t-test for Equality of Means

df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean
Difference

Std. Error
Difference

95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper

4.825

18

.000

3.3000

.6839

1.8631

4.7369

4.825

17.963

.000

3.3000

.6839

1.8629

4.7371

COMMENT: Note that 4.822 = 23.28 (approximately), i.e. t2 = F. When you only have two
groups, both the F test and the T-Test are testing

H0:
HA:

1 = 2
1 2

Not surprisingly, then, both tests yield the same conclusion.

One-Way Analysis of Variance - Page 16