UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE ABEOKUTA

Department of Communication and General Studies

GNS 204: Logic and History of Science
Course Facilitators: Uche S. Odozor
Emmanuel Akintona
MSC Okolo
OGF Nwaorgu
The Course
This is a course in general studies: it examines some of the conceptual and theoretical
foundations of logic and science. It also investigates how logic can be applied to science and
the problems confronting science with specific emphasis on Nigeria.
Texts:
1.

A. G. A Bello (2000) Introduction to Logic, Ibadan: University Press PLC

2.

Cohen, Morris & Nagel, Ernest (1978) An Introduction to Logic and Scientific
Methods, London and Henley: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

3.

Copi Irving M. An Introduction to Logic. New York: Macmillan.

4.

Daniel Flage, (1995) Understanding Logic, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall inc.

5.

D.N. Ucheaga, Rudiments of Logic (University of Calabar Press)

6.

King, Peter & Shapiro, Stewart (1995), The History of Logic, in The Oxford
Companion to Philosophy, (OUP): 496500.

7.

Kreyche, Robert J. Logic for Undergraduates. Revised edition; New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.

8.

Patrick Suppes, (1985) Introduction to Logic, New Delhi & Madras: Affiliated
East-West Private Ltd.

9.

Wesley. C Salmon, (1973) Logic, Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

10.

Samuel Ade-Ali & Ayo Fadahunsi (1995) Introduction to Philosophy and Logic,
Ibadan: paper Back Publishers Ltd.

11.

S. F. Baker (1965) The Elements of Logic, New York: McGraw-Hill Book

Company.

12.

Quine, W. V. O (1967) Methods of Logic, Revised ed. New York: Holt Rinehart
& Winson.

GENERAL ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
Philosophers Index
Please Note:
The texts given above are not exhaustive. You are expected to source for other useful
books in the Library or elsewhere.
Remember to adopt eclectic reading habit.
Be aware that the part relating to science as it concerns Nigeria is mostly applied
knowledge. You can get further information from magazines, newspapers, journals, science
articles and fiction, science related news on TV, radio, etc.

Teaching
The course is taught by a weekly two-hour lecture.
Assessment
This is a core module for second year undergraduates specializing in science and science
related disciplines.
It is a 2 unit course.
Assessment is by e-examination (70%) and two CATs: debate/paper submission (15%) and
written test (15%).
Outcome Assessment Strategies
The primary goal of this course is to enable the student demonstrate critical thinking
and creative ability.
Logic, which is a branch of philosophy, is not about unreflective acceptance of facts;
it is rather interested in the questions asked, the puzzles posed, the answers suggested
and what counts as a good (correct) answer to the questions and puzzles.
Lectures basically serve to introduce the rules and principles that help to distinguish
good (correct) from bad (incorrect) reasoning.
The lectures, therefore, act to establish and strengthen independent reasoning, help to
evaluate findings and assist in giving accurate interpretation of reality.

WEEK 1

1.

General Introduction: What Logic is

Issues:

Definition of Logic.
Brief History of Logic.
Logic as both science and art.
Why study Logic? The importance/uses of Logic.
Basic concepts used in Logic.

Questions:
1. What is the distinction between logic and Logic?
2. How did the discovery of Logic facilitate subsequent scientific
developments?
3. In what sense is Logic both a science and an art?
4. Mention three reasons why the study of Logic can be considered a
worthwhile exertion?

WEEK 2
NATURE OF ARGUMENTS
1. What are arguments?
Argument in philosophy is not about disagreement or fight among people; rather, it is about
the relation that exists between premises and conclusion. Since human by nature is rational, it
is expected of him to be reasonable in constructing his arguments. Arguments are platforms
upon which reasoning are tested. Reasoning is a special kind of thinking from which
inferences and deductions are made and problems solved. A good reasoning requires that a
conclusion is deduced from the premises (evidence).Arguments are used to win people to
ones side. It is not just enough for people to make claims; claims are to be justified by
providing evidence to back them up. Logic is that tool (methods and techniques) for testing
the validity of arguments. For every argument to be valid, it is expected that the conclusion is
derived from the premises.
An argument is simply defined as any group of propositions or statements, of which one is
claimed to follow from the others, which are alleged to provide grounds for the truth of that
one (Copi 1973:2). Every argument has a structure comprising premises and conclusion. The
conclusion of an argument is that proposition which is affirmed on the basis of other
propositions in the argument. Premises are other propositions which provide grounds or
reasons for accepting the conclusion of the argument. Conclusion and premises are relative
terms for propositions.
However, all arguments require that the premises provide grounds for the truth of the
conclusion and to make an argument valid, the conclusion must necessarily be derived from
the evidence provided by the premises.
2. Definition of relative terms in constructing arguments:
i. Premiss: Premises are other propositions which provide grounds or reasons for
accepting the conclusion of the argument.
ii. Conclusion: The conclusion of an argument is that proposition which is affirmed on
the basis of other propositions in the argument.
iii. Inference: Inference is a term in logic which refers to the process by which one
proposition is affirmed or arrived at on the basis of the truism of other proposition(s). For
example in the argument, If Taiwo is a mother then Taiwo is a parent. It is not the case
that Taiwo is a perent. Therefore, Taiwo is not a mother.
iv. Statement: Logic deals with declarative statements, that is, statements capable of
being true or false. We have two types of statements, simple and compound statements.
Simple statements convey just one simple idea. For example, Abeokuta is in Ogun State,
Copper is a metal, water boils at 1000c. A compound statement conveys more than one
idea. Compound statements are conjoined by prepositions in natural language but in logic,
by five logical connectives which are and/., eitheror/v, ifthen/ conditional
statement, if and only if/ bi-conditional statement and negation (~/it is not the case that).
When two ideas are brought together, they form a compound statement. For example,
Lagos is in Nigeria and Abuja is the capital of Nigeria (pq); Either Bola is in Abuja or

Akin is in London (p v q); if Bola puts to bed then Bola is a mother (p

father if and only if Bola is the mother the baby (p q).

q); Akin is a

Logic deals with affirmative statements alone, that is, statements that can either be
affirmed or denied. The way statements are denied in logic differs from the way they are
denied in ordinary natural language. We negate propositions in logic by stating it is not
the case that. So, if you want to say that Bayo is not a man, it will be stated logically
as it is not the case that Bayo is a man or if you want to deny that Lagos is in Nigeria
and Abuja is the capital of Nigeria, it will be stated as it is not the case that both Lagos is
in Nigeria and Abuja is the capital of Nigeria. This shows that the whole compound
statement is negated. Statements are negated in logic this way so that it will be easier to
manipulate them when testing for the validity of an argument.
v. Proposition: A proposition is a statement that is either true or false/ either asserted or
denied. Proposition differ from question, command or exclamation. Questions are asked,
commands given and exclamations uttered but none of them can be affirmed or denied
(none can be judged to be either true or false). A proposition is a term otherwise used for
a statement in an argument and it could either be a premise or a conclusion depending on
the position it occupies in a particular argument. If a proposition is a claim it becomes the
conclusion, if it provides reason or support to others in establishing a claim, it becomes a
premise.
vi. Truth: As truth is to a statement/proposition so is validity to an argument. Every
declarative statement in logic has a truth value, which means, it is either true or false.
vi. Validity: An argument is correct or valid if the logician examines the initial
proposition(s)/premise(s), the final proposition (claim/conclusion) and the relationship
between them and make a deduction from the truth of the premises to establish the
conclusion, then such an argument so constructed is said to be valid.
3. Types of arguments:
Apparently, there are two types of arguments, inductive and

deductive arguments.

Inductive Argument:
An argument is claimed to be inductive if its premise(s) only provide some support but do
not guarantee its conclusion. Inductive argument is structured in such a way that from
some set of factual propositions (premises), a conclusion is inferred. For example,
This ripped tomato is red;
That other ripped tomato is red
Therefore, all ripped tomatoes are red.
Copper, a metal conducts electricity.
Bronze, a metal conducts electricity.
Aluminum, a metal conducts electricity
Therefore, all metals conduct electricity.

I bought bread in the shop on Tuesday and it was stale.

I bought bread in the shop on Wednesday and it was stale.
I bought bread in the shop on Thursday and it was stale.
Therefore, if I buy a loaf of bread in the shop by Friday it will be
stale.
In the first throw, the coin turned tail.
In the second throw, the coin turned tail.
In the third throw, the coin turned tail.
Therefore, in the fourth throw, the coin will turn tail.
From the above examples, it should be noticed that the first sets of proportions
(premises) give support to the last stated proposition (conclusion) either strongly or
weakly as the case may be.
The evidence provided in inductive arguments only makes the argument either strong
or weak. The conclusion is always found to be more informative than the premises.
Inductive reasoning has its root in the notion of uniformity of nature which holds
that tomorrow will be like the past. Scientists, as defenders of uniformity of nature, do
point out that many events and processes in nature occur the same way over and over
again to eternity. For example, because it has been observed over times that the
following happens, the scientists thus conclude that:
(a).
(c)

Lightning is followed by thunder.

(b) Iron rusts whereas gold does not.
Chickens lay eggs, but goats do not. (d) Mammals suckle their young ones,
While reptiles do not.

Scientists on the basis of uniformity of nature projects and predicts what happens in
the future. They rely on the fact that the future shall always be like the past and the
present will repeat itself. Looking at the examples above, we discover that there is
nothing in the premises of the arguments that shows that their conclusions are
necessarily certain or is there anything in the premises to compel us to accepting that
their conclusions are true. For example, observing two instances of ripped tomatoes
do not guarantee the fact that other ripped potatoes will be red. The premises only
support the conclusion but do not guarantee that all ripped tomatoes would be red.
There is nothing that guarantees us that in future a ripped tomato will be red. It is
possible for the scientists in the future to come up with specie of tomatoes that will
not be red when ripped. Again, in the other example, there is nothing in the premises
that assures us that the next loaf of bread I will buy will be stale; rather, the premises
only support the conclusion, it does not guarantee it. There is only a 50% chance of
buying a staled-loaf of bread in the shop on Friday.
The support offered by the premises to the conclusion in inductive arguments can
either be high (strong) or low (weak) or none at all. The premises of inductive
arguments offer high/low or no degree of probable support to the conclusion. Lets
look at the following Examples:
i. All Nigerians are corrupt (may be 99%)
Abacha is a Nigeria.
Therefore Gen Abacha is corrupt
* The premises here only offer high/strong degree of support to the conclusion.

ii. Akin studied hard and passed his examination.

Dele studied hard and passed his examination.
Mabel studied hard and passed her examination.
Therefore, all who study hard will pass their examination.
* The premises offer a low degree of support to conclusion.
iii. Iron, a metal expands when heated.
Copper, a metal expands when heated.
Bronze, a metal expands when heated.
Therefore, all metals rust when exposed to air.
*The premises do not support the conclusion at all.

Types of Inductive Arguments: There are two types of inductive arguments,

i.
ii.

those that move from particular to general. The premises are particular
instances, while the conclusion is general. Example (ii) and (iii) suffice.
those that goes from particular to particular. Here, the premises and the
conclusion are made up of particular instances. Examples (iii) and (iv) above
suffice. Therefore, it is not the case that inductive inferences go only from
particular to general.

Deductive Argument:
In deductive argument the premises not only support but guarantee its conclusion: the
premises provide absolutely conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion. A
deductive argument is valid or correct if its premises and conclusion are so related to
the extent that it is impossibly for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.
Deductive argument is valid if its conclusion is necessarily and logically drawn from
its premise(s). Deductive argument is most particularly about clarifying the
relationship that exists between the premises and the conclusion. Every deductive
argument is either valid or invalid because they are only about the logical relation
existing between premises and conclusion. Examples of deductive arguments includes,
1. Those that go from general to particular
i. All women are liars
Toyin is a woman
Therefore, Toyin is a liar

All husbands are responsible

Akin is a husband
Therefore, Akin is responsible.

ii. All metals conduct electricity

Iron rod is a metal
Therefore, Iron rod conducts electricity

All husbands are responsible

Akin is a husband
Therefore, Akin is responsible.

iii. All human beings are mortal

Tade is a human being
Therefore, Tade is mortal

All dogs are mammal

Bingo is a dog
Therefore, Bingo is mammal

2. Those that go from general to general

i. All women are human beings
All mothers are women
Therefore, all mothers are human beings

All academician are educated

All scholars are academicians
Therefore, all scholars are educated

ii. All human beings are mortal

All gutter boys are wayward
All UNAABites are human beings
All Yahoo boys are gutter boys
Therefore, all UNAABites are mortal
Therefore, all Yahoo boys are wayward
iii. All physicians are University graduates
All members of Nigerian Medical Association are physicians
Therefore, all members of Nigerian Medical Association are University graduates.
3. Those formulated according to Rules of Inference (one of the laws of logic)
Modus Ponens:
i. If shade puts to bed then shade is a mother
Shade puts to bed
Therefore, Shade is a mother

p
p

q (conditional statement)
(antecedent affirmed)
/q
(consequent affirmed)

Note: if the antecedent of a conditional statement is true and affirmed, then its consequent
necessarily follows, else we would be committing fallacy of affirming the antecedent.
Modus Tollens:
i. If Shade puts to bed then Shade is a mother
Shade is not a mother
Therefore, Shade does not put to bed

q (conditional statement)
(consequent denied)
(antecedent denied)

~q
/~p

Note: if the consequent of a conditional statement is denied, then its antecedent cannot be
affirmed in the conclusion, else, we would be committing fallacy of affirming the
consequent.
Hypothetical Syllogism:
i. If UNAAB is in Abeokuta then UNAAB is in Ogun State
if UNAAB is in Ogun State then UNAAB is in Nigeria
Therefore, if UNAAB is in Abeokuta then UNAAB is in Nigeria
ii. If Joke is wayward then Joke is dangerous
If Joke is dangerous then Joke is unmanageable
Therefore, if Joke is wayward then Joke is unmanageable

p
q

q
r
/ p r
p
q

q
r
/ p r

4. Differences between Inductive and Deductive Arguments

Inductive Argument
1. Premises only provide some support to the
conclusion but do not guarantee it.
2. Inductive reasoning offers at best a very high
degree of probability (up to 99.99%) but not
certainty.
E.g.
Logic helps us to identify and eliminate
fallacies.
Logic helps us to predict with precision.
Logic sharpens peoples critical awareness.
Logic helps us in taking rational decisions.
Logic is vital in clarifying and evaluating our
language.
Logic helps us in efficient planning.
Logic is the money of the mind
Therefore, Logic should be taken and passed by
all University students.
3. There is no limit to the number of its
premises.
4. Classified as good or bad, weak or strong;
adequate or inadequate.
5. Conclusion contains more information that
the premises. It even projects into the future.

6. Are of two types:

i. Those that go from particular to general; and
ii. Those that go from Particular to particular.

7. Relies heavily on experience, facts, content,

evidence, etc.

8. Inductive reasoning is the method of science

and scientific theories took their origin from it.

Deductive Argument
Premises do not only support but also
guarantee the conclusion.
Deductive reasoning offers certainty.
E.g.
All ladies are lairs
Shade is a lady
Therefore, Shade is a lair.

Limited to maximum of two (2)

premises.
Classified as valid or invalid; sound or
unsound.
Conclusion contains less information
than the premises. There is no
information in the conclusion which is
not already contained in the premises.
Are of three types:
Those that go from General to
particular; and
Those that go from General to general;
and
Those formulated according to the Rules
of Inference (Laws of Logic).
It does not rely on evidence, experience
or observation to establish its
conclusion. Emphasis is on the structure
of the argument rather than its content.
It is not the method of science; hence,
not so useful to scientists.

Test Questions:
1. What is an argument?
2. Make distinctions between a proposition and a sentence.
3. Why does logic restrict its language to declarative statements alone?
4. Mention a few premise indicators and conclusion indicators.
5. Mention some of the general characteristics of inductive and deductive arguments?
What are their differences?
Recommended Texts:
1. A. G. A Bello (2000) Introduction to Logic, Ibadan: University Press PLC
2. Cohen, Morris & Nagel, Ernest (1978) An Introduction to Logic and Scientific
Methods, London and Henley: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
3. Copi Irving M. An Introduction to Logic. New York: Macmillan.
4. Daniel Flage, (1995) Understanding Logic, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall inc.
5. D.N. Ucheaga, Rudiments of Logic (University of Calabar Press)
6. King, Peter & Shapiro, Stewart (1995), The History of Logic, in The Oxford
Companion to Philosophy, (OUP): 496500.
7. Kreyche, Robert J. Logic for Undergraduates. Revised edition; New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
8. Patrick Suppes, (1985) Introduction to Logic, New Delhi & Madras: Affiliated EastWest Private Ltd.
9. Wesley. C Salmon, (1973) Logic, Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
10. Samuel Ade-Ali & Ayo Fadahunsi (1995) Introduction to Philosophy and Logic,
Ibadan: paper Back Publishers Ltd.
11. S. F. Baker (1965) The Elements of Logic, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
12. Quine, W. V. O (1967) Methods of Logic, Revised ed. New York: Holt Rinehart &
Winson.

10

WEEK 3
VALIDITY OF ARGUMENTS

Valid argument: A deductive argument is valid if its conclusion is necessarily and

logically drawn from the premises. The premises of a deductive argument guarantee
the conclusion: so, if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true. Validity
of an argument is determined by the relation between the premises and the conclusion.
In as much as the conclusion is drawn from the premises, the argument remains valid.

Invalid argument: An invalid argument is that which the conclusion does not follow
from the premises. In other words, the premises do not guarantee the conclusion.

Arguments are in different forms, as there is a single premise argument so we have two or
more premises arguments. Examples of a single premise argument are:
i.

Nigeria imports crude oil despite the fact the she is an oil producing nation.
Therefore from all indications, she is worse off with high pump price.

ii.

Ade beats his wife into coma last week. Therefore, Ade must be responsible
for the death of his wife who passed on this morning.

iii.

Although by definition, the unconscious patient cannot tell you whether he

perceives pain, available data suggest that he may; therefore, you cannot know
that he doesnt

Examples of two premises arguments are:

All human beings are mortal
Socrates is a human being
Therefore, Socrates is mortal

(valid)

All metals conduct electricity

Iron is a metal
Therefore, iron conducts electricity

(valid)

All human beings are mortal

Socrates is a human being
Therefore, Socrates is wealthy

(invalid)

All criminals are lawbreakers

Some politicians are lawbreakers
Therefore, all politicians are criminals

(invalid)

Note: The order of premises and conclusion is not rigid, anyone may come first.

11

SOUND AND UNSOUND ARGUMENTS

Sound argument: A sound argument in a deductive argument has its premises and
conclusion true. The premises guarantee the conclusion and the conclusion is
necessarily drawn from the premises. Every sound argument must be valid and has its
premises and conclusion true. For example,
All human beings are mortal
Socrates is a human being
Therefore, Socrates is mortal

(True)
(True)
(True)

All philosophers are academia

All academia are educated
Therefore, all philosophers are educated

(True)
(True)
(True)

It is possible to have a valid argument with false premises and a true conclusion. For example,
All Nigerians are American

(False)

Obama is a Nigerian

(False)

Therefore, Obama is an American

(True)

It is also possible to have a valid argument with false premises and a false conclusion. For
example,
All fish are mammals

(False)

All mammals are carnivorous

(False)

Therefore, all fish are carnivorous

(False)

However, it is not possible to have a valid argument with true premises and a false conclusion.
Validity is related to soundness of an argument. An argument that guarantees truth is sound.
An argument is sound if it is not only valid but its premises and conclusion are also true.
Therefore, if an argument is valid and its premises are true, its conclusion must also be true.

Unsound argument: An argument became unsound when its premises are true and
conclusion false or when both the premises and conclusion are false. For example,
All human beings are mammal
All dogs are mammal
Therefore, all dogs are human beings

(True)
(True)
(False)

All women are liars

All men are liars
Therefore, all men are women

(False)
(False)
(False)

12

Test Questions:
1. What makes an argument valid or invalid?
2. How do you determine a sound argument?
3. What are the differences between sound and unsound arguments?
4. Can arguments with the same form carry different validity status?
Recommended Texts:
1. A. G. A Bello (2000) Introduction to Logic, Ibadan: University Press PLC
2. Cohen, Morris & Nagel, Ernest (1978) An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Methods,
London and Henley: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
3. Copi Irving M. An Introduction to Logic. New York: Macmillan.
4. Daniel Flage, (1995) Understanding Logic, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall inc.
5. D.N. Ucheaga, Rudiments of Logic (University of Calabar Press)
6. King, Peter & Shapiro, Stewart (1995), The History of Logic, in The Oxford
Companion to Philosophy, (OUP): 496500.
7. Kreyche, Robert J. Logic for Undergraduates. Revised edition; New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
8. Patrick Suppes, (1985) Introduction to Logic, New Delhi & Madras: Affiliated EastWest Private Ltd.
9. Wesley. C Salmon, (1973) Logic, Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
10. Samuel Ade-Ali & Ayo Fadahunsi (1995) Introduction to Philosophy and Logic,
Ibadan: paper Back Publishers Ltd.
11. S. F. Baker (1965) The Elements of Logic, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
12. Quine, W. V. O (1967) Methods of Logic, Revised ed. New York: Holt Rinehart &
Winson.

13

WEEK 4
Language
Issues:

What is Language?

Logic and Language

Functions of Language: Informative, Expressive, Directive

Forms of Language: Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory

Language and Its Multiplicity of Uses: Motivational, Ceremonial, Performative

Context and Language

Language is the vehicle of communication in the sense that it is the means by which ideas,
thoughts, feelings, emotions, etc. are conveyed from one individual to another in daily social
living. However, it is also a very complex phenomenon, because of the multiplicity of its uses.
So very often, people fail to achieve their set purposes for engaging in discussions just
because of the inability to realize this simple fact. What is meant is utterly dependent on the
manner in which it is expressed or communicated, as well as the context of language use.
Although language has a plethora of uses, below are the three major divisions into which
these very many uses can be categorized for easier identification and the purposes of our
study:
a. Informative
b. Expressive
c. Directive
a.
Informative language:
Language is commonly used to pass information; in other words, it is used for carrying out
effective communication. This is because language is used informatively to describe the
world of facts and to reason about it. It is reportive in the sense that it reports facts to ones
listeners or readers. Since it is possible for facts to be misrepresented, our idea of
informative here also includes that of misinformation; false as well as true propositions,
incorrect and correct arguments, etc. As long as what is reported can pass as true or false,
language has been used informatively. Scientific language is a typical example of this type of
language use. News broadcasting, minutes of meetings, newspapers, magazines, history, etc.
are all included in this category. It states simply, as a matter of fact, that a given state of
affairs did or did not obtain; that a certain fact is or is not the case; that a certain predicate
does or does not belong to a given subject term.
This is the type of language normally used to affirm or deny propositions or to present
arguments. Because of this, the informative use of language has been seen as the ideal
language use in which the logician is primarily interested, besides the fact that emphasis is
placed on what is stated, not primarily on the accuracy or otherwise of what is reported.
Examples of the informative use of language include:

14

1.
2.
3.
4.

The Greenwich Meridian passes through Tema in Accra, Ghana.

Communism was a sworn enemy of liberal democracy.
Quantity is not a preferable ideal to quality.
Some birds are not able to fly.

b.
Expressive language:
This is the language use in which a speaker or writer tries to convey his feelings or emotions
to the audience or readers by means a clever choice of words that makes the latter become
emotionally involved. Here, the speaker tries to change the attitude of the listeners by
expressing certain inner emotional states, which, in turn, arouse or evoke similar feelings in
the audience. Thus, language is used here to vent or arouse sentiments.
The expressive language should not be confused with when we sometimes speak of
expressing opinions, beliefs, or convictions; such usage, at bottom, refers to the informative
usage of stating or declaring. This is because, strictly speaking, to express an opinion is
basically to state or declare it. It does not mean to use language expressively in the sense just
enunciated above, because expressive language use refers to the expression of emotions, not
to the passing of information, or the stating of facts.
Examples of expressive language use abound in everyday life: Oh, my! Thats too
bad; shouts of enthusiasm, like, Wow! or love, Darling, used to express delicate passion.
Poems, worship, or lyrics are normally filled with the expressive use of language. But the
bottom line is that the expressive language hardly qualifiesas does the informativeas true
or false because one can hardly qualify exclamations as True or False. The reason is
simply that the aim of the speaker is not to pass information, or receive affirmation, but
primarily to convey strong feelings.
c.
Directive language:
This is the type of language use intended to cause or prevent overt action; e.g. commands and
requests. It is intended to get results, by virtue of causing or preventing action of the indicated
kind. E.g. Two, please, said to the waiter in a bar, directs him to serve two bottles of drink.
Also, Dont move, said by the policeman to a driver, is meant to effect the cessation of
movement; Eat! barked by an angry mother at her child indicates the command to perform
the stated action; etc.
The difference between a command and a request becomes clear, then, when we
realize that a request is often accompanied by a soft tone of voice, as well as the subtle
addition of such expressions as, Could you , If you dont mind, May I ,
please, kindly, etc. A question may become directive if it requests an answer. But the
directive discourse is, like the expressive type, neither true nor false; it can only be
reasonable and proper, or unreasonable and improper.
Finally, reasons can also be given as to why a command or a directive may be obeyed;
and when the statement of those reasons accompanies the command or request, the whole
discourse can translate into an argument, e.g.,
Avoid casual sex.
Many have died as a result of not believing that AIDS is real.

LANGUAGE OF MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS

As should by now be evident, language is a very slippery and flexible tool, able to be
manipulated by its user in a myriad of ways. Thus, although three types of language usage
have been highlighted above, experience shows that in actual situations, speakers do not

15

necessarily restrict themselves within any single one of these three categories. Rather, one
finds that a speaker may find herself combining two or all three of the above uses, and still
carry out effective speech, achieving a number of desired effects, goals, or aims; and this is
not as a result of any mistake.
A pastor may, in motivating his congregation to give generously to charity, start by
giving them the historical perspective of a missionary activity the church has been doing in
the past and how it has helped in converting souls, and benefited the poor in the community
in a number of ways. At this level, the informative use of language is evident. He then
proceeds to harness his scriptural knowledge in moving his congregation to become
emotionally involved, thereby eliciting their emotional responses. This is the expressive level.
Finally, when he has succeeded in getting them emotionally fixed with the appropriate
emotive and expressive language, he then invites them to donate generously, which directly
corresponds to the directive language use type. In all this, the three types have all been used
together to achieve the desired result, because restricting oneself to only one of the three
could not have achieve the desired aim. This type of complex or multiple function is an
example of motivational function of language.
Another interesting case of complex use of language has been identified as
ceremonial. For example, ceremonial greetings at social functions can serve to express
sociability or goodwill (expressive usage), as well as an invitation to dinner (directive usage);
the elaborate, ritualistic language of a wedding ceremony not only emphasizes the solemnity
of the occasion (expressive), but also invites the newly weds to take their union seriously
(directive). University seminars may also involve the three elements by offering knowledge,
expressing attitudes and then enjoining on listeners to rethink their academic stands on a
certain issue, although it is something the listeners may have heard again and again over the
years. Thus, ceremonial language is mainly a ritualistic phenomenon; it is not primarily that
the hearers have anything new to hear when they are uttered.
The third type of multiple language usage to be considered here is the performative
type. A performative utterance is one which, when uttered in appropriate circumstances,
actually becomes the performance of the act it appears to report or describe. They actually
carry out actions that go on at the time of their utterance, because they involve performative
verbs whose utterance actually constitutes the doing of the stated action. Examples include, I
congratulate you; We are grateful to you; I promise; I accept your offer; I
apologize; We greet you; Thank you very much; etc. Thus, typically accompanied by
the first person singular or plural (I or We), performative language is also apparently a
mixture of the three major functions previously established, and, thus, is tied specially to the
circumstance in which it is uttered. For instance, congratulating a person implies the
recognition of their achievement, success or accomplishment (informative); it also involves
an expression of good will and happiness (expressive), and, perhaps, a suggestion of the
expected behaviour or character that is appropriate to the newly acquired status, subsequent
to the accomplishment (directive).

FORMS OF DISCOURSE
Form of language refers to any of the four groups to which a language ordinarily belongs:
declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory; while the function refers to how it has
been used or the function it is intended to perform within a given context. Thus, form and
function must not be confused. This point is of utmost importance because language may be
of any formdeclarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatoryand yet result into any
function whatsoever, depending on the intended meaning. This is why the focus must be on
the function or meaning of the user instead of on the form. For example, the expression, He

16

is a dangerous person, is certainly declarative in form; but it might as well function as a

directive to avoid him or to be careful when one deals with him. Also, I enjoyed myself at
your party, although declarative in form, is primarily expressive of the utterers thanks and
appreciation to the celebrant for inviting him or her to the party.
Arent we late? may be interrogative in form; but it may also boil down to a simple
directive to hurry up. Again, depending on context, Keep your mouth shut!, which is
primarily imperative in form, may function informatively by reporting that a delicate
situation is around the corner, and hence, the need for a careful or thoughtful talk.
Alternatively, it may be an expression of strong disagreement with anothers view. O my
God! is exclamatory in form, but can still pass for an expression of horror or disgust, or it
may be informative to the effect that the worst has happened.
This distinction between the form of discourse and its intended function must be taken
seriously to mind because it is of utmost importance in Logic. Hence, as students of Logic,
we must be able to identify and disentangle the informative function of language from all
others through a careful attention to the function being performed by an expression. Although
the grammatical structure of a sentence could sometimes indicate its function, there is no
necessary connection between function and grammatical form; between function and
contentin the sense of what is asserted therein.
However, one possible way of resolving this problem is by taking a close look at the
context, which, and which, alone can determine the function and intended meaning. But it
must be reiterated that there is no mechanical method of distinguishing between informative
or argumentative language from languages of other functions. Besides studying the context,
this requires careful thought and an awareness of, and sensitivity to, the flexibility of
language and the multiplicity of its uses.
Questions:
1. Why is language of central importance in Logic?
2. What is the fundamental difference between forms and
functions of language?
3. State one possible way of resolving the problem of confused
language usage?

17

WEEK 5
5.

DEFINITION

Issues:

Defining Definition

Elements of definition

Purposes of definition

Types of definition

Rules of definition

A definition is a statement which breaks a logical term down into its constituent or
essential parts, namely genus and difference (in a process of description). We generally
define an object by distinguishing within it those sensible notes or characteristics that make it
the kind of thing it is and no other; and what we ordinarily define is some kind of species.
Hence, the function of definition, in general, is to set limits to the meaning of the object to be
defined in such a way as to narrow it down and then ease its comprehension. If I define
paper as a material made from wood on which writing is usually done, especially in these
modern times, I automatically exclude other kinds of materials from the definition, such as
sand, stone, cloth, plastic, glass, rubber, metal, etc. Even if this definition is made for a
person who has not seen paper before, his mind will automatically exclude these other
irrelevant types of materials and focus on the one that the definition has provided, in order to
be able to form the concept of paper, and then attain an understanding of what is being
defined. In the same way, the concept of animal quickly excludes inanimate objects from
the minds eye. It is precisely this phenomenon or process of exclusion of irrelevant notes
and then narrowing down on the essential ones that we mean by the phrase set limits to;
and it is this particular phenomenon that eases the attainment of knowledge and
understanding.
The purpose of definition and division, each in its own way, is to improve and perfect our
conceptual knowledge of objects that are known only in a confused and imperfect sort of
way. Thus, in defining a word, term or phrase, we are actually describing it by giving its
properties, in order to arrive at its exact meaning, pass information around, and so
communicate effectively. In what follows, attempt is made to explain the essential
mechanisms that come into play in definition, the types, as well as purposes of definition.
Genus and difference
While genus refers to the family or group to which a thing naturally belongs, i.e. the sensible
notes it shares with certain other things of the same type, difference refers to the other notes
that differentiates a thing from other types of things belonging to other families distinct from
the one to which that thing belongs. For instance, the term, human, belongs to the genus,
rational, which, at the same time sets it apart from all other things, say plants. Thus, in
definition, a thing is placed in its genus, which affords it a difference that also sets it apart
from other things the mind can possibly conceive. Furthermore, the definition of clock as a
device used for measuring time immediately places it in the genus, device, and, at the same
18

time, sets it apart from other things that do not belong that genus. This is what is meant by
saying that a thing is defined by breaking it down into its genus and difference.
Definiendum and Definiens
Every definition has two components, viz: definiendum and definiens. The definiendum
refers to the concept, symbol, word, phrase or term to be defined, while the definiens is the
group of words, phrases or sentence actually used in rendering the definition. E.g.
Definiendum
Democracy
Definiens

A form of government in which the active and free participation of all

the citizens of a state is the operating policy, sometimes through duly elected
representatives.
If we take the above as an adequate definition, then democracy is the definiendum, i.e. the
concept to be defined, while the whole of A form of government in which duly elected
representatives, becomes the definiendum.
Purposes of definition:
1. To increase vocabulary: When the meaning of a concept, or a word, is not known to us,
we can ask for its definition from the person who has used it, or look it up from the
dictionary, in order to enrich our personal word power. It does not have to be a
completely new word; it may be a word that seems confusing, or is now being used in a
sense completely different from the sense with which we are familiar. Of course, our
ability to command a language depends on how well we have mastered its vocabulary,
which, in turn, depends on how versed we are with regard to the concepts of the language.
2. To eliminate ambiguity, confusion and misunderstanding: Quite often, a given word
can have more than one meaning, in such a way as to confuse ones listeners or readers,
each of whom would bring with them different interpretations, understandings or
conceptions of that given expression. If this is the case, then it can only be worthwhile to
clarify the intended meaning by defining the particular sense of the word or concept, in
order to carry ones audience along, especially during a public discussion. Consider the
concept, litter, in the following expressions:
a) There is a litter of rubbish in the next room.
b) The cat left a litter of kittens behind the kitchen door.
c) It was customary for princes and princesses to travel in a litter in ancient times.
d) Some birds retire to their litter early.
Except the context is made clear as regards the sense of litter meant, the tendency is to
lead ones listeners or readers astray. Here then, the user of the expression needs to give
the exact sense in which he or she is using it by choosing from the available options
above: a) waste; b) baby cats (i.e. kittens, in this case); c) royal chair; d) roost.
Further, the confusion in the argument below derives from the ambiguous use of the
term, perfection.
The perfection of a thing is its ultimate end.
The greatest virtue is perfection.
Therefore, the greatest virtue is a things ultimate end.

19

Recall the first rule of categorical syllogism which was discussed above (fallacy of four
terms). This ambiguity is caused by the different senses in which perfection has been
used in the argument, one as an end-purpose, and the other as a moral attribute. There is
need, therefore, to define the exact sense meant by the user and to maintain that sense
throughout the argument.
3. To reduce vagueness and set out limits in borderline cases: Some expressions do not
always have a clear-cut meaning. Vagueness and ambiguity must not be confused. A
term is vague when there are borderline cases (that is, grey areas) of its application, but a
term is ambiguous when it has no specific meaning or connotation. Examples of vague
words include youth, adult, development, vehicle, democracy, child, etc. Most countries
of the world take 18 years as the age of adulthood, while for some others, it is 21; in fact,
the same country may even put adulthood at 18, and still maintain that voting age is not
until 21. So also, an infant is a child, while a person of 30 or more years remains a child
to her parents. Vehicle is clearly vague because it can refer to a car, a ship, an airplane,
an army tank, or even a wheelbarrow. Further, in the world of today, even in Africa,
people are known to place almost any kind of governance under the democratic label, due
to the appealing nature of that system of government. Yet even democracy itself has a
very broad range of application, not because anything can pass for a democracy, but
because there are different types of well-known democracies. Thus, the need arises for the
person using the expression to clearly spell out, in a definition, the borderline
demarcating the exact age of adulthood and childhood, as well as the precise type of
vehicle referred to.
4. To explain theoretically: Here, definition is a tool used, in a scientific manner, to
explain how things or phenomena relate or connect to one other in nature. E.g. is the
word, force used by Isaac Newton, a renowned physicist, to refer to the product of
mass and acceleration.
5. To influence attitudes: There are cases when a writer or speaker defines words in such a
way as to appeal to the emotions of his readers or audience, influencing their attitudes in a
desired direction. In this way, the writer moves the readers or audience to jettison a
generally accepted idea and embrace his or her own. E.g. the appropriation of public
funds, which is common among African politicians, is sometimes typically described as
pen robbery. Also, travels, whether official or vocational, by Nigerian government
officials are usually referred to as working visits to make it pleasant in the ears of the
populace. The overarching aim is to influence the attitude of the citizens in the desired
direction, while maintaining a good image of the public officials.
6. To resolve dispute: To resolve disputes, we need to define the actual sense(s) in which
words are used by arriving at some common ground where every party to the dispute can
connect. This saves us from unnecessarily long and fruitless argumentation, which may
even have been sparked off by different interpretations of the same expression. Not only
are ambiguity and vagueness avoided, differences are settled and common grounds are
reached and knowledge is enhanced.

Types of definition

20

There are many types of definition, depending on the context and purpose which they are
meant to serve. Thus, the purpose of definition often determines the nature of the definition to
be employed. Here are the main types of definition:
I. Nominal or stipulative definition: This is a type of definition that arises from
the deliberate assignment of (new) meanings to words or phrases. Sometimes,
writers offer a completely, or slightly, different or new interpretation of a
concept through a rigorous re-examination of the existing popular conceptions
of that word, exposing the underlying inadequacies in the ordinary
understanding of that concept by people. Authors do this all the time. For
instance, until recently, the idea of development had been formerly restricted to
material success, like strong economy, or scientific and technological
advancement, such as is seen in places like North America, Europe, and some
parts of Asia. Later, however, it became clear that besides material well-being,
human development also legitimately extends to other things like a peoples
system of values, be it religious, ethical or even merely social. In another
example, democracy, which was initially defined by a frontline American
politician as government of the people, by the people and for the people, has
been redefined in recent literature as the government of the people, by the
people and with the people. However, the bottom line is that since the writer or
speaker disagrees with the existing definition, he or she automatically faces the
obligation to proffer a redefinition, although the extent to which the stipulated
definition is accepted depends on how convincing the author is. On other
occasions, a writer or speaker may simply stipulate a working definition in order
to defend, prove, or sustain a particular point of view, about which he or she is
thoroughly persuaded. Some of the reasons for which a stipulative definition
may be offered include secrecy, convenience, or mere idiosyncrasy. A
stipulative or nominal definition, therefore, is a proposal to change an already
existing meaning to something rather new or different. In effecting this type of
definition, the writer or speaker may give the etymology of the word to be
defined, replace it with a synonym, or just break it down into its simpler
equivalent through the process of translation.
II. Real or essential definition: This, as the name readily suggests, is a definition
that says what something is in essence, i.e. its exact nature. A real definition
places a subject one is defining in its proper category. E.g. A spinster is a
woman who has never married. This is a formal type of definition used to
convey the exact nature or essence of an object, idea, or phenomenonas it
actually is in itselfrather than as we perceive them or want others to view
them. Thus, while stipulative definitions are not necessarily true or falsesince
they depend on the definers subjective attitude or opinionreal or essential
definitions are true or false, depending on whether they correctly capture the
phenomenon they are meant to portray or explicate.
III. Lexical definition: A lexical definition is a dictionary-based definition. It does
not necessarily give a definiendum a meaning it lacked before, but simply
reports a meaning it already has, especially as understood and used in the
community of the speakers of that language. In this way, it reports how words
are actually used by the owners of a language. For instance, the English word,
story means something a person naturally enjoys listening to; and this is the

21

primary sense of the word among the English people. However, to the average
Nigerian, story is something one rather hates to hear.
In this connection, one needs also recall that there is dictionaries are
published for every area of human inquiry, like Medical Dictionary, Dictionary
of Philosophy, Bible Dictionary, Dictionary of Psychology, Dictionary of
Contemporary Linguistics, (and until recently, Dictionary of Terrorism), etc. In
all these, one finds that a particular word would enjoy different meanings in
different fields of knowledge, and so, is also defined accordingly across those
various fields of inquiry. This explains why a term, such as stress, would be
differently defined in the medical sciences and in other fields, like Physics or
Linguistics.
IV. Precising definitions: These serve to reduce ambiguity and vagueness by
giving the precise meaning or sense intended in a piece of writing or speech,
especially if the context is not clear. When terms that have borderline
applications (i.e. terms not clearly belonging to one or other of two or more
categories of meaning), or many closely related meanings, are used, a prcising
definition may help in indicating the one being referred to. For instance, the
term, adult, may be precisely defined as a person who is 18 (or 21) years and
above. Also, it certainly helps the police better if a stolen item is reported as a
car, van, bus or truck, rather than just a vehicle, even if all the other
particulars, such as colour, model, registration number, etc., are supplied. In
fact, things even get better if the type of car, as well as the company name, is
mentioned. Although precising definitions may, sometimes, also serve the
ulterior intention of influencing the attitude of an audience, they generally aim at
minimizing confusion.
V. Theoretical or operational definition: A definition may attempt to formulate a
theoretically adequate, or scientifically useful, description of the objects to
which a term applies. In science, a new definition is periodically given to
support a new theory or to modify existing ones. Here again, the definition is
also merely theoretical or operational since it is meant to push forward the
scientists theoretical insinuations. Typically, this definition type comes in form
of mathematical symbols or scientific formulae. Example is any scientific
formula, like that of Albert Einstein: E = mc2.
VI. Persuasive definition: This is used to persuade or influence the attitude of
ones readers or audience to get them to agree with the definer, disagree with the
definers opponent, or to do both. For instance, a military-minded person can
ridicule democracy, persuasively defining it as the government of the people by
the few privileged elite, where the public is taught to believe that their opinions
and votes count, when, in fact, they do not. Persuasive definitions are
commonly found in the sphere of politics, religion, advertisement and the media,
etc.
VII. Ostensive definition: (From the Latin verb, ostendere, meaning to show, to
reveal or to expose) This type of definition is effected by directly pointing to
physical instances of the thing or object to be defined, in much the same way as
a child receives her first lessons of the names of objects around her. But it is
mainly useful in leading the mind to follow the course a particular discourse,

22

especially if knowing the particular notes of the object referred to is crucial to

the whole point of the discourse. E.g. is showing someone the front tyres of an
airplane as a means of getting them to understand why they are designed in a
way different from ordinary car tyres.
Rules of Definition
a. A definition must be co-extensive with the thing defined. In other words, a
definition must neither be too wideas to entail more than is contained in the
definiendumnor too narrow as to exclude some essences of the definiendum. Thus,
the definiens and the definiendum must be equal and mutually co-extensive in
meaning. For example, it is erroneous to define a university as a place where people
go to learn how to teach or to act in theatrical performances, because a university is
much more than that. On the other hand, it seems bogus to define classroom as a place
where people go to learn everything they did not know before, because the concept of
classroom is much less, in scope, than that.
b. A definition must not be expressed in negative sentences, except when absolutely
necessary. For example, it is clearly ridiculous to define bicycle by saying that it is
not a car, or not a motorcycle; such a negative definition would simply leave the real
issue of what a bicycle essentially is unaddressed. Thus, this rule simply means that a
definition needs to tell what something positively is, rather than just what it is not.
c. A definition must not be circular. This rule is closely related to the fallacy of
begging the question. Imagine cooking pot being defined as a pot used for
cooking; or evolution being defined as the process by which life evolved. Such
definitions are misleading because they leave one with little clue as to the actual
meanings of the terms being defined, especially if one really does not know what they
mean. This is why it would still be a legitimate questionafter a circular definition
has been renderedto ask again for the meanings of a pot used for cooking or a
process by which things evolved. This would only make the vicious circle to
continue spiraling away into infinity, unless a proper definition is derived.
d. A definition must not be rendered in ambiguous or metaphorical language, but
in simple, univocal terms. For instance, bride need not be defined as the apple of
the grooms eye.
e. A definition must state the essential attributes of the definiendum, not its
peripheral attributes. In other words, it must give the exact essence or nature of the
concept or phenomenon being defined, rather than other accidental or dispensable
characteristics it happens to have. Here, again, it seems better to define university as
a place where people go to acquire higher education, rather than just a place where
students go to do photocopy. The former definition says something about the essence
of university; but the latter only furnishes irrelevant details.
Questions:
1. What is the central importance of definition in Logic?

23

2. Explain the relationship between the purposes and types of definition.

3. How do the rules of definition facilitate the attainment of knowledge?

WEEK 6
Fallacies
Issues:

Definition of fallacy? Nature of Logical Fallacies

Causes of fallacy

Formal and Informal Fallacies

Fallacies of Relevance and Fallacies of Ambiguity

Avoiding fallacy

Categories of fallacies
There are many fallacies, depending on the context in which human beings find themselves in
real life. But only two major categories have been traditionally identified in Logic to ease the
understanding of the nature of these errors. Basically, there are formal and informal
fallacies. Formal fallacies refer to include fallacies of undistributed middle term, four
terms, denying the antecedent, positing consequent, illicit minor term and illicit major,
etc. Informal fallacies are many and will be studied in detail hereafter. One fundamental
difference between formal fallacies and informal fallacies is that the former are inherent in
the logical form or structure of arguments, rather than in the meaning of the propositions that
are asserted in the arguments. On the other hand, informal fallacies are primarily dependent
on what the constituent propositions of an argument assert, i.e. on the meaning of the
propositions themselves, rather than on their logical structure as such. Thus, as the names
apparently suggest, formal fallacies occur in the formal structures of arguments, while
informal fallacies occur under typically non-formal or informal circumstances. Here, we shall
begin with the formal category of fallacies.
FORMAL FALLACIES
Formal fallacies general occur in the violation of any of the rules of constructing syllogisms
and are, therefore, better understood in discussing these rules. Examples are drawn from
categorical and hypothetical syllogisms below.
RULES OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Here are the six rules that guide the construction of categorical syllogisms:
Rule 1: A valid standard-form categorical syllogism must have only three terms, each of
which must appear twice, and used in exactly the same sense, throughout the syllogism. The
basic requirement of this rule is that the three terms of a categorical syllogism must maintain
their respective meanings throughout, as any shift in the meaning of any of the terms
introduces a fourth term; e.g.:

24

Premise 1:
Premise 2:
Conclusion:

Every teacher is responsible to his students.

Experience is a teacher.
Therefore, experience is responsible to its students.

This syllogism is invalid (and, in fact, nonsensical) because it involves two different senses of
teacher: one as human classroom instructor and the other as nonhuman life experience.
Such categorical syllogisms are, thus, said to commit the fallacy of four terms.
Rule 2: In a valid, standard-form categorical syllogism, the middle term must be distributed
in at least one of the premises. To understand this second rule, it is important to refer to the
distribution table above, and the definition of distribution given there, as well as the rules of
distribution. For the middle term to perform its stated function of logically connecting
premises with their conclusion in a categorical syllogism, it needs to be made universalthat
is, by being distributed, or made to refer to all members of the class it designatesin at least
one of the premises. If it fails to do this, the syllogism would be rendered invalid; and this
would be the fallacy of undistributed middle (term), as in the example below:
All shops are buildings.
Some buildings are houses.
Therefore, some houses are shops.
This categorical syllogism is, therefore, invalid because its middle term (buildings) is not
distributed in both premises. As predicate in the major premise, which is a universal
affirmative proposition, it is particular. As the subject of a particular proposition (I) in the
minor premise, it is also undistributed.
Rule 3: In a valid standard-form categorical syllogism, if a term is distributed in the
conclusion, then it must be distributed in the premises. In other words, a term that is
particular in the premises must not become universal in the conclusion, or a logically
unacceptable situation known as overextension would take place with regard to the term in
question. If it is the major term that is overextended in this way, it is called the fallacy of
illicit major; but if it is the minor term, it is the fallacy of illicit minor. Here is an example
of the former:
All dogs are mammals.
No snakes are dogs.
Therefore, no snakes are mammals.
The major term (mammals) is particular in the premises, and yet is distributed or made
universal in the conclusion, thus resulting in the fallacy of illicit major. Here is an example of
fallacy of illicit minor:
Some pets are domesticated animals.
Some snakes are not pets.
Therefore, no snake is a domesticated animal.

Rule 4: No standard-form categorical syllogism is valid if both of its premises are negative
propositions. For example:

25

No conservatives are radicals.

Some radicals are not liberals.
Hence, some liberals are not conservatives.
Because the middle term radicals does not unite the premises, but makes them exclusive of
each other, it is impossible to infer a worthwhile conclusion from the premises, as in the
above example. This results in the fallacy of exclusive premises.
Rule 5: If the conclusion of a valid, standard-form categorical syllogism is negative, then at
least one of the premises must be negative; in other words, it is illegitimate to infer a negative
conclusion from two affirmative premises. Otherwise, the fallacy of inferring a negative
conclusion from affirmative premises would occur, as below:
All despots are dictators.
Some dictators are fundamentalists.
Thus, some fundamentalists are not despots.
Notice that this implies, on the other hand, that if any one of the premises of a valid
categorical syllogism is negative, then the conclusion must be negative. Any failure in this
regard would, accordingly, result in the corresponding fallacy of drawing an affirmative
conclusion from a negative premise. For example,
No democrats are despots.
Some liberals are democrats.
Therefore, some liberals are despots.
Rule 6: No valid standard-form categorical syllogism with a particular conclusion can have
two universal premises. If both premises are universal, then the conclusion must be universal;
or there would occur the fallacy of existential import, whereby the conclusion warrants the
existence of entities the premises do not assert. It is fallacious for an argument to infer a
particular propositionwhich asserts the existence of objects of a specified kindfrom
universal premises, which do not assert the existence of anything at all. Here is an example of
such a violation:
All artists are copycats of nature.
No mythical heroes are copycats of nature.
Therefore, some mythical heroes are not artists.

HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
As the name implies, a hypothetical syllogism is a syllogism made up of hypothetical
propositions, or at least whose major premise is a hypothetical proposition. Here is an
example of the former:
If Abeokuta is in Ogun State, then Abeokuta is in Nigeria.
If Abeokuta is in Nigeria, then Abeokuta is in Africa.
Therefore, if Abeokuta is in Ogun State, then Abeokuta is in Africa.
The above argument has the following form:

26

a implies b
b implies c
therefore, a implies c
It is the equivalent of the following mathematical expression:
a=b
b=c
therefore, a = c
But our focus is on mixed hypothetical syllogisms (i.e. those with hypothetical and
categorical propositions). There are two types in this category which are recognized in Logic
as the only deductively valid argument forms in hypothetical syllogism. These are called
modus ponens and modus tollens. The former is exemplified as follows:
If Abuja is Nigerias capital, then Abuja is in Nigeria.
Abuja is Nigerias capital.
Therefore, Abuja is in Nigeria.
In the modus ponens, we posit the antecedent in the minor premise, and then posit the
consequent in the conclusion. This gives us the following argument form:
If p, then q
p
therefore, q
NB: To posit a proposition means to use it exactly as it originally appears in the major
premise of the hypothetical syllogism, i.e. whether affirmative or negative. For instance, in
the example above, we moved the antecedent, Abuja is Nigerias capital, exactly as it is
down into the position of the minor premise, and did the same with the consequent, Abuja is
in Nigeria, to form our conclusion. On the other hand, in the modus tollens argument form,
we sublate the consequent in the minor premise and then sublate the antecedent in the
conclusion. To sublate a proposition is to deny or negate it as it originally appears in the
major premise, for example:
If Accra is Nigerias capital, then Accra is in Nigeria.
Accra is not in Nigeria.
Therefore, Accra is not Nigerias capital.
It has this form:
If p, then q
~q
Therefore, ~p (where ~ is the sign of negation)
The above example has an affirmative major premise. Here is another example which has a
negative major premise:
If Efik is not a Nigerian ethnic group, then Efik is not a Nigerian culture.

27

Efik is a Nigerian culture.

Therefore, Efik is a Nigerian ethnic group.
Here again, the consequent is first denied (sublated) in the minor premise, and the antecedent
denied in the conclusion. It is a fallacy to posit the consequent in the minor premise, in the
case of the modus ponensthe fallacy of positing (or affirming) the consequent. It is also
fallacious to deny the antecedent in the minor premise of the modus tollenscalled the
fallacy of denying the antecedent.
INFORMAL FALLACIES
Informal fallacies are then divided into fallacies of relevance and fallacies of ambiguity. As
the name readily suggests, all fallacies of relevance ignore the issue at stake only to reach a
conclusion that has little to do with the premises on which it is supposed to rest. Thus,
fallacies of relevance are committed when an argument relies on premises that are not
relevant to the intended conclusion, and that, therefore, do not possibly establish its truth.
Fallacies of ambiguity, as we shall see presently, arise from linguistic mistakes or confusion,
also proceeding from premises to unwarranted conclusion. For the purpose of brevity, only a
few of them will be included here, in order to enable the student understand what they are and
how they function. Below are listed thirteen examples of fallacies of relevance, with their
Latin names, as a matter of tradition.
a) Argument from ignorance or appeal to ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam):
This fallacy is based on the assumption that a proposition must be true simply because
it has not been proved false; or that it must be false since nobody has succeeded in
conclusively establishing its truth. E.g. is the age-old debate between natural scientists
and theologians about Gods nature and existence, in which some scientists argue that
God does not exist simply because he cannot be made physically manifest, while
some theologians argue, on the other hand, that since science has not been able to
prove conclusively that God does not exist, one is left with no other choice but to
infer his existence from the order, intelligence and design found in nature.
The problem with the argument of the scientists is that it is illegitimate to
conclude that something does not exist simply because it has not been discovered at
present; after all, science should be an open-minded, on-going enterprise, not a closed,
dogmatic pronouncement that could never be refuted in the future. Besides, many
aspects of human knowledge which are taken for granted today were a complete
mystery in earlier times. Nor is it legitimate for the natural scientist to dismiss the
existence of God based on no other reason than that God cannot be seen physically.
This is because not only are some of the claims in science not physically evident, but
certain aspects of scientific research are based on speculations.
On the hand, the problem of the theological argument is that it is wrong to
conclude that God must, therefore, exist just because the scientists cannot legitimately
argue in the way they did; after all, religious issues are fundamentally a matter of faith
and belief, rather than of material evidence.
b) Appeal to (inappropriate) authority (argumentum ad verecundiam): This is the
tendency to claim that something is true by appealing to parties with no legitimate
claim to authority in a specific area of knowledge. This fallacy is common among
young people, who often make claims based on the authority of their parents or other
adult relatives, who have told them so. It may not be far removed from the fact that

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children often think, albeit mistakenly, that adulthood is a veritable sign of wisdom
and knowledge. They then assume that their parents know everything about anything
under the sun.
Of course, adults are also prone to this fallacy: they often affirm or accept,
without questioning, whatever their pastor tells them in a religious gathering. Yet, a
renowned preacher is not necessarily an authority or an expert in several other areas
of knowledge, say agriculture, engineering, or mechanics, etc.
This fallacy is also commonplace with advertising agencies and
advertisements. Here, for instance, it is typical to find Austin Okocha, who is a
football star, advertising LG products or Pepsi. Okocha, who is an authority in a
completely irrelevant fieldfootballis posed as an expert in LG products, the
knowledge of which lies in a completely different area, namely electricals or
electronics. The fact that he is knowledgeable in professional football has been
cleverly twisted to incorrectly establish the irrelevant conclusion that he is, therefore,
an expert in electronics and electrical products or in beverages (as when he advertises
for Pepsi). Although this fallacy is very persuasive, one need only ask oneself why we
should patronize these electrical products or beverages simply because a professional
footballer, who may not necessarily know much about the technicalities involved in
their manufacture, says they are good for our homes.
However, it is pertinent to note that if Okocha, or any other sporting
personality, is used in the advertisement of relevant sports items, like Puma or Adidas
football boots, jerseys, pants, or shorts, then there would be no fallacy involved in that
case, because then the advert would be appealing to an authority that is relevant.
c) Complex question: This involves asking a question in such a way as to presuppose
the truth of some other conclusion(s) buried in that question. It is like two or more
questions cleverly rolled up into one, and is typically used by lawyers during crossexamination to confuse a defendant or a witness. An example of a typical complex
question runs as follows: Were you not on your way to Lagos last week Tuesday
when you wittingly threw banana peels out of your car window, which slipped the
tyres of other cars off the highway, thereby causing an accident, in which ten
thousand innocent people lost their lives?
This seems like one question; but it actually has at least six other
presuppositions: 1) that you travelled to Lagos; 2) that it was last week; 3) Tuesday, to
be precise; 4) you threw banana peels out of your car window; 5) you did this
intentionally; 6) you killed ten thousand people.
Now, clearly, the answer to the question is not simply in the affirmative or
negative. If the defendant answers Yes or No, she would only further implicate herself
with a tacit acceptance of these other presuppositions. Again, the defendant makes
things even worse by answering that it was not banana peels that she threw out of the
window; or that it was not Lagos she was travelling to; much more if she were to say
simply that it was not last week Tuesday that the incident happened. In fact, she
would even be in big trouble by replying that ten thousand was only an exaggeration
of the number of victims involved. Other complex questions are: Have you spent the
money you robbed from the bank? Is that your senior wife cooking our dinner
inside your kitchen? Is it next Monday that you will give me a car gift?
d) Appeal to personality (argumentum ad hominem, literally: attack against the person):
It is not uncommon to find people who think they are excellent thinkers when, in fact,
they are only indulging themselves in abusing other people or their personalities,

29

totally ignoring the issue under consideration and shifting attention from themselves.
This fallacy is typically common in Nigerian politics, where contestants often waste
valuable time casting slur on their opponents, as a strategy for hiding their ignorance
and incompetence. As the name implies, this fallacy attacks the personality of the
individual(s) with whom one is debating or arguing, thereby distracting attention from
the argument itself, which is what is important. Yet argumentation is supposed to
address issues, rather than persons or personalities.
Argumentum ad hominem is sometimes instantiated by the famous dictum,
Look whos talking, as when one rejects valid or legitimate points simply because
they have come from somebody one does not like or has no affection for. For that
reason alone, one contends that the proposal is bound to be bad simply because it has
been made by a person one deems to be a radical or an extremist; instead of critically
assessing the merits of such proposals with an open mind. Yet, if a proposal is good,
then we must accept it, irrespective of who it is coming from, because what makes it
good has to do with the proposal itself, rather than with the person who gives it.
Conversely, whatever is bad is bad, no matter who is condemning itor
upholding it. Finally, this fallacy can also be directed at peoples circumstance(s). An
example is arguing that a preacher must accept a given idea simply because its denial
would be inconsistent or incompatible with the scriptures. Another example is that of
hunters who, on being asked to stop the barbaric slaughter of wild animals, reply by
pointing out that their critics eat the flesh of harmless cattle. The fact that the critics
eat beef simply does not establish the conclusion that hunters are justified in
exterminating already endangered wild animal species, just for the fun of it.
e) Accident: This fallacy is usually committed by applying a generalization to parts or
individuals of the whole with acute rigidity. For instance, although it is always good
to be honest, it must be realized that sometimes, in practical life, telling a lie can save
life or prevent disaster. Thus, it would be nave to aid the death of a person by giving
them away to their attackers, simply because we want to remain true to the general
principle of honesty being the best policy. Further, it is unreasonable to expect that
because political office, at the federal level, is occupied by the president, the vice
president, and the senate president, etc. therefore, government at the state level is also
made up of the president, the vice president, and the senate president, etc. instead of
governors, their deputies and the speakers.
f) Converse accident, on the other hand, is when we extend a generalization or
characteristic from individual cases to the whole, moving from the parts to the whole.
An example is concluding from the abuse of a particular thing, say TV watching, to
its complete abolition; or arguing that we should stop all almsgiving since almsgiving
may sometimes lead to indolence.
g) False Cause: This refers to attributing a wrong cause to a phenomenon. Scientists and
other researchers can be so easily misled by this type of fallacy. Here, two completely
distinct and unconnected events closely following each other are wrongly interpreted
in such a way as to make one the cause or the effect of the other. This is merely as a
result of the habit of wrongly associating two (or more) distinct phenomena simply
because they happen to stand side by side, or go simultaneously.
This fallacy is related to the Problem of Induction, in which philosophers
(like David Hume and Bertrand Russell) have maintained that there is no logical basis

30

for making such a connection, simply because one is yet to observe a single instance
in which the first incidence is not accompanied by the second.
People often attribute their having had such a bad day to waking up from the
wrong side of the bed; or seeing a particular person or thing first thing in the
morning. This seems ridiculous; but it is the way people sometimes view the world of
reality. They contend, for instance, that because Smith was standing close to them
during a gathering, that establishes conclusively that Smith must have stolen their
missing purse. Yet, it is not the modus operandi of criminals to remain at the scene of
their crimes to direct suspicion at themselves. Rather, they cook up alibis for
themselves and, if possible, plant materials that will implicate other people who, in
fact, are innocent.
Another classical example of this fallacy is the claim that mobile telephony in
Nigeria owes its appearance and existence to the particular civilian administration that
came to power in 1999. The fact of the matter is that the country was simply a ready
market for telecommunications business at that point, such that mobile telephony
would still have quite naturally started, as long as any other democratic government
was in power.
h) Begging the question (petitio principii): To beg the question, in one way or another,
is to assume as proved the very point that is in need of being clearly explained, proved
or conclusively established. In other words, it means to include the same point at issue
as one of the propositions of an argument, in a vicious circle, and then proceed to
prove it by means of that same proposition, but this time as the conclusion. As we
noted, this fallacy is closely related to circular definitions, which would incorporate
the same word being defined into the definiens. The following are some examples of
this fallacy:
1. The holy book is the word of God because it is written therein.
2. The colour of your eyes is a hereditary factor because it is a trait you inherited
from your parents.
3. Tomorrow will be like yesterday because experience shows that the future is
usually like the past.
4. Snow is always white because it is in the nature of snow to be white.
5. A king without a throne does not have a throne.
6. I was late to the meeting simply because I was late.
The power of an explanation, or a definition, lies in its ability to teach us something
we did not know beforei.e. in its capability to satisfy intellectual curiosity. This
fallacy typically takes place when a supposedly adequate explanation leaves issues or
questions rather unresolved or unaddressed, even after all is said and done. Thus, in
the above examples, the (legitimate) question still begging to be addressed remains,
respectively:
1. Why is the holy book the word of God?
2. Why is the colour of your eyes the same as those of your parents?
3. How/why does the future (always) resemble the past?
4. Why is white normally the colour of snow?
5. How would a king not have a throne?
6. Why was I late to the meeting?

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i) Appeal to the populace (argumentum ad populum): This fallacy appeals to the

peoples prejudices, emotions, and local interests, in order to sell ones own cause
either to oneself or to others. It is a fallacious appeal to the logic of the majority,
typically instantiated and justified by the inconsequential idea that everybody else is
doing the same thing or maintaining the same opinion on a given issue.
This fallacy is perfectly captured in the catchy English phrase, jumping the
band wagon. Young people often fail to understand why their guardians would not
permit them to do just about everything their peers are doing. Also, some parents
would rather have their children study medicine, law, or such apparently more
prestigious courses in the university, with no consideration for the childs peculiar
inclinations and natural endowments. Usually, they also want their child to be married
into a family with a wealthy and influential background, as befits their status in the
society. In fact, wedding ceremonies and marriages could become a complete bore,
simply because intending couples must do things exactly as everyone else does, or has
been doing, them. However, the principle of majority clearly does not always
guarantee rightness or correctness. The fact that everybody is doingor believinga
particular thing does not make it right; nor does it mean that it is right for me, and that
I, myself, must also do it. A whole group of people can, of course, be totally misled.
j) Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam): As the name suggests, this is a
fallacious argumentation in which the altruism and mercy of the audience are the
special emotions appealed to, while the crucial question of whether the concerned
person has committed a given offence is disregarded. This fallacy is, therefore, also
commonplace in law court proceedings, especially when a defendant has eventually
been found guilty, and the only option open to his counsel seems to be to appeal to the
judge to tender justice with mercy.
In Chinua Achebes novel, No Longer at Ease, and the novel, Incorruptible
Judge, we find cases where people guilty of a charge are being pleaded for, on
account of their having dependants, who would suffer if the defendant were sent to
jail, let alone executed. Here, as in other fallacies of relevance, the sidelined issue
the only real issueis whether the person has, indeed, committed the crime in
question; and if he has, what does the law enjoin in that regard?
k) Appeal to force (argumentum ad baculum): People commit this fallacy by using
force, coercion and blackmail, instead of reason or persuasion, in order to get
someone, usually a subordinate, a colleague, or a counterpart, to accept their
viewpoint, comply with their demands, or follow their directives. It is very commonly
used by superiors, who threaten their subordinates with loss of job; and parents also,
who threaten to cease supporting their children financially if they fail to obey their
instructions and directives. Eedris Abdulkareems well-known song, Mr. Lecturer,
may be taken as a classical representation of this fallacy.
l) Irrelevant conclusion (ignorantio elenchi): This is the fallacy in which the argument
misses the point by subtly shifting attention from a generally understood and expected
conclusion to the establishment of a different conclusion, which serves the ulterior
purpose of the speaker or writer, or which may be more appealing to the populace or
listeners to a discourse. This is commonly seen in religious and political gatherings,
where speakers appeal to the sensibilities of the audience in order to get them to give
money or vote for a particular candidatethings the audience would rather not do
ordinarily.
m) Slippery slope: This is the unwarranted belief or expectation that things must always
turn out in a particular way, no matter what happens. Analogously, it is like rolling a
32

ball down a slope and expecting that it must continue all the way to the valley below.
But practical experience rather shows that this may not always be the case. Sometimes,
it is possible for something, like friction, or some other obstacle, to intervene along
the way, stopping the ball in its tracks. In times of trials and tribulations, people often
think their life has come to a certain or definite end, only for the troubles to evaporate
the very next morning. The point here is that, in actual life, things do not always
operate with the sort of mechanical or mathematical certainty we expect of them;
there is often a probabilityno matter how tinythat things turn out rather
differently from what we envisage.
This fallacy apparently results from failure to distinguish between necessary
and sufficient conditions. A necessary condition is a condition that is required for
something to happen, but which may not suffice in itself to make that thing happen;
but a sufficient condition is one that, if we see it, then we can be sure that that thing
has happened, or is about to happen. Thus, while rolling a ball down a slope is a
necessary condition for sending it to the valley, that, in itself, may not be sufficient for
achieving that purpose. But if the ball is rolled down and the sufficient condition
(such as the absence of all impediments) obtains, then would it be reasonable to
conclude that it will roll all the way down.
n) Hasty conclusion: As the name clearly implies, this is the tendency to rush to a
conclusion even before considering all the necessary and available evidence. A
number of factors may be responsible for this: the conclusion could be emotionally
enticing to the person, rendering them incapable of assessing the facts objectively; or
the person could have some personal interest in the matter, even when completely in
the dark about it. Sometimes, the individual knows that the conclusion may likely be
false, and still insists on it due to some ulterior motive. In any case, the fallacy of
hasty conclusion represents a disservice to truth and knowledge, both of which are the
core targets of Logic.
Once the aim is defeated, the usefulness simply evaporates. This fallacy is
rather common in journalismthe tendency, sometimes, to publish an unconfirmed
report because of the dramatic impact it would have on the news-starved public. For
instance, it is not uncommon to hear, in the news, of the death of some prominent
Nigerian politician, only for the concerned politician to appear the next day and dispel
the rumour. In another instance, a certain Nigerian professional footballer was
murdered in his home in the United States. Before the police finished the investigation,
the media were already awash with the conclusion that it was a case of suicide, even
when there was no evidence, and the friends and family of the deceased, who had
always known him, were insisting that there was no reason for him to have wanted to
commit suicide.

FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY (LINGUISTIC FALLACIES)

These are arguments with ambiguous phrases or words, whose meanings shift and change in
the course of argumentation. The premises start off with a different connotation of the terms
or phrases, and then reach a conclusion that utterly invalidates the whole argumentation.
They are also called linguistic fallacies because they usually derive from faulty linguistic
constructions.
1. Equivocation: This refers to the tendency by some arguments to confuse the several
meanings of a particular word or phrase, either deliberately or accidentally; e.g. the
expression, have faith in in the following sentences:

33

a.
b.
c.
d.

She has faith in Logic (She is rather obsessed with it);

She has faith in the president (she knows he will deliver);
She has faith in swimming (she enjoys it a lot);
She has faith in God (she believes God will help her).

Depending on what is predicated, the meaning of has faith in keeps shifting, such
that if we have an argument in which the premises and conclusion have different
senses of the phrase, then the argument becomes invalid, inferring a conclusion that is
not supported by the premises.
2. Amphiboly: When the premises of an argument are stated with an interpretation that
makes them true, and a conclusion is drawn from it based on an interpretation that
falsifies it, we have the fallacy of amphiboly. Amphiboly often results from loose
adverbial and prepositional phrases, dangling particles, and misplaced relative clauses;
e.g. While wagging his tail, the hunter played with the tigers cub. This sentence
tacitly suggests that the hunter has a tail, whereas the adverbial phrase in the first part
of the sentence was a reference to the cub. Such fallacious expressions are common
among writers, and results from careless sentential constructions.
3. Accent: This fallacy rises from the different meanings that can be conveyed by the
same sentence or proposition, due to misplaced emphasis upon a syllable, word or
phrase in a sentence. Due to the shift in emphasis on different parts of a proposition,
the meaning arrived at in the conclusion renders the whole argumentation invalid.
Take a look at the following sentences:
a. You may think as you please (Nobody else may do the same );
b. You may think as you please (It is permissible, but Id rather you did not ... );
c. You may think as you please (As long as you do not act it out );
d. You may think as you please (Not as it displeases you );
Notice the dramatic change in the meaning of this particular sentence as the emphasis
or stress moves from one word to the next. Semantic consistencyi.e. the ability to
be consistent in meaningis very crucial in Logic because, as we saw in earlier
chapters, language and meaning are central in Logic. Any failure in this regard only
results in unnecessarily long argumentation that only leads nowhere.
4. Parallel word construction: This refers to the tendency to assume that because two
words are similar in structure, they must in that respect, be similar in the direction of
their respective meanings. For instance, the fact that impossible means not possible
and immortal means not mortal does not, in anyway, automatically imply that
immemorial and ingenious would then mean not memorial and not a genius
respectively; nor that because invisible means not visible, therefore invaluable
would mean not valuable, etc.

AVOIDING F ALLACIES
There are many fallacies, and the ability to avoid them sanitizes the reasoning process. But in
what ways can we possibly avoid fallacies? Here are a few concise suggestions:

34

1. There is need to be aware of the existence of fallacies, as well as their nature, since
one cannot avoid what one does not even know anything about.
2. Understanding that language is very slippery, and can easily be twisted to mean
anything. This involves the realization that language has a plethora of uses and
meanings, and that what is meant in every speech generally depends on how language
has been used.
3. Following from (1) and (2), there is need for constant vigilance, both in reading and in
writing, so as to be able detect any misuse of language that could lead to fallacy.
4. Careful definition of terms in order to avoid misunderstanding, confusion, vagueness,
ambiguity, and undue or unfruitful argumentation.
Questions:
4. What is fallacy?
5. What is distinction between fallacy and lie?
6. Explain the major difference between formal and informal
fallacies.
7. What is the difference between fallcies of relevance and those
of ambiguity?
8. Mention three ways of avoiding fallacy.

WEEK 7
NATURE OF SCIENCE
Issues
1. What are the qualities that make science what it is?
2. What is its essence?
3. What differentiates science from other intellectual matters?

Further questions:
13. What is science?
14. What are we in search of?
15. Are we in search of knowledge or information?
16. How do we distinguish between genuine research and pseudo research?
17. What is the importance of science?
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18. To what extent have scientific discoveries help to shape our views about ourselves
and our place in the universe?

WEEK 8
METHODS OF SCIENCE
1. Introduction
Scientific methods are founded on some basic philosophical assumptions such as reality is
objective and consistent, humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and the
fact that the real world can be rationally explained. On this background, the logical
positivist, the empiricist, the falsificationist, and other theorists have tried to explain the logic
of science but none is without criticism. If reality is granted objective and consistent, it will
mean that it does not change but does it change or not? Is it true that human has the capacity
to perceive reality accurately when philosophy has made us know that appearance differs
from reality? And If reality can truly be rationally explained, then it will mean that science
has answers to all mysteries in the world. But, how do we explain the mysteries surrounding
UFO (Unidetified Flying Object), the Bermuda Triangle on the high sea, the Mind/Body
problem, Spirit and Ghost, Intentionality and God to mention but a few? How do we then
reconcile these scientific assumptions with the truism of life?
Thomas Samuel Kuhn, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, observed that scientific
method is now taking a sociological dimension different from what it used to be. For this
reason, much work was done by Imre Lakatos and Thomas Kuhn on the "theory laden"
character of observation. Kuhn (1961) says, the scientist generally has a theory in mind
before designing and undertaking experiments so as to make empirical observations. He also
claimed that the route from theory to measurement can almost never be traveled backward".
This implies that the way in which theory is tested is dictated by the nature of the theory
itself. This led Kuhn (1961: 166) to argue that "once it has been adopted by a profession ... no
theory is recognized to be testable by any quantitative tests that it has not already passed".
On a similar note, Paul Feyerabend denied that science is genuinely a methodological
process. In his book Against Method, he argues that scientific progress is not the result of
applying any particular method. He argues that for any specific method or norm of science,
one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science.
Thus, if believers in a scientific method wish to express a single universally valid rule,
Feyerabend jokingly suggested, it should be anything goes.
Michael Polanyi (18911976), a chemist and philosopher, in his book Personal Knowledge,
also criticized the common view among the scientist community that the scientific method is
purely objective and generates objective knowledge. He considered this view a
misunderstanding of the scientific method and of the nature of scientific inquiry. He argued
that scientists do and must follow personal passions in appraising facts and in determining
which scientific questions to investigate. He concluded that a structure of liberty is essential
for the advancement of science: that the freedom to pursue science for its own sake is a
prerequisite for the production of knowledge through peer review and the scientific method.
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For the postmodernist, it is science wars, resulting from conflicting values and assumptions
between them and the realist camp. Whereas postmodernists assert that scientific knowledge
is simply another discourse and not representation of any form of fundamental truth, the
realists maintain that scientific knowledge reveals real and fundamental truths about
reality/nature. However, many books have been written by scientists to challenge the
postmodernists assertions and defend science as a legitimate method of deriving truth.
Even though, a highly controlled experiment allows researchers to catch their mistakes and
make anomalies easier to see, about 33% to 50% of all scientific discoveries are estimated to
have been stumbled upon rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often
express that they were lucky. On this background, Louis Pasteur says, "Luck favours the
prepared mind", but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared
for luck' in the scientific context. The psychologist, Kevin Dunbar, corroborating this says,
the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments.
These unexpected results lead researchers to try and fix what they think is an error in their
methodology. Eventually, the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to
be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious and curious aspects of the scientific method
are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. At this
point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking
the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.
Summarily, scientific methods were not seen as providing a universal and rigid method by
which truths are discovered. They are not as objective as science portrayed them and they do
not provide objective knowledge as always claimed by science and scientists.
2. History of scientific methods:
The development of the scientific method is inseparable from the history of science itself. In
the Ancient Egyptian documents, we have empirical methods described in astronomy,
mathematics, and medicine. The ancient Greek philosopher Thales in the 6th century BC was
found to have refused to accept supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for
natural phenomena, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. Also, the development
of deductive reasoning by Plato was discovered to be an important step towards development
of the scientific method. On the part of Aristotle, Empiricism seems to have been formalized
with his view that universal truths could be reached via induction.
One of the first ideas regarding how human vision works came from the Greek philosopher
Empedocles around 450 BCE. Empedocles reasoned that the Greek goddess Aphrodite had lit
a fire in the human eye, and vision was possible because light rays from this fire emanated
from the eye illuminating objects around us. While a number of people challenged this
proposal, the idea that light radiated from the human eye proved surprisingly persistent until
around 1,000 CE, when a Persian scientist advanced our knowledge of the nature of light and,
in so doing, developed a new and more rigorous approach to scientific research.
There are hints of experimental methods from the Classical world (e.g., those reported by
Archimedes in a report recovered early in the 20th century CE from an overwritten
manuscript), but the first clear instances of an experimental scientific method seem to have
been developed in the Arabic world (Iraq), by Muslim scientist (See Alhazen 965 CE) who
introduced the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing
scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, perhaps by Alhazen in his

37

optical experiments reported in his Book of Optics (1021). In this book, it was a remarkable
that Alhazen based the conclusions of his work on experimental evidence rather than abstract
reasoning: the first major publication to do so. Alhazens contributions have proved so
significant that his likeness was immortalized on the 2003 10,000-dinar note issued by Iraq.
The modern scientific method crystallized not later than in the 17th and 18th centuries. In his
work Novum Organum (1620) a reference to Aristotle's Organon Francis Bacon
outlined a new system of logic to improve upon the old philosophical process of syllogism.
Then, in 1637, Ren Descartes established the framework for a scientific method's guiding
principles in his treatise, Discourse on Method. The writings of Alhazen, Bacon and
Descartes are considered critical in the historical development of the modern scientific
method, as are those of John Stuart Mill.
In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to
have considerable influence in the development of current scientific method generally. Peirce
accelerated the progress on several fronts. Firstly, speaking in broader context in "How to
Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), Peirce outlined an objectively verifiable method to test the
truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond mere foundational alternatives,
focusing upon both deduction and induction. He thus placed induction and deduction in a
complementary rather than competitive context (the latter, induction, of which had been the
primary trend at least since David Hume, who wrote in the mid-to-late 18th century).
Secondly, and of more direct importance to modern method, Peirce put forth the basic
schema for hypothesis/testing that continues to prevail today. He examined and articulated
the three fundamental modes of reasoning abductive, deductive, and inductive inference.
Thirdly, he played a major role in the progress of symbolic logic itself.
Beginning in the 1930s, Karl Popper argued that there is no such thing as inductive
reasoning. All inferences ever made, including in science, are purely deductive according to
this view. Accordingly, he claimed that the empirical character of science has nothing to do
with inductionbut with the deductive property of falsifiability that scientific hypotheses
have. Contrasting his views with inductivism and positivism, he even denied the existence of
scientific method. According to him,
(1) There is no method of discovering a scientific theory
(2) There is no method for ascertaining the truth of a scientific hypothesis, i.e., no method of
verification;
(3) There is no method for ascertaining whether a hypothesis is 'probable or probably true".
Instead, he held that there is only one universal method, a method not particular to science:
The negative method of criticism, or colloquially termed trial and error. It covers not only
all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, art and so on,
but also the evolution of life.
Following Peirce and others, Popper argued that science is fallible and has no authority. In
contrast to empiricist-inductivist views, he welcomed metaphysics and philosophical
discussion and even gave qualified support to myths and pseudo-sciences. Popper's view has
become known as critical rationalism.
3. The classic and the contemporary conceptions of scientific methods:

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Traditionally, the classical scientists believe that scientific methods are linearly ordered in
five stages: observation, question, hypothesis, experimentation and conclusion. This process
of investigation is often defined in many textbooks and science courses as a linear set of
steps through which a scientist moves from observation through experimentation and to a
conclusion as shown below:

But, the contemporary scientists reject this view and claim that this is a general
misconception in science. They claim that science does not provide facts or "truth" about any
subject. For them, science is not collection of facts; rather, it is a process of investigation into
the natural world and the knowledge generated through that process.
The contemporary scientists argue that classic view of scientific method is inherent with a
number of problems. In the first place, science is not a linear process, that is, it does not have
to start with an observation or a question, and it commonly does not even involve
experiments. Instead, the scientific method is a much more dynamic and robust process. At
times, scientists get their inspiration from the natural world, from reading what others have
done, from talking to colleagues, or from experience. They use multiple types of research
toward investigating phenomena, including experimentation, description, comparison, and
modeling. Some scientific investigations employ one of these methods, but many involve
multiple methods, or some studies may even have characteristics of more than one method.
Results from one research study may lead in directions not originally anticipated, or even in
multiple directions as different scientists pursue areas of interest to them. For this reason, it is
worthy of note that:
i. the practice of science involves many possible pathways and that the classic
description of the scientific method as a linear or circular process does not adequately
capture the dynamic but rigorous nature of the practice.
ii. scientists use multiple research methods to gather data and develop hypotheses. These
methods include experimentation, description, comparison, and modeling.
iii. scientific research methods are complementary; when multiple lines of evidence
independently support one another, hypotheses are strengthened and confidence in
scientific conclusions improves.
Although procedures may vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features
distinguish scientific inquiry from other methods of obtaining knowledge. Scientific inquiry
is generally intended to be as objective as possible, to reduce biased interpretations of results.

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Another basic expectation is to document, archive and share all data and methodology so they
are available for careful scrutiny by other scientists, giving them the opportunity to verify
results by attempting to reproduce them. This practice, called full disclosure, also allows
statistical measures of the reliability of these data to be established. On reliability, Einstein
says, "No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can
prove me wrong."
In the 20th century, Ludwik Fleck (18961961) and others argued that scientists need to be
critical about their experiences and avoid biases. He wants them to be more exact when
describing their experiences because belief may indeed alter observations. Biases can
influence a person to seeing things differently and reinforcing his belief, even if another
observer would disagree. Researchers have often admitted that the first observations were a
little imprecise, whereas the second and third were "adjusted to the facts". It means that
people do observe what they expect to observe, until shown otherwise. It is for this reason
that scientific methodology prefers that hypotheses be tested in controlled conditions which
can be reproduced by multiple researchers. With the scientific community's pursuit of
experimental control and reproducibility, cognitive biases diminished.
A scientific theory hinges on empirical findings, and remains subject to falsification if new
evidence is presented. That is, no theory is ever considered certain. Theories very rarely
result in vast changes in human understanding. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual
synthesis of information from different experiments, by various researchers, across different
domains of science. Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and retained,
as well as their acceptance in the scientific community.
4. The classical steps of scientific method:
i. Observation:
Observation is the key tool of the scientist. The scientific method requires observations of
nature to formulate and test hypotheses. Observation helps a researcher to identify promising
aspects of natural phenomena that are worth knowing about. The scientist is specifically
looking for causal relationships in nature that (taken together with other knowledge) will help
to explain in the broadest terms how natural systems work.
For the purpose of reproducibility, standardization and possible human errors, it is best for
observers to compare notes. To magnify human powers of observation, other scientific
instruments such as weighing scales, clocks, telescope, microscopes, thermometers, cameras,
tape recorders etc. were developed. Instruments such as indicator dyes, voltmeters,
spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, Geiger counters, x-ray
machines, radio receivers and so on were also developed to assist human translate into
perceptible the imperceptibles of the human senses.
However, there is a significant problem with observation called the observer effect in science
that needed to be talked about. For example, it is not normally possible to check the air
pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, thereby changing the
pressure. For this reason, science tries as much as possible to reduce the effects of
observation to insignificance by using better instruments.

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ii. Questions:
Inductive questions are asked as to what, why and how certain things have to happen the way
they are happening. This will eventually lead to formulating ideas and concepts. Deductions
are thus made which influences a hypothesis that will be tested.

iii. Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is simply an untested fact or a specific statement of prediction. It describes in
concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all
studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory (see inductive
research). The word hypothesis basically means a possible solution to a problem based on
knowledge and research. It is a statement that defines what you think the outcome of your
research will be or a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a
set of phenomena. Normally, hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model. Sometimes,
but not always, they can be formulated as existential statements, stating that some particular
instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic and causal explanations,
which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the
phenomenon has a particular characteristic. For example, if I notice that some tomatoes on
my farm are doing well than others, I may want to make inquiry into the reason why. My
hypothesis may be, some of the tomatoes are doing better than the others because they are
positioned in a place where they receive more sunlight than the others.

Hypothesis and Predictions:

Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reason of induction or deduction. It might
predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a
phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical (about probabilities) or
otherwise. It is essential that the outcome is currently unknown. It is only in this case that the
eventuations increase the probability that the hypothesis be true. If the outcome is already
known, it is called a consequence and should have already been considered while
formulating the hypothesis. If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience,
the hypothesis is not yet useful for the method, and must wait for others who might come
afterward, and perhaps rekindle its line of reasoning. For example, a new technology or
theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.
iv. Experiments:
Once predictions are made, they can be tested by experiments. If test results contradict
predictions, then the hypotheses are called into question and explanations may be sought.
Sometimes experiments are conducted incorrectly and are faulty. If the results confirm the
predictions, then the hypotheses are considered likely to be correct, yet, might still be
wrong and are subject to further testing. The experimental control is a technique for dealing
with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples (or
observations) under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains constant. We
vary the conditions for each measurement; to help isolate what has changed. Depending on
the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment
in a laboratory setting, a double-blind study or an archaeological excavation.

41

Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those conducting
an experiment. Detailed record keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the
experimental results, and providing evidence of the effectiveness and integrity of the
procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results.

Experiment and its Problematic

At any stage of experimentation, it is possible to refine its accuracy and precision so that
some considerations may lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to
develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject they are
considering. Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead
to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of the
experiment to produce interesting results may lead the scientist to reconsidering the
experimental method, the hypothesis or the definition of the subject.

The need for Confirmation in Experimentation

Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the community
when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be
reproduced by others within the scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for
this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed by ball lightning (1753) when attempting to
replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of Benjamin Franklin (See, Physics Today,
59(1):42: Richmann was electrocuted in St. Petersburg in 1753). To protect against bad
science and fraudulent data, governmental research-granting agencies such as the National
Science Foundation, and Science Journals including Nature and Science, have a policy that
researchers must archive their data and methods so that other researchers can access it, test
the data and methods and build on the research that has gone before.

The need for Communication among Science Community

Frequently a scientific method is employed not only by a single person, but also by several
people cooperating directly or indirectly. Such cooperation can be regarded as one of the
defining elements of a scientific community. Various techniques have been developed to
ensure the integrity of that scientific method within such an environment.

The Relevance of Peer review to Experimentation

Scientific journals use a process of peer review, in which scientists' manuscripts are
submitted by editors of scientific journals to (usually one to three) fellow (usually
anonymous) scientists familiar with the field for evaluation. The referees may or may not
recommend publication, publication with suggested modifications, or, sometimes, publication
in another journal. This serves to keep the scientific literature free of unscientific or
pseudoscientific work, to help cut down on obvious errors, and generally otherwise to
improve the quality of the material. The peer review process can have limitations when
considering research outside the conventional scientific paradigm: problems of "groupthink"
can interfere with open and fair deliberation of some new research.

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The Importance of Documentation and Replication in Experimentation

Sometimes experimenters may make systematic errors during their experiments,

unconsciously veer from a scientific method for various reasons, or, in rare cases, deliberately
report false results. Consequently, it is a common practice for other scientists to attempt to
repeat the experiments in order to duplicate the results, thus further validating the hypothesis.

The Importance of Archiving

Researchers are expected to practice scientific data archiving in compliance with the policies
of government funding agencies and scientific journals. Detailed records of their
experimental procedures, raw data, statistical analyses and source code are preserved in order
to provide evidence of the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure and assist in
reproduction. These procedural records may also assist in the conception of new experiments
to test the hypothesis, and may prove useful to engineers who might examine the potential
practical applications of a discovery.

The Relevance of Data Sharing

When additional information is needed before a study can be reproduced, the author of the
study is expected to provide it promptly. If the author refuses to share data, appeals can be
made to the journal editors who published the study or to the institution which funded the
research.

Some Limitations to Experimentation

Since it is impossible for a scientist to record everything that took place in an experiment,
facts selected for their apparent relevance are reported. This may lead, unavoidably, to
problems later if some supposedly irrelevant feature is questioned. For example, Heinrich
Hertz did not report the size of the room used to test Maxwell's equations, which later turned
out to account for a small deviation in the results. The problem is that parts of the theory
itself need to be assumed in order to select and report the experimental conditions.
v. Conclusion:
You have asked questions and performed an experiment to confirm your hypothesis; your
conclusion is the record of the final findings in your experiment. A conclusion is simply a
summary of the experiment. The conclusion, plain and simple, is the answer to your question
and it should be clear, concise and stick to the point. There are two possible outcomes to your
experiment: either the experiment supported the hypothesis and considered true or the
experiment disproved the hypothesis as false. If the hypothesis is false, the steps in the
scientific method is repeated to make adjustment in your tested hypothesis but if the
hypothesis corroborates with your conclusion then the experiment is certified true/correct.
If the hypothesis turns out to be false, there are some questions to ask to find out why:
1. What was wrong with the original hypothesis?

2. Did you make poor observations?

3. Was your experiment flawed?

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Test Questions:
1. What are the problems with the classical conception of scientific methods?
2. How objective is scientific method? Can scientific method bring fourth objective
knowledge?
3. Of what importance and relevance is control experiment to research methodology?
4. Do you agree with the postmodernist that the practice of science involves many
pathways as against the classic linear process?
5. Of what importance is peer review to scientific research, particularly, to
unscientific and pseudoscientific works or obvious errors in researches?
6.

To what extent is documentation and replication guide against systemic error in

experimentation?

Recommended Texts:
Born, Max (1949), Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance, Peter Smith, also published by
Dover, 1964. From the Waynflete Lectures, 1948.
Brody, Thomas A (1993), The Philosophy Behind Physics, Springer Verlag, (Luis De La
Pea and Peter E. Hodgson, eds.)
Fleck, Ludwik (1975), Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, Univ. of Chicago,
(written in German, 1935, Entstehung und Entwickelung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache:
Einfhrung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollectiv) English translation
Gauch, Hugh G., Jr. (2003), Scientific Method in Practice, Cambridge University Press,
http://books.google.com/?id=iVkugqNG9dAC 435 pages
Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003), Theory and Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of
science, University of Chicago Press.
Kuhn, Thomas S.(1962), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, IL, 2nd edition 1970. 3rd edition 1996.
Popper, Karl R., The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934, 1959.

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WEEK 9
PROBLEMS OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN
NIGERIA
Issues
4. What science is
5. What technology is
6. What development is
7. What Nigeria is
8. Set backs to the development of science and technology in Nigeria
9. Problems created by the development of science and technology in Nigeria

Further questions:
1. What are the objectives of technology?
2. What is technology transfer?
3. What are the problems associated with technology transfer?
4. Is technology transfer likely to hinder or promote the development of science and
technology in Nigeria?

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WEEK 10
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
Issues
10. What science is
11. What society is
12. Interdependence between science and society
13. Characteristics of science
14. Characteristics of society
15. Impact of science on society
16. Impact of society on science

Further questions:
1.

To what extent can the characteristics of a society affect the type of science and
technology it will develop?

2.

Why is science a social activity?

3.

Why is it necessary for science and society to work together to ensure that scientific
knowledge is used in the best possible ways?

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